Streptococcus suis biofilm: regulation, drug-resistance mechanisms, and disinfection strategies

Current prevalence and therapeutic strategies for porcine Streptococcus suis in China

Porcine Streptococcus suis is a zoonotic bacterial pathogen that poses serious threats to both human and animal health. S. suis is ubiquitously transmitted from the swine industry to the environments and human communities. However, the ambiguous epidemiological patterns and the escalating risk of antimicrobial resistance render S. suis infections a considerable challenge. Here, we review the current prevalence of S. suis infection worldwide, including identified bacterial strains, routes of infection, and transformation of resistance genes. This comprehensive overview of the prevalent patterns in S. suis offers detailed insights into therapeutic approaches for porcine infections and alternative strategies to address emerging resistant strains, highlighting potential multitarget prevention and treatment options to combat S. suis infection.

Targeting AI-2 quorum sensing: harnessing natural products against Streptococcus suis biofilm infection

The biofilm acts as a protective layer for Streptococcus suis (S. suis), contributing to the development of drug resistance and chronic infections. Autoinducer 2 (AI-2) quorum sensing represents the primary regulatory pathway governing biofilm formation in S. suis. Consequently, targeting AI-2 quorum sensing to inhibit biofilm formation represents a promising strategy for preventing and managing drug resistance and chronic infections caused by S. suis. This study established a small natural product library by integrating commercial drug molecules with Chinese herbal medicine molecules. Consequently, two natural products, salvianolic acid A (SAA) and rhapontin (RH), which target S. suis AI-2 via quorum sensing, were identified. SAA and RH inhibit AI-2 synthesis through noncompetitive and competitive binding to S-ribosylhomocysteinase (LuxS). By inhibiting S. suis AI-2 quorum sensing, these compounds modulate the expression of adhesion genes and the synthesis of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS), reducing the adhesion ability of S. suis and ultimately inhibiting biofilm formation. Using LC‒MS/MS, we further analysed the impact of SAA and RH on the metabolic activity of S. suis, revealing the potential medicinal value of these compounds. Finally, the efficacy of SAA and RH against S. suis infection was validated in Galleria mellonella larvae, confirming their significant anti-infection effects.

Effects of AI-2 quorum sensing related luxS gene on Streptococcus suis formatting monosaccharide metabolism-dependent biofilm

Biofilm is the primary cause of persistent infections caused by Streptococcus suis (S. suis). Metabolism and AI-2 quorum sensing are intricately linked to S. suis biofilm formation. Although the role of the AI-2 quorum sensing luxS gene in S. suis biofilm has been reported, its specific regulatory mechanism remains unclear. This study explored the differences in biofilm formation and monosaccharide metabolism among the wild type (WT), luxS mutant (ΔluxS) and complement strain (CΔluxS), and Galleria mellonella larvae were used to access the effect of luxS gene deletion on the virulence of S. suis in different monosaccharide medias. The results indicated that deletion of the luxS gene further compromised the monosaccharide metabolism of S. suis, impacting its growth in media with fructose, galactose, rhamnose, and mannose as the sole carbon sources. However, no significant impact was observed in media with glucose and N-acetylglucosamine. This deletion also weakened EPS synthesis, thereby diminishing the biofilm formation capacity of S. suis. Additionally, the downregulation of adhesion gene expression due to luxS gene deletion was found to be independent of the monosaccharide medias of S. suis.

AI-2 quorum sensing-induced galactose metabolism activation in Streptococcus suis enhances capsular polysaccharide-associated virulence

Bacteria utilize intercellular communication to orchestrate essential cellular processes, adapt to environmental changes, develop antibiotic tolerance, and enhance virulence. This communication, known as quorum sensing (QS), is mediated by the exchange of small signalling molecules called autoinducers. AI-2 QS, regulated by the metabolic enzyme LuxS (S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase), acts as a universal intercellular communication mechanism across gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and is crucial for diverse bacterial processes. In this study, we demonstrated that in Streptococcus suis (S. suis), a notable zoonotic pathogen, AI-2 QS enhances galactose utilization, upregulates the Leloir pathway for capsular polysaccharide (CPS) precursor production, and boosts CPS synthesis, leading to increased resistance to macrophage phagocytosis. Additionally, our molecular docking and dynamics simulations suggest that, similar to S. pneumoniae, FruA, a fructose-specific phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system prevalent in gram-positive pathogens, may also function as an AI-2 membrane surface receptor in S. suis. In conclusion, our study demonstrated the significance of AI-2 in the synthesis of galactose metabolism-dependent CPS in S. suis. Additionally, we conducted a preliminary analysis of the potential role of FruA as a membrane surface receptor for S. suis AI-2.

Transposon library screening to identify genes with a potential role in Streptococcus suis biofilm formation

Background: Biofilm formation is considered to be one of reasons for difficulty in the prevention and control of Streptococcus suis. Aims: To explore the potential genes involved in the biofilm formation of S. suis. Methods: Transposon mutagenesis technology was used to screen biofilm-defective strains of S. suis, and the potential genes related to biofilm were identified. Results: A total of 19 genes were identified that were involved in bacterial metabolism, peptidoglycan-binding protein, cell wall synthesis, ABC transporters, and so on. Conclusion: This study constructed 979 transposon mutation libraries of S. suis. A total of 19 gene loci related to the formation of S. suis biofilm were identified, providing a reference for exploring the mechanism of S. suis biofilm formation in the future.

Methyl anthranilate deteriorates biofilm structure of Streptococcus suis and antagonizes the capsular polysaccharide defence effect

BACKGROUND

Streptococcus suis is an important zoonotic pathogen that often causes biofilm-associated infection. Bacterial biofilm-dependent infection is associated with enhanced drug resistance, making it difficult to eradicate. Novel therapeutic approaches are required urgently to treat infections associated with S. suis biofilm. This study aimed to investigate the effects and mechanisms of methyl anthranilate (MA) on S. suis biofilm.

METHODS

The effect of MA on S. suis biofilm was determined using the crystal violet method, and the microstructure of the biofilm was observed by electron microscopy. The effects on capsular polysaccharides were determined using the phenol-sulphuric acid method and high-performance liquid chromatography. Adhesion and antiphagocytosis properties of S. suis were detected via cell assays. Molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation and enzyme activity inhibition assays were used to further explore the effect of MA on AI-2 quorum sensing (QS) of S. suis. Finally, the therapeutic effect of MA was investigated using a mouse infection model.

RESULTS

MA destroyed the structure of S. suis biofilm, hindered biofilm formation, and reduced the synthesis of capsular polysaccharides significantly, which further weakened the adhesion and antiphagocytosis ability of S. suis. MA had a docking effect and binding site (SER76 and ASP197) similar to S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH). Further analysis showed that MA competitively bound 5'-methyladenosine/S-adenosine homocysteine nucleosidase with SAH to interfere with AI-2 QS. In a mouse model, MA reduced the bacterial burden and inflammatory infiltrates effectively.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed the antibiofilm effects of MA, and highlighted its potential as a QS inhibitor against S. suis infection.

Aerococcus viridans Phage Lysin AVPL Had Lytic Activity against Streptococcus suis in a Mouse Bacteremia Model

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a swine pathogen that can cause sepsis, meningitis, endocarditis, and other infectious diseases; it is also a zoonotic pathogen that has caused a global surge in fatal human infections. The widespread prevalence of multidrug-resistant S. suis strains and the decline in novel antibiotic candidates have necessitated the development of alternative antimicrobial agents. In this study, AVPL, the Aerococcus viridans (A. viridans) phage lysin, was found to exhibit efficient bactericidal activity and broad lytic activity against multiple serotypes of S. suis. A final concentration of 300 μg/mL AVPL reduced S. suis counts by 4-4.5 log10 within 1 h in vitro. Importantly, AVPL effectively inhibited 48 h S. suis biofilm formation and disrupted preformed biofilms. In a mouse model, 300 μg/mouse AVPL protected 100% of mice from infection following the administration of lethal doses of multidrug-resistant S. suis type 2 (SS2) strain SC19, reduced the bacterial load in different organs, and effectively alleviated inflammation and histopathological damage in infected mice. These data suggest that AVPL is a valuable candidate antimicrobial agent for treating S. suis infections.

iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis of the antibacterial mechanism of silver nanoparticles against multidrug-resistant Streptococcus suis

Background

The increase in antibiotic resistance of bacteria has become a major concern in clinical treatment. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have significant antibacterial effects against Streptococcus suis. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of AgNPs against multidrug-resistant S. suis.

Methods

The effect of AgNPs on the morphology of multidrug-resistant S. suis was observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Differentially expressed proteins were analyzed by iTRAQ quantitative proteomics, and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was assayed by H2DCF-DA staining.

Results

SEM showed that AgNPs disrupted the normal morphology of multidrug-resistant S. suis and the integrity of the biofilm structure. Quantitative proteomic analysis revealed that a large number of cell wall synthesis-related proteins, such as penicillin-binding protein and some cell cycle proteins, such as the cell division protein FtsZ and chromosomal replication initiator protein DnaA, were downregulated after treatment with 25 μg/mL AgNPs. Significant changes were also observed in the expression of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione reductase, alkyl hydroperoxides-like protein, α/β superfamily hydrolases/acyltransferases, and glutathione disulfide reductases. ROS production in S. suis positively correlated with AgNP concentration.

Conclusion

The potential antibacterial mechanism of AgNPs may involve disrupting the normal morphology of bacteria by inhibiting the synthesis of cell wall peptidoglycans and inhibiting the growth of bacteria by inhibiting the cell division protein FtsZ and Chromosomal replication initiator protein DnaA. High oxidative stress may be a significant cause of bacterial death. The potential mechanism by which AgNPs inhibit S. suis biofilm formation may involve affecting bacterial adhesion and interfering with the quorum sensing system.

Transcriptome and metabolome profiling to elucidate the mechanism underlying the poor growth of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 after orphan response regulator CovR deletion

The deletion of orphan response regulator CovR reduces the growth rate of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 (S. suis 2). In this study, metabolome and transcriptome profiling were performed to study the mechanisms underlying the poor growth of S. suis 2 caused by the deletion of orphan response regulator CovR. By comparing S. suis 2 (ΔcovR) and S. suis 2 (SC19), 146 differentially accumulated metabolites (upregulated: 83 and downregulated: 63) and 141 differentially expressed genes (upregulated: 86 and downregulated: 55) were identified. Metabolome and functional annotation analysis revealed that the growth of ΔcovR was inhibited by the imbalance aminoacyl tRNA biosynthesis (the low contents of L-lysine, L-aspartic acid, L-glutamine, and L-glutamic acid, and the high content of L-methionine). These results provide a new insight into the underlying poor growth of S. suis 2 caused by the deletion of orphan response regulator CovR. Metabolites and candidate genes regulated by the orphan response regulator CovR and involved in the growth of S. suis 2 were reported in this study.

Investigation of the inhibitory effect and mechanism of epigallocatechin-3-gallate against Streptococcus suis sortase A

AIMS

Streptococcus suis seriously harms people and animals, and importantly, causes great economic losses in the pig industry. Similar to most Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria, sortase A (SrtA) of S. suis can mediate the anchoring of a variety of virulence factors that contain specific sorting sequences to the surface of the bacterial cell wall envelope and participate in pathogenicity. The purpose of this study is to clarify the molecular mechanism of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) inhibiting S. suis SrtA and provide more evidence for the development of novel anti-S. suis infections drugs.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Through the SrtA substrate cleavage experiment, we found that the main component of green tea, EGCG, can effectively inhibit the enzyme activity of S. suis SrtA. Further, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation were used to clarify the molecular mechanism of its inhibitory effect, demonstrating that EGCG mainly interacts with amino acids at 113 and 115 to exert its inhibitory function. It was previously found that EGCG can inhibit the growth of S. suis and reduce the activity of suilysin and inhibit its expression. Our research reveals a new function of EGCG in S. suis infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research proves that EGCG can effectively inhibit the transpeptidase activity of SrtA. We also clarify the accompanying molecular mechanism, providing more sufficient evidence for the use of EGCG as a potential lead compound against S. suis infection.

The adcA and lmb Genes Play an Important Role in Drug Resistance and Full Virulence of Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis is an recognized zoonotic pathogen of swine and severely threatens human health. Zinc is the second most abundant transition metal in biological systems. Here, we investigated the contribution of zinc to the drug resistance and pathogenesis of S. suis. We knocked out the genes of AdcACB and Lmb, two Zn-binding lipoproteins. Compared to the wild-type strain, we found that the survival rate of this double-mutant strain (ΔadcAΔlmb) was reduced in Zinc-limited medium, but not in Zinc-supplemented medium. Additionally, phenotypic experiments showed that the ΔadcAΔlmb strain displayed impaired adhesion to and invasion of cells, biofilm formation, and tolerance of cell envelope-targeting antibiotics. In a murine infection model, deletion of the adcA and lmb genes in S. suis resulted in a significant decrease in strain virulence, including survival rate, tissue bacterial load, inflammatory cytokine levels, and histopathological damage. These findings show that AdcA and Lmb are important for biofilm formation, drug resistance, and virulence in S. suis. IMPORTANCE Transition metals are important micronutrients for bacterial growth. Zn is necessary for the catalytic activity and structural integrity of various metalloproteins involved in bacterial pathogenic processes. However, how these invaders adapt to host-imposed metal starvation and overcome nutritional immunity remains unknown. Thus, pathogenic bacteria must acquire Zn during infection in order to successfully survive and multiply. The host uses nutritional immunity to limit the uptake of Zn by the invading bacteria. The bacterium uses a set of high-affinity Zn uptake systems to overcome this host metal restriction. Here, we identified two Zn uptake transporters in S. suis, AdcA and Lmb, by bioinformatics analysis and found that an adcA and lmb double-mutant strain could not grow in Zn-deficient medium and was more sensitive to cell envelope-targeting antibiotics. It is worth noting that the Zn uptake system is essential for biofilm formation, drug resistance, and virulence in S. suis. The Zn uptake system is expected to be a target for the development of novel antimicrobial therapies.

Europium Nanoparticle-Based Lateral Flow Strip Biosensors Combined with Recombinase Polymerase Amplification for Simultaneous Detection of Five Zoonotic Foodborne Pathogens

The five recognized zoonotic foodborne pathogens, namely, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus suis, Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli O157:H7, pose a major threat to global health and social-economic development. These pathogenic bacteria can cause human and animal diseases through foodborne transmission and environmental contamination. Rapid and sensitive detection for pathogens is particularly important for the effective prevention of zoonotic infections. In this study, rapid and visual europium nanoparticle (EuNP)-based lateral flow strip biosensors (LFSBs) combined with recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) were developed for the simultaneous quantitative detection of five foodborne pathogenic bacteria. Multiple T lines were designed in a single test strip for increasing the detection throughput. After optimizing the key parameters, the single-tube amplified reaction was completed within 15 min at 37 °C. The fluorescent strip reader recorded the intensity signals from the lateral flow strip and converted the data into a T/C value for quantification measurement. The sensitivity of the quintuple RPA-EuNP-LFSBs reached a level of 10¹ CFU/mL. It also exhibited good specificity and there was no cross-reaction with 20 non-target pathogens. In artificial contamination experiments, the recovery rate of the quintuple RPA-EuNP-LFSBs was 90.6-101.6%, and the results were consistent with those of the culture method. In summary, the ultrasensitive bacterial LFSBs described in this study have the potential for widespread application in resource-poor areas. The study also provides insights in respect to multiple detection in the field.

Modeling Co-Infection by Streptococcus suis and Haemophilus parasuis Reveals Influences on Biofilm Formation and Host Response

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) and Haemophilus parasuis (H. parasuis) are two primary pathogens currently affecting the porcine industry. They often cause encephalitis and arthritis. They also frequently co-infect in clinical settings. In the current study, we identified significant correlations between S. suis and H. parasuis. The results from CI versus RIR suggested that S. suis and H. parasuis were competitive in general. Compared to mono-species biofilm, the biomass, bio-volume, and thickness of mixed-species biofilms were significantly higher, which was confirmed using crystal violet staining, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Compared to mono-species biofilm, the viable bacteria in the mixed-species biofilms were significantly lower, which was confirmed using the enumeration of colony-forming units (CFU cm^-2). The susceptibility of antibiotics in the co-culture decreased in the planktonic state. In contrast, biofilm state bacteria are significantly more difficult to eradicate with antibiotics than in a planktonic state. Whether in planktonic or biofilm state, the expression of virulence genes of S. suis and H. parasuis in mixed culture was very different from that in single culture. Subsequently, by establishing a mixed infection model in mice, we found that the colonization of the two pathogens in organs increased after mixed infection, and altered the host's inflammatory response. In summary, our results indicate that S. suis and H. parasuis compete when co-cultured in vitro. Surprisingly, S. suis and H. parasuis synergistically increased colonization capacity after co-infection in vivo. This study elucidated the interaction between S. suis and H. parasuis during single infections and co-infections. Future studies on bacterial disease control and antibiotic treatment should consider the interaction of mixed species.

New Characterization of Multi-Drug Resistance of Streptococcus suis and Biofilm Formation from Swine in Heilongjiang Province of China

The aim of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial resistance profiles and genotypes of Streptococcus suis in Heilongjiang Province, China. A total of 29 S. suis were isolated from 332 samples collected from 6 pig farms. The results showed that serotypes 2, 4 and 9 were prevalent, and all the clinical isolates were resistant to at least two antibacterial drugs. The most resisted drugs were macrolides, and the least resisted drugs were fluoroquinolones. Resistant genes ermB and aph (3')-IIIa were highly distributed among the isolates, with the detection rates of 79.31% and 75.86%. The formation of biofilm could be observed in all the isolated S. suis, among which D-1, LL-1 and LL-3 strains formed stronger biofilm structure than other strains. The results indicate that S. suis in Heilongjiang Province presents a multi-drug resistance to commonly used antimicrobial drugs, which was caused by the same target gene, the dissemination of drug resistance genes, and bacterial biofilm.

Positive biofilms to guide surface microbial ecology in livestock buildings

The increase in human consumption of animal proteins implies changes in the management of meat production. This is followed by increasingly restrictive regulations on antimicrobial products such as chemical biocides and antibiotics, used in particular to control pathogens that can spread zoonotic diseases. Aligned with the One Health concept, alternative biological solutions are under development and are starting to be used in animal production. Beneficial bacteria able to form positive biofilms and guide surface microbial ecology to limit microbial pathogen settlement are promising tools that could complement existing biosecurity practices to maintain the hygiene of livestock buildings. Although the benefits of positive biofilms have already been documented, the associated fundamental mechanisms and the rationale of the microbial composition of these new products are still sparce. This review provides an overview of the envisioned modes of action of positive biofilms used on livestock building surfaces and the resulting criteria for the selection of the appropriate microorganisms for this specific application. Limits and advantages of this biosecurity approach are discussed as well as the impact of such practices along the food chain, from farm to fork.

Inhibitory Effect of Monoterpenoid Glycosides Extracts from Peony Seed Meal on Streptococcus suis LuxS/AI-2 Quorum Sensing System and Biofilm

Streptococcus suis LuxS/AI-2 quorum sensing system regulates biofilm formation, resulting in increased pathogenicity and drug resistance, and diminished efficacy of antibiotic treatment. The remaining peony seed cake after oil extraction is rich in monoterpenoid glycosides, which can inhibit the formation of bacterial biofilm. In this study, we investigated the effect of seven major monocomponents (suffruticosol A, suffruticosol B, suffruticosol C, paeonifloin, albiflorin, trans-ε-viniferin, gnetin H) of peony seed meal on minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of S. suis. The results showed that the MICs of the seven single components were all greater than 200 μg/mL, with no significant bacteriostatic and bactericidal advantages. Crystal violet staining and scanning electron microscope observation showed that the seven single components had a certain inhibitory effect on the biofilm formation ability of S. suis at sub-MIC concentration. Among them, the ability of paeoniflorin to inhibit biofilm was significantly higher than that of the other six single components. AI-2 signaling molecules were detected by bioreporter strain Vibrio harvey BB170. The detection results of AI-2 signal molecules found that at 1/2 MIC concentration, paeoniflorin significantly inhibited the production of S. suis AI-2 signal, and the inhibitory effect was better than that of the other six single components. In addition, molecular docking analysis revealed that paeoniflorin had a significant binding activity with LuxS protein compared with the other six single components. The present study provides evidence that paeoniflorin plays a key role in the regulation of the inhibition of S. suis LuxS/AI-2 system and biofilm formation in peony seed meal.

How Streptococcus suis escapes antibiotic treatments

Streptococcus suis is a zoonotic agent that causes sepsis and meningitis in pigs and humans. S. suis infections are responsible for large economic losses in pig production. The lack of effective vaccines to prevent the disease has promoted the extensive use of antibiotics worldwide. This has been followed by the emergence of resistance against different classes of antibiotics. The rates of resistance to tetracyclines, lincosamides, and macrolides are extremely high, and resistance has spread worldwide. The genetic origin of S. suis resistance is multiple and includes the production of target-modifying and antibiotic-inactivating enzymes and mutations in antibiotic targets. S. suis genomes contain traits of horizontal gene transfer. Many mobile genetic elements carry a variety of genes that confer resistance to antibiotics as well as genes for autonomous DNA transfer and, thus, S. suis can rapidly acquire multiresistance. In addition, S. suis forms microcolonies on host tissues, which are associations of microorganisms that generate tolerance to antibiotics through a variety of mechanisms and favor the exchange of genetic material. Thus, alternatives to currently used antibiotics are highly demanded. A deep understanding of the mechanisms by which S. suis becomes resistant or tolerant to antibiotics may help to develop novel molecules or combinations of antimicrobials to fight these infections. Meanwhile, phage therapy and vaccination are promising alternative strategies, which could alleviate disease pressure and, thereby, antibiotic use.

Understanding etiology of community-acquired central nervous system infections using metagenomic next-generation sequencing

Background

Community-acquired central nervous system infections (CA-CNS infections) have the characteristics of acute onset and rapid progression, and are associated with high levels of morbidity and mortality worldwide. However, there have been only limited studies on the etiology of this infections. Here, metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS), a comprehensive diagnosis method, facilitated us to better understand the etiology of CA-CNS infections.

Methods

We conducted a single-center retrospective study between September 2018 and July 2021 in which 606 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected from suspected CNS infectious patients for mNGS testing, and all positive samples were included in this analysis

Results

After the exclusion criteria, a total of 131 mNGS-positive samples were finally enrolled. Bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, specific pathogen and mixed infections were accounted for 32.82% (43/131), 13.74% (18/131), 0.76% (1/131), 2.29% (3/131) and 6.87% (9/131), respectively. A total of 41 different pathogens were identified, including 16 bacteria, 12 viruses, 10 fungi, and 1 parasite and 3 specific pathogens. The most frequent infecting pathogens are Epstein-Barr virus (n = 14), Herpes simplex virus 1 (n = 14), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (n = 13), Streptococcus pneumoniae (n = 13), and Cryptococcus neoformans (n = 8). Some difficult-to-diagnose pathogen infections were also detected by mNGS, such as Streptococcus suis, Pseudorabies virus, Bunyavirus, Orientia tsutsugamushi and Toxoplasma gondii.

Conclusion

In this study, mNGS identified a wide variety of pathogens of CA-CNS infections and many of which could not be detected by conventional methods. Our data provide a better understanding of the etiology of CA-CNS infections and show that mNGS represents a comparative screening of CSF in an unbiased manner for a broad range of human pathogens.

Metabolomics and proteomics analyses revealed mechanistic insights on the antimicrobial activity of epigallocatechin gallate against Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a highly virulent zoonotic pathogen and causes severe economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. Public health security is also threatened by the rapidly growing antimicrobial resistance in S. suis. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new and safe antibacterial alternatives against S. suis. The green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) with a number of potential health benefits is known for its antibacterial effect; however, the mechanism of its bactericidal action remains unclear. In the present, EGCG at minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) showed significant inhibitory effects on S. suis growth, hemolytic activity, and biofilm formation, and caused damage to S. suis cells in vitro. EGCG also reduced S. suis pathogenicity in Galleria mellonella larvae in vivo. Metabolomics and proteomics analyses were performed to investigate the underlying mechanism of antibacterial activity of EGCG at MIC. Many differentially expressed proteins involved in DNA replication, synthesis of cell wall, and cell membrane, and virulence were down-regulated after the treatment of S. suis with EGCG. EGCG not only significantly reduced the hemolytic activity of S. suis but also down-regulated the expression of suilysin (Sly). The top three shared KEGG pathways between metabolomics and proteomics analysis were ABC transporters, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis. Taken together, these data suggest that EGCG could be a potential phytochemical compound for treating S. suis infection.

The Ability of Nuclease-Resistant RNA Aptamer against Streptococcus suis Serotype 2, Strain P1/7 to Reduce Biofilm Formation In Vitro

Streptococcus suis, a Gram-positive bacterium, is an important swine and human pathogen, with serotype 2 being the most prevalent strain found worldwide. Deafness, meningitis, and death (in severe cases) are observed in S. suis-infected cases. Development of the ligands that can bind to S. suis with high affinity and specificity could be beneficial for the diagnosis and treatment of S. suis infection. Herein, the nuclease-resistant RNA aptamers based on 2′-fluoropyrimidine modification against S. suis serotype 2, strain P1/7, were established using the cell- Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential enrichment (SELEX) technique. One of the aptamers, R8-su12, could bind to the S. suis target strain as well as other S. suis serotypes, i.e., 1, 1/2, 9, and 14, but not to other bacteria tested, i.e., S. pneumoniae ATCC 49619, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. Moreover, the R8-su12 RNA aptamer was also capable of inhibiting the biofilm formation of the S. suis target strain, making it potentially useful for the study of biofilm formation and the treatment of S. suis infection in humans and pigs in the future.

Determination of the available energy, standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids of fermented corn germ meal replacing soybean meal in growing pig diets

Three experiments were conducted to compare the digestible (DE), metabolizable energy (ME), and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) in fermented corn germ meal (FCGM) and soybean meal (SBM), and evaluate the effects of FCGM replacing SBM in growing pig diets. In Exp. 1, 18 barrows with initial body weight (BW) of 60.2 ± 3.40 kg were randomly allotted to 3 treatments with 6 replicates per treatment. The control diet used corn as the only energy ingredient, and 2 test diets were made by replacing 25.8% of corn with FCGM or SBM. The DE and ME of FCGM were less (P < 0.01) than those of SBM. In Exp. 2, 18 barrows (59.3 ± 2.52 kg BW) with ileal T-cannulas were randomly allotted to 3 treatments with 6 replicates per treatment. The SID of arginine, tryptophan and proline were greater (P < 0.05) and the tyrosine was less (P = 0.01) in SBM compared with FCGM. In Exp. 3, 144 growing pigs (56.1 ± 5.22 kg BW) were randomly allotted to 4 treatments with 6 pens per treatment (3 barrows and 3 gilts per pen). Four diets (FCGM0, FCGM10, FCGM20 and FCGM30) were formulated using FCGM to replace 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% of SBM, respectively. The ME and SID values of AA of SBM and FCGM were determined by Exp. 1 and 2. Results showed that increasing FCGM inclusion quadratically (P < 0.05) increased the average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake, and the levels of serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) and urea nitrogen, and linearly (P < 0.05) increased the serum IgM, the propanoic acid, butyric acid, total volatile fatty acid (VFA) and the Shannon index of microbiota in feces. Besides, the relative abundance of genus Streptococcus in FCGM0, Lactobacillus in FCGM10 and Lachnospiraceae in FCGM30 were increased (P < 0.05) compared with other treatments. In conclusion, we recommend replacing 11.80% of SBM with FCGM to obtain the optimal ADG of growing pigs. Moreover, as the ratio of FCGM replacing SBM increased in diet, the immunity, intestinal microbiota and total VFA composition of growing pigs were improved.

Detection of Streptococcus suis using the optimized real-time polymerase chain reaction protocol

The article presents the results of studies on the detection of Streptococcus suis by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Isolation and species identification of the studied isolates of streptococci was carried out according to morphological, cultural, biochemical and biological properties by conventional methods. The study of cultural characteristics of growth was carried out using conventional bacteriological methods on the brain heart infusion broth (BHI) and BHI agar with the addition of 5% sheep blood (blood BHI agar). To confirm biochemical properties as a confirmatory method, API 20 STREP test kit (bioMerieux, France) was used. In addition, to differentiate S. suis from the non-pathogenic species of streptococci, the hemolysis test was used. As a result of the studies, it was found that the use of the real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) method makes it possible to detect S. suis in an amount of 1 x 104 genome copies in the sample. All described validation parameters for the qualitative detection of S. suis DNA by real-time PCR meet international requirements, which guarantees accurate and reliable results. In Ukraine only a diagnostic test kit for convential PCR has been developed for the detection of swine streptococcosis. This approach is more time consuming and complex in comparison with the real-time PCR approach. We recommend that diagnostic laboratories implement this method in their practice. This will increase the number of effective diagnostic tools available to veterinarians on pig farms when they order laboratory tests. The high analytical sensitivity limit of a test is an essential parameter when screening is the focus, and obtaining false negative results causes a risk of the development of infection process among pig populations within infected herds. Our study showed that microbiological diagnostic methods to determine morphological and cultural properties can identify S. suis at the genus level. Determination of biochemical properties using the API 20 STREP test kit can be used to identify S. suis 1 and 2 serotypes. The conventional method and real-time PCR have 100% specificity and can be used to identify S. suis of different serotypes. Real-time PCR is a 2 to 4 times more sensitive limit than conventional PCR depending on the serotype being studied, and can be used to more accurately identify streptococcal DNA. It was found that the use of the real-time PCR method makes it possible to detect S. suis in an amount of 1 x 104 copies of the genome in the sample. Additionally, it was found that all the studied validation parameters of the qualitative method for determining S. suis DNA by real-time PCR meet international requirements, which guarantees accurate and reliable results.

Heat stress-induced mucosal barrier dysfunction is potentially associated with gut microbiota dysbiosis in pigs

Heat stress (HS) can be detrimental to the gut health of swine. Many negative outcomes induced by HS are increasingly recognized as including modulation of intestinal microbiota. In turn, the intestinal microbiota is a unique ecosystem playing a critical role in mediating the host stress response. Therefore, we aimed to characterize gut microbiota of pigs’ exposure to short-term HS, to explore a possible link between the intestinal microbiota and HS-related changes, including serum cytokines, oxidation status, and intestinal epithelial barrier function. Our findings showed that HS led to intestinal morphological and integrity changes (villus height, serum diamine oxidase [DAO], serum D-lactate and the relative expressions of tight junction proteins), reduction of serum cytokines (interleukin [IL]-8, IL-12, interferon-gamma [IFN-γ]), and antioxidant activity (higher glutathione [GSH] and malondialdehyde [MDA] content, and lower superoxide dismutase [SOD]). Also, 16S rRNA sequencing analysis revealed that although there was no difference in microbial α-diversity, some HS-associated composition differences were revealed in the ileum and cecum, which partly led to an imbalance in the production of short-chain fatty acids including propionate acid and valerate acid. Relevance networks revealed that HS-derived changes in bacterial genera and microbial metabolites, such as Chlamydia, Lactobacillus, Succinivibrio, Bifidobacterium, Lachnoclostridium, and propionic acid, were correlated with oxidative stress, intestinal barrier dysfunction, and inflammation in pigs. Collectively, our observations suggest that intestinal damage induced by HS is probably partly related to the gut microbiota dysbiosis, though the underlying mechanism remains to be fully elucidated.

Tylosin Inhibits Streptococcus suis Biofilm Formation by Interacting With the O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase B CysM

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) can decrease its virulence or modify local conditions through biofilm formation, which promotes infection persistence in vivo. Biofilm formation is an important cause of chronic drug-resistant S. suis infection. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether tylosin effectively inhibits S. suis biofilm formation by interacting with O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase B (CysM), a key enzymatic regulator of cysteine synthesis. Biofilm formation of the mutant (ΔcysM) strain was significantly lower compared to the wild-type ATCC 700794 strain. Tylosin inhibited cysM gene expression, decreased extracellular matrix contents, and reduced cysteine, homocysteine, and S-adenosylmethionine levels, indicating its potential value as an effective inhibitor of S. suis biofilm formation. Furthermore, using biolayer interferometry technology and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, we found that tylosin and CysM could be combined directly. Overall, these results provide evidence that tylosin inhibits S. suis biofilm formation by interacting with CysM.

Formulation of a rational dosage regimen of ceftiofur hydrochloride oily suspension by pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) model for treatment of swine Streptococcus suis infection

BACKGROUND

Our previously prepared ceftiofur (CEF) hydrochloride oily suspension shows potential wide applications for controlling swine Streptococcus suis infections, while the irrational dose has not been formulated.

OBJECTIVES

The rational dose regimens of CEF oily suspension against S. suis were systematically studied using a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model method.

METHODS

The healthy and infected pigs were intramuscularly administered CEF hydrochloride oily suspension at a single dose of 5 mg/kg, and then the plasma and pulmonary epithelial lining fluid (PELF) were collected at different times. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimal bactericidal concentration, mutant prevention concentration (MPC), post-antibiotic effect (PAE), and time-killing curves were determined. Subsequently, the area under the curve by the MIC (AUC_0-24h/MIC) values of desfuroylceftiofur (DFC) in the PELF was obtained by integrating in vivo pharmacokinetic data of the infected pigs and ex vivo pharmacodynamic data using the sigmoid E_max (Hill) equation. The dose was calculated based on the AUC_0-24h/MIC values for bacteriostatic action, bactericidal action, and bacterial elimination.

RESULTS

The peak concentration, the area under the concentration-time curve, and the time to peak for PELF's DFC were 24.76 ± 0.92 µg/mL, 811.99 ± 54.70 μg·h/mL, and 8.00 h in healthy pigs, and 33.04 ± 0.99 µg/mL, 735.85 ± 26.20 μg·h/mL, and 8.00 h in infected pigs, respectively. The MIC of PELF's DFC against S. suis strain was 0.25 µg/mL. There was strong concentration-dependent activity as determined by MPC, PAE, and the time-killing curves. The AUC_0-24h/MIC values of PELF's DFC for bacteriostatic activity, bactericidal activity, and virtual eradication of bacteria were 6.54 h, 9.69 h, and 11.49 h, respectively. Thus, a dosage regimen of 1.94 mg/kg every 72 h could be sufficient to reach bactericidal activity.

CONCLUSIONS

A rational dosage regimen was recommended, and it could assist in increasing the treatment effectiveness of CEF hydrochloride oily suspension against S. Suis infections.

Antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities of histidine kinase YycG inhibitors against Streptococcus agalactiae

This study aims to investigate the antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities of YycG inhibitors H2-60 and H2-81 against Streptococcus agalactiae. A total of 118 nonduplicate S. agalactiae clinical isolates were collected, and the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of H2-60 and H2-81 were determined. H2-60 and H2-81 inhibit biofilm formation of S. agalactiae were detected by crystal violet staining, and against established biofilms of S. agalactiae were observed by confocal laser scanning microscope. Inhibitory effect of H2-60 and H2-81 on the phosphorylation activity of the HisKA domain of YycG' protein was measured. The MIC₅₀/MIC₉₀ was 3.13/6.25 μM for H2-60 and 6.25/12.5 μM for H2-81 against S. agalactiae, respectively. S. agalactiae planktonic cells can be decreased by H2-60 or H2-81 for more than 3 × log10 CFU ml^-1 after 24 h treatment. Biofilm formation of 8 S. agalactiae strains (strong biofilm producers) was significantly reduced after treated with 1/4 × MIC of H2-60 or H2-81 for 24 h. H2-60 and H2-81 could reduce 45.79% and 29.56% of the adherent cells in the established biofilm of S. agalactiae after 72 h treatment, respectively. H2-60 combined with daptomycin reduced 83.63% of the adherent cells in the established biofilm of S. agalactiae, which was significantly better than that of H2-60 (45.79%) or daptomycin (55.07%) alone. The half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) were 35.6 μM for H2-60 and 46.3 μM for H2-81 against the HisKA domain of YycG' protein. In conclusion, YycG inhibitors H2-60 and H2-81 exhibit excellent antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities against S. agalactiae.

The Escherichia coli type III secretion system 2 Is involved in the biofilm formation and virulence of avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli

The Escherichia coli type III secretion system 2 (ETT2) is found in most pathogenic E. coli strains. Although many ETT2 gene clusters carry multiple genetic mutations or deletions, ETT2 is known to be involved in bacterial virulence. To date, no studies have been conducted on the role of ETT2 in the virulence of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), which harbours ETT2. Thus, we deleted the ETT2 of APEC strain and evaluated the phenotypes and pathogenicities of the mutant. The results showed that deletion of ETT2 had no effect on APEC growth, but significantly promoted biofilm formation. In addition, as compared to the wild-type （WT） strain, the ETT2 deletion significantly promoted adherence to and invasion of DF-1 chicken fibroblasts and facilitated survival in the sera of specific-pathogen-free chickens. Analysis of the role of ETT2 in animal infection models demonstrated that the distribution of viable bacteria in the blood and organs of chicks infected with the ΔETT2 was significantly higher than those infected with WT. The results of RNA sequencing indicated that multiple genes involved in biofilm formation, lipopolysaccharide components, fimbrial genes and virulence effector proteins are regulated by ETT2. Collectively, these results implicated ETT2 is involved in the biofilm formation and pathogenicity of APEC.

Analysis of Antibiotic-induced Drug Resistance of Salmonella Enteritidis and Its Biofilm Formation Mechanism

This research was to explore antibiotic-induced drug resistance of Salmonella enteritidis and its biofilm formation mechanism. Kirby-Bauer (K-B) disk method recommended by Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) was used to test drug sensitivity of Salmonella enteritidis to 16 kinds of antibiotics including ß-lactams, aminoglycosides, quinolones, sulfonamides, chloramphenicols, and tetracyclines. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to detect carrying of drug resistance genes of 29 kinds of antibiotics including ß-lactams, aminoglycosides, quinolones, sulfonamides, chloramphenicols, and tetracyclines of Salmonella enteritidis. The expressions of esp, ebpA, ge1E, and fsrB genes in biofilm group and plankton group were detected when Salmonella was induced, and difference of gene expression was detected by FQ-PCR. The drug resistance rates of Salmonella enteritidis to nalidixic acid, ampicillin, streptomyces, and cefoperazone were high, which were 94.5%, 75%, 67%, and 52%, respectively. 94 strains of Salmonella enteritidis formed 22 kinds of drug resistance spectrum, the strains were generally resistant to 4-5 antibiotics, and some strains formed fixed drug resistance spectrum as follows: AMP-CFP-STR-NA-TE (22.6,21.7%), AMP-STR-NA-TE (17,16%), and AMP-CFP-STR-NA (11.1,10.6%). During biofilm formation, fsr can increase expression of ge1E and decrease expression of esp and ebpA. Consequently, Salmonella enteritidis was generally resistant to nalidixic acid, ampicillin, and streptomycin, and the multidrug resistance was severe. The drug resistance genes sul2, sul3, blaTEM-1-like, tet(A), and tet(G) were highly carried in Salmonella enteritidis. Esp, ebpA, ge1E, and fsrB genes were closely related to biofilm formation of Salmonella enteritidis.

The Influencing Factors of Bacterial Resistance Related to Livestock Farm: Sources and Mechanisms

Bacterial resistance is a complex scientific issue. To manage this issue, we need to deeply understand the influencing factors and mechanisms. Based on the background of livestock husbandry, this paper reviews the factors that affect the acquisition of bacterial resistance. Meanwhile, the resistance mechanism is also discussed. “Survival of the fittest” is the result of genetic plasticity of bacterial pathogens, which brings about specific response, such as producing adaptive mutation, gaining genetic material or changing gene expression. To a large extent, bacterial populations acquire resistance genes directly caused by the selective pressure of antibiotics. However, mobile resistance genes may be co-selected by other existing substances (such as heavy metals and biocides) without direct selection pressure from antibiotics. This is because the same mobile genetic elements as antibiotic resistance genes can be co-located by the resistance determinants of some of these compounds. Furthermore, environmental factors are a source of resistance gene acquisition. Here, we describe some of the key measures that should be taken to mitigate the risk of antibiotic resistance. We call on the relevant governments or organizations around the world to formulate and improve the monitoring policies of antibiotic resistance, strengthen the supervision, strengthen the international cooperation and exchange, and curb the emergence and spread of drug-resistant strains.

Update on the Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance and the Mobile Resistome in the Emerging Zoonotic Pathogen Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis is a zoonotic pathogen causing important economic losses in swine production. The most commonly used antibiotics in swine industry are tetracyclines, beta-lactams, and macrolides. Resistance to these antibiotics has already been observed worldwide (reaching high rates for macrolides and tetracyclines) as well as resistance to aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, amphenicols, and glycopeptides. Most of the resistance mechanisms are encoded by antibiotic resistance genes, and a large part are carried by mobile genetic elements (MGEs) that can be transferred through horizontal gene transfer. This review provides an update of the resistance genes, their combination in multidrug isolates, and their localization on MGEs in S. suis. It also includes an overview of the contribution of biofilm to antimicrobial resistance in this bacterial species. The identification of resistance genes and study of their localization in S. suis as well as the environmental factors that can modulate their dissemination appear essential in order to decipher the role of this bacterium as a reservoir of antibiotic genes for other species.

Effect of Syringopicroside Extracted from Syringa oblata Lindl on the Biofilm Formation of Streptococcus suis

Syringopicroside is a natural drug with antibacterial activity, which is the main ingredient of Syringa oblata Lindl (S. oblata). In order to further develop the application of S. oblata and evaluate the ability of syringopicroside against Streptococcus suis (S. suis), this investigation first applied an ultrasonic-assisted method to extract syringopicroside, and then response surface methodology (RSM) was performed to get the optimum condition. Based on RSM analysis, a second-order polynomial equation about the syringopicroside yield and four variables, including ultrasonic power, time, temperature, and liquid-to-solid ratio, was purposed. Through RSM prediction and model verification experiments, the optimum conditions were determined, as follows: ultrasonic time was 63 min, temperature was 60 °C, a liquid-to-solid ratio was set to 63 mL/g, and ultrasonic power was 835 W. Under this condition, a high syringopicroside yield was obtained (3.07 ± 0.13 mg/g), which was not significantly different with a predicated value. After separation and purification by HPD 500 microporous resin, then mass spectrum was applied to identify the main ingredient in aqueous extract. A minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay revealed the value against S. suis of syringopicroside was 2.56 µg/µL and syringopicroside with sub-inhibitory concentrations that could effectively inhibit biofilm formation of S. suis. Besides, scanning electron microscopy analysis indicated syringopicroside could destroy the multi-layered aggregation structure of S. suis. Finally, molecular docking analysis confirmed that syringopicroside was combined with Orfy protein of S. suis through hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interaction, and π-π stacking.

LytR plays a role in normal septum formation and contributes to full virulence in Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a major zoonotic pathogen and is also responsible for variety of diseases in swine. LytR-CpsA-Psr (LCP) family proteins affect the biofilm formation and virulence of some Gram-positive bacteria, but we know nothing about their roles in S. suis. In this study, we constructed the LytR mutant and its revertant strains by natural transformation and verified them by PCR and western blot. We explored the effects of LytR on the cell morphology of S. suis. Transmission electron microscopic analysis showed that the mutant strain displayed aberrant septum placement with no obvious differences in capsular thickness. Crystal violet staining and laser-scanning confocal microscopy both revealed that LytR contributes to the biofilm formation of S. suis. The LytR mutant strain had reduced survival in whole human blood and was more sensitive to killing by polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs). Furthermore, in a mouse infection model, the LytR mutant strain also exhibited significantly attenuated virulence and was more easily cleared in the blood. These results indicate that the LytR protein is involved in septum placement, biofilm formation and required for full virulence of S. suis during infection.

Antibiotic resistance related to biofilm formation in Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is an important zoonotic agent, which seriously impacts the pig industry and human health in various countries. Biofilm formation is likely contributing to the virulence and drug resistance in S. suis. A better knowledge of biofilm formation as well as to biofilm-dependent drug resistance mechanisms in S. suis can be of great significance for the prevention and treatment of S. suis infections. This literature review updates the latest scientific data related to biofilm formation in S. suis and its impact on drug tolerance and resistance.Key points• Biofilm formation is the important reasons for drug resistance of SS infections.• The review includes the regulatory mechanism of SS biofilm formation.• The review includes the drug resistance mechanisms of SS biofilm.

Pan-genome analysis of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 revealed genomic diversity among strains of different virulence

Streptococcus suis (SS) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen that causes severe infections in swine and humans. Among the 33 known serotypes, serotype 2 is most frequently associated with infections in pigs and humans. To better understand the virulence characterization of S. suis serotype 2 (SS2) and discriminate the difference between virulent and avirulent strains in SS2, characterization of the genomic features of strains with different virulence is required. The result showed that Streptococcus suis have an open pan-genome. The pan-genome shared by the 19 S. suis serotype 2 strains was composed of 1,239 core genes and 2,436 accessory genes. COG analysis indicated that core genes are involved in the basic physiological function, but accessory genes related to tachytely evolution. Comparative analysis between core genomes of virulent strains and 9 avirulent strains suggested that srtBCD pilus cluster was a significant discrepancy between virulent and avirulent strains. Analysis between high virulent and group B low virulent strains showed 53 and 58 genes specific to each other. Moreover, genomes of avirulent strains tend to be larger than virulent strains; avirulent strains tend to possess more prophages sequences than virulent strains. Our findings could be contributed to a better understanding of the genomics of S. suis serotype 2.

Modulation of Pectin on Mucosal Innate Immune Function in Pigs Mediated by Gut Microbiota

The use of prebiotics to regulate gut microbiota is a promising strategy to improve gut health. Pectin (PEC) is a prebiotic carbohydrate that enhances the health of the gut by promoting the growth of beneficial microbes. These microbes produce metabolites that are known to improve mucosal immune responses. This study was conducted to better understand effects of PEC on the microbiome and mucosal immunity in pigs. Pigs were fed two diets, with or without 5% apple PEC, for 72 days. Effects of PEC on the microbiota, cytokine expression, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) concentration and barrier function were examined in the ileum and cecum of the pigs. An integrative analysis was used to determine interactions of PEC consumption with bacterial metabolites and microbiome composition and host mucosal responses. Consumption of PEC reduced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12 and IL-18, and the activation of the pro-inflammatory NF-κB signaling cascade. Expression of MUC2 and TFF and the sIgA content was upregulated in the mucosa of PEC-fed pigs. Network analysis revealed that PEC induced significant interactions between microbiome composition in the ileum and cecum on mucosal immune pathways. PEC-induced changes in bacterial genera and fermentation metabolites, such as Akkermansia, Faecalibacterium, Oscillibacter, Lawsonia and butyrate, correlated with the differentially expressed genes and cytokines in the mucosa. In summary, the results demonstrate the anti-inflammatory properties of PEC on mucosal immune status in the ileum and cecum effected through modulation of the host microbiome.

pdh modulate virulence through reducing stress tolerance and biofilm formation of Streptococcus suis serotype 2

Streptococcus suis serotype 2 (S. suis 2) is a zoonotic pathogen. It causes meningitis, arthritis, pneumonia and sepsis in pigs, leading to extremely high mortality, which seriously affects public health and the development of the pig industry. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) is an important sugar metabolism enzyme that is widely present in microorganisms, mammals and higher plants. It catalyzes the irreversible oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and reduces NAD+ to NADH. In this study, we found that the virulence of the S. suis ZY05719 sequence type 7 pdh deletion strain (Δpdh) was significantly lower than the wild-type strain (WT) in the mouse infection model. The distribution of viable bacteria in the blood and organs of mice infected with the Δpdh was significantly lower than those infected with WT. Bacterial survival rates were reduced in response to temperature stress, salt stress and oxidative stress. Additionally, compared to WT, the ability to adhere to and invade PK15 cells, biofilm formation and stress resistance of Δpdh were significantly reduced. Moreover, real-time PCR results showed that pdh deletion reduced the expression of multiple adhesion-related genes. However, there was no significant difference in the correlation biological analysis between the complemented strain (CΔpdh) and WT. Moreover, the survival rate of Δpdh in RAW264.7 macrophages was significantly lower than that of the WT strain. This study shows that PDH is involved in the pathogenesis of S. suis 2 and reduction in virulence of Δpdh may be related to the decreased ability to resist stress of the strain.

A novel multi-enzyme preparation produced from Aspergillus niger using biodegradable waste: a possible option to combat heterogeneous biofilms

Extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) produced by the microorganisms provides protection and stability to them when they are encased within biofilms. Heterogeneous polysaccharides form a major constituent of the EPS and are crucial for the formation and integrity of the biofilms/slime. Thus, breakdown of polysaccharides might help in dispersion of biofilms from abiotic surfaces. In the present study we isolated a fungus, Aspergillus niger APS, capable of concurrently producing a cocktail of carbohydrases and optimized the conditions for higher yields of all the enzymes by one variable at a time (OVAT) approach. The optimization studies resulted in 1.5 to 12 fold augmentation in the enzyme yields using biodegradable waste. Further, keeping in view the heterogeneous nature of polysaccharides in biofilm matrix, the in-house produced enzyme cocktail was used for the dispersal of biofilms formed by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Treatment with enzyme preparation caused 90.23 ± 4.0, 82.64 ± 5.0 and 76.32 ± 5.0% reduction of the biofilms formed by these organisms respectively which was also evidenced by Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) revealing the loss of biofilm architecture. Interestingly, the enzyme cocktail could also remove viscous slime formed under natural conditions in the kitchen drainage pipe (KDP). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on biotreatment of abiotic surfaces for removal of biofilms/slime formed under natural conditions. The study thus indicates the prospects of using multiple carbohydrases as an anti-biofouling agent on abiotic surfaces like equipments as well as implants/prostheses and pipelines.

Regulatory Mechanisms of the LuxS/AI-2 System and Bacterial Resistance

The quorum-sensing (QS) system is an intercellular cell-cell communication mechanism that controls the expression of genes involved in a variety of cellular processes and that plays critical roles in the adaption and survival of bacteria in their environment. The LuxS/AI-2 QS system, which uses AI-2 (autoinducer-2) as a signal molecule, has been identified in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. As one of the important global regulatory networks in bacteria, it responds to fluctuations in the numbers of bacteria and regulates the expression of a number of genes, thus affecting cell behavior. We summarize here the known relationships between the LuxS/AI-2 system and drug resistance, discuss the inhibition of LuxS/AI-2 system as an approach to prevent bacterial resistance, and present new strategies for the treatment of drug-resistant pathogens.

The impact of sseK2 deletion on Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium virulence in vivo and in vitro

Background

Salmonella enterica is regarded as a major public health threat worldwide. Salmonella secretes the novel translocated effector protein K2 (SseK2), but it is unclear whether this protein plays a significant role in Salmonella enterica Typhimurium virulence.

Results

A ΔsseK2 mutant of S. Typhimurium exhibited similar growth curves, adhesion and invasive ability compared with wild-type (WT) bacteria. However, deletion of sseK2 rendered Salmonella deficient in biofilm formation and the early proliferative capacity of the ΔsseK2 mutant was significantly lower than that of the WT strain. In vivo, the LD₅₀ (median lethal dose) of the ΔsseK2 mutant strain was increased 1.62 × 10³-fold compared with the WT strain. In addition, vaccinating mice with the ΔsseK2 mutant protected them against challenge with a lethal dose of the WT strain. The ability of the ΔsseK2 mutant strain to induce systemic infection was highly attenuated compared with the WT strain, and the bacterial load in the animals’ internal organs was lower when they were infected with the ΔsseK2 mutant strain than when they were infected with the WT strain.

Conclusions

We conclude that sseK2 is a virulence-associated gene that plays a vital role in Salmonella virulence.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-019-1543-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The mechanical properties of microbial surfaces and biofilms

Microbes can modify their surface structure as an adaptive mechanism for survival and dissemination in the environment or inside the host. Altering their ability to respond to mechanical stimuli is part of this adaptive process. Since the 1990s, powerful micromanipulation tools have been developed that allow mechanical studies of microbial cell surfaces, exploring little known aspects of their dynamic behavior. This review concentrates on the study of mechanical and rheological properties of bacteria and fungi, focusing on their cell surface dynamics and biofilm formation.

Antibacterial activity against porcine respiratory bacterial pathogens and in vitro biocompatibility of essential oils

Bacterial respiratory infections affecting pigs such as pneumonia, pleuropneumonia, and pleurisy, are a major health concern in the swine industry and are associated with important economic losses. This study aimed to investigate the antibacterial activities of essential oils against major swine respiratory pathogens with a view to developing a potential alternative to antibiotics. Their synergistic interactions with the bacteriocin nisin was also examined. Lastly, we assessed the in vitro biocompatibility of the most efficient essential oils using a pig tracheal epithelial cell line. Of the nine essential oils tested, those from cinnamon, thyme, and winter savory were the most active against Streptococcus suis, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Actinobacillus suis, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Haemophilus parasuis, and Pasteurella multocida, with minimum inhibitory concentrations and minimum bactericidal concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 0.156% (v/v). The main component found in cinnamon, thyme, and winter savory oils were cinnamaldehyde, thymol, and carvacrol, respectively. Treating pre-formed S. suis and A. pleuropneumoniae biofilms with thyme or winter savory oils significantly decreased biofilm viability. We also observed a synergistic growth inhibition of S. suis with mixtures of nisin and essential oils from thyme and winter savory. Concentrations of nisin and cinnamon, thyme and winter savory essential oils that were effective against bacterial pathogens had no effect on the viability of pig tracheal epithelial cells. The present study brought evidence that essential oils are potential antimicrobial agents against bacteria associated with porcine respiratory infections.