The antiatherogenic and antiinflammatory effect of HDL–associated lysosphingolipids operates via Akt ➞NF–kappaB signalling pathways in human vascular endothelial cells

Immunity and Coagulation in COVID-19

Discovered in late 2019, the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus has caused the largest pandemic of the 21st century, claiming more than seven million lives. In most cases, the COVID-19 disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus is relatively mild and affects only the upper respiratory tract; it most often manifests itself with fever, chills, cough, and sore throat, but also has less-common mild symptoms. In most cases, patients do not require hospitalization, and fully recover. However, in some cases, infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus leads to the development of a severe form of COVID-19, which is characterized by the development of life-threatening complications affecting not only the lungs, but also other organs and systems. In particular, various forms of thrombotic complications are common among patients with a severe form of COVID-19. The mechanisms for the development of thrombotic complications in COVID-19 remain unclear. Accumulated data indicate that the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 is based on disruptions in the functioning of various innate immune systems. The key role in the primary response to a viral infection is assigned to two systems. These are the pattern recognition receptors, primarily members of the toll-like receptor (TLR) family, and the complement system. Both systems are the first to engage in the fight against the virus and launch a whole range of mechanisms aimed at its rapid elimination. Normally, their joint activity leads to the destruction of the pathogen and recovery. However, disruptions in the functioning of these innate immune systems in COVID-19 can cause the development of an excessive inflammatory response that is dangerous for the body. In turn, excessive inflammation entails activation of and damage to the vascular endothelium, as well as the development of the hypercoagulable state observed in patients seriously ill with COVID-19. Activation of the endothelium and hypercoagulation lead to the development of thrombosis and, as a result, damage to organs and tissues. Immune-mediated thrombotic complications are termed "immunothrombosis". In this review, we discuss in detail the features of immunothrombosis associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection and its potential underlying mechanisms.

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine alleviates pressure overload-induced myocardial remodeling in mice via inhibiting CaM-JNK/p38 signaling pathway

Apoptosis plays a critical role in the development of heart failure, and sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) is a bioactive sphingolipid naturally occurring in blood plasma. Some studies have shown that SPC inhibits hypoxia-induced apoptosis in myofibroblasts, the crucial non-muscle cells in the heart. Calmodulin (CaM) is a known SPC receptor. In this study we investigated the role of CaM in cardiomyocyte apoptosis in heart failure and the associated signaling pathways. Pressure overload was induced in mice by trans-aortic constriction (TAC) surgery. TAC mice were administered SPC (10 μM·kg-1·d-1) for 4 weeks post-surgery. We showed that SPC administration significantly improved survival rate and cardiac hypertrophy, and inhibited cardiac fibrosis in TAC mice. In neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes, treatment with SPC (10 μM) significantly inhibited Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition and cell apoptosis accompanied by reduced Bax and phosphorylation levels of CaM, JNK and p38, as well as upregulated Bcl-2, a cardiomyocyte-protective protein. Thapsigargin (TG) could enhance CaM functions by increasing Ca2+ levels in cytoplasm. TG (3 μM) annulled the protective effect of SPC against Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Furthermore, we demonstrated that SPC-mediated inhibition of cardiomyocyte apoptosis involved the regulation of p38 and JNK phosphorylation, which was downstream of CaM. These results offer new evidence for SPC regulation of cardiomyocyte apoptosis, potentially providing a new therapeutic target for cardiac remodeling following stress overload.

Inhibition of Vascular Inflammation by Apolipoprotein A-IV

Background

Apolipoprotein (apo) A-IV, the third most abundant apolipoprotein in human high density lipoproteins (HDLs), inhibits intestinal and systemic inflammation. This study asks if apoA-IV also inhibits acute vascular inflammation.

Methods

Inflammation was induced in New Zealand White rabbits by placing a non-occlusive silastic collar around the common carotid artery. A single 1 mg/kg intravenous infusion of lipid-free apoA-IV or saline (control) was administered to the animals 24 h before collar insertion. The animals were euthanised 24 h post-collar insertion. Human coronary artery cells (HCAECs) were pre-incubated with reconstituted HDLs containing apoA-IV complexed with phosphatidylcholine, (A-IV)rHDLs, then activated by incubation with tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Cell surface vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in the TNF-α-activated HCAECs was quantified by flow cytometry. VCAM-1, ICAM-1 and 3β-hydroxysteroid-Δ24 reductase (DHCR24) mRNA levels were quantified by real time PCR.

Results

Apolipoprotein ApoA-IV treatment significantly decreased collar-induced endothelial expression of VCAM-1, ICAM-1 and neutrophil infiltration into the arterial intima by 67.6 ± 9.9% (p < 0.01), 75.4 ± 6.9% (p < 0.01) and 74.4 ± 8.5% (p < 0.05), respectively. It also increased endothelial expression of DHCR24 by 2.6-fold (p < 0.05). Pre-incubation of HCAECs with (A-IV)rHDLs prior to stimulation with TNF-α inhibited VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 protein levels by 62.2 ± 12.1% and 33.7 ± 5.7%, respectively. VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 mRNA levels were decreased by 55.8 ± 7.2% and 49.6 ± 7.9%, respectively, while DHCR24 mRNA expression increased by threefold. Transfection of HCAECs with DHCR24 siRNA attenuated the anti-inflammatory effects of (A-IV)rHDLs. Pre-incubation of TNF-α-activated HCAECs with (A-IV)rHDLs also inhibited nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and decreased IκBα phosphorylation.

Conclusion

These results indicate that apoA-IV inhibits vascular inflammation in vitro and in vivo by inhibiting NF-κB activation in a DHCR24-dependent manner.

Potential of Lipoprotein-Based Nanoparticulate Formulations for the Treatment of Eye Diseases

Lipoproteins are naturally occurring nanoparticles and their main physiological function is the promotion of lipid metabolism. They can be prepared in vitro for use as drug carriers, and these reconstituted lipoproteins show similar biological activity to their natural counterparts. Some lipoproteins can cross the blood-retinal barrier and are involved in intraocular lipid metabolism. Drug-loaded lipoproteins can be delivered to the retina for the treatment of posterior eye diseases. In this review, we have discussed the therapeutic applications of lipoproteins for eye diseases and introduced the emerging animal models used for the evaluation of their therapeutic effects.

Role of Sphingosylphosphorylcholine in Tumor and Tumor Microenvironment

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) is a unique type of lysosphingolipid found in some diseases, and has been studied in cardiovascular, neurological, and inflammatory phenomena. In particular, SPC’s studies on cancer have been conducted mainly in terms of effects on cancer cells, and relatively little consideration has been given to aspects of tumor microenvironment. This review summarizes the effects of SPC on cancer and tumor microenvironment, and presents the results and prospects of modulators that regulate the various actions of SPC.

Functional implications of single nucleotide polymorphisms rs662 and rs854860 on the antioxidative activity of paraoxonase1 (PON1) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis leading to cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the main cause of mortality and morbidity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Paraoxonase1 (PON1) is the best understood member of plasma paraoxonases with anti-atherogenic properties.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Spanish RA (n = 549) consecutively recruited from 1 single center and 477 ethnically matched healthy controls were included in a case-control study. The concentration of PON1 was evaluated by means of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent sssay (ELISA). An arylesterase/paraoxonase assay kit was used to evaluate PON1 activity. Sample genotyping was performed by using TaqMan assays-on-demand. All results were expressed as medians ± interquartile range. One-way ANOVA comparisons were done using a nonparametric Kruskall-Wallis test. P values under 0.05 were considered to be significant.

RESULTS

The concentration of PON1 in the RA group was higher than in control group (p = 0.0003), although the differences were not significant when PON1 activities were compared between both groups. No significant differences were found related to distributions of rs662 genotypes in RA patients compared to healthy controls. Among rs854860 polymorphisms, overall genotype was widely distributed between RA patients and controls. Overall PON1 concentration in plasma was not significantly different between individuals carrying any of rs662 (p = 0.8501) or rs854860 (p = 0.2741) polymorphisms. Although PON1 levels were not associated with any of the SNPs in the study, differences appear when enzyme activities are compared for each SNP separately. CVD in RA patients correlate with increased PON1 levels and lower PON1 activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Although protective role of PON1 against oxidative damage in vivo could be related to other activities, in our study arylesterase activity was useful to identify phenotypic differences with emphasis placed on two SNPs coding for nonconservative amino acid changes in the functional protein.

Emerging roles of sphingosylphosphorylcholine in modulating cardiovascular functions and diseases

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) is a bioactive sphingolipid in blood plasma that is metabolized from the hydrolysis of the membrane sphingolipid. SPC maintains low levels in the circulation under normal conditions, which makes studying its origin and action difficult. In recent years, however, it has been revealed that SPC may act as a first messenger through G protein-coupled receptors (S1P_1-5, GPR12) or membrane lipid rafts, or as a second messenger mediating intracellular Ca²⁺ release in diverse human organ systems. SPC is a constituent of lipoproteins, and the activation of platelets promotes the release of SPC into blood, both implying a certain effect of SPC in modulating the pathological process of the heart and vessels. A line of evidence indeed confirms that SPC exerts a pronounced influence on the cardiovascular system through modulation of the functions of myocytes, vein endothelial cells, as well as vascular smooth muscle cells. In this review we summarize the current knowledge of the potential roles of SPC in the development of cardiovascular diseases and discuss the possible underlying mechanisms.

Low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and particle concentrations are associated with greater levels of endothelial activation markers in Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis participants

BACKGROUND

High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are well characterized for their role in reverse cholesterol transport but may confer other cardiovascular benefits-specifically, HDL may suppress the endothelial activation cascade in the initiating stages of atherogenesis.

OBJECTIVE

It was the primary aim of this study to examine the relations of HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), total HDL particle (HDL-P) concentrations, and HDL-P subclasses with circulating levels of endothelial activation markers in a subcohort of Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis participants.

METHODS

HDL-C was measured by enzymatic assay, and total HDL-P and subclass concentrations were assessed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Concentrations of circulating endothelial activation markers were determined through immunoassay. Multivariable linear regression was used to determine the cross-sectional associations between HDL variables and endothelial markers with statistical adjustment for age, race/ethnicity, sex, education, systolic blood pressure, hypertension medication use, body mass index, smoking status, lipid-lowering medication use, serum creatinine, diabetes, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and coronary artery calcium.

RESULTS

HDL-C and HDL-P were found to be inversely associated with soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, soluble vascular intracellular adhesion molecule-1, sL-selectin, and sP-selectin; HDL-P was additionally inversely associated with sE-selectin. Participants with low levels of HDL-C (<40 mg/dL) or HDL-P (<25th percentile) showed 3%-12% higher mean levels of soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule and compared with those above these levels (all P < .01).

CONCLUSION

Coupled with previous evidence, our findings suggest a modest to moderate relation of HDL and circulating levels of endothelial activation markers in humans. Whether this relationship may have clinical implications in suppressing atherogenesis or coronary heart disease development requires additional research.

CLIC1 Inhibition Attenuates Vascular Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Endothelial Injury

Endothelial dysfunction, which includes endothelial oxidative damage and vascular inflammation, is a key initiating step in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (AS) and an independent risk factor for this disorder. Intracellular chloride channel 1 (CLIC1), a novel metamorphic protein, acts as a sensor of cell oxidation and is involved in inflammation. In this study, we hypothesize that CLIC1 plays an important role in AS. Apolipoprotein E-deficient mice were supplied with a normal diet or a high-fat and high-cholesterol diet for 8 weeks. Overexpressed CLIC1 was associated with the accelerated atherosclerotic plaque development, amplified oxidative stress, and in vivo release of inflammatory cytokines. We subsequently examined the underlying molecular mechanisms through in vitro experiments. Treatment of cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) with H2O2 induced endothelial oxidative damage and enhanced CLIC1 expression. Suppressing CLIC1 expression through gene knocked-out (CLIC1-/-) or using the specific inhibitor indanyloxyacetic acid-94 (IAA94) reduced ROS production, increased SOD enzyme activity, and significantly decreased MDA level. CLIC1-/- HUVECs exhibited significantly reduced expression of TNF-α and IL-1β as well as ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 at the protein levels. In addition, H2O2 promoted CLIC1 translocation to the cell membrane and insertion into lipid membranes, whereas IAA94 inhibited CLIC1 membrane translocation induced by H2O2. By contrast, the majority of CLIC1 did not aggregate on the cell membrane in normal HUVECs, and this finding is consistent with the changes in cytoplasmic chloride ion concentration. This study demonstrates for the first time that CLIC1 is overexpressed during AS development both in vitro and in vivo and can regulate the accumulation of inflammatory cytokines and production of oxidative stress. Our results also highlight that deregulation of endothelial functions may be associated with the membrane translocation of CLIC1 and active chloride-selective ion channels in endothelial cells.

Oxidative status interactome map: towards novel approaches in experiment planning, data analysis, diagnostics and therapy

Experimental evidence suggests an immense variety of processes associated with and aimed at producing reactive oxygen and/or nitrogen species. Clinical studies implicate an enormous range of pathologies associated with reactive oxygen/nitrogen species metabolism deregulation, particularly oxidative stress. Recent advances in biochemistry, proteomics and molecular biology/biophysics of cells suggest oxidative stress to be an endpoint of complex dysregulation events of conjugated pathways consolidated under the term, proposed here, "oxidative status". The oxidative status concept, in order to allow for novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches, requires elaboration of a new logic system comprehending all the features, versatility and complexity of cellular pro- and antioxidative components of different nature. We have developed a curated and regularly updated interactive interactome map of human cellular-level oxidative status allowing for systematization of the related most up-to-date experimental data. A total of more than 600 papers were selected for the initial creation of the map. The map comprises more than 300 individual factors with respective interactions, all subdivided hierarchically for logical analysis purposes. The pilot application of the interactome map suggested several points for further development of oxidative status-based technologies.

The role of cholesterol efflux in mechanisms of endothelial protection by HDL

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

HDL and their main apolipoprotein (apo) constituent apoA-I are antiatherogenic. This has been predominantly attributed to the ability of apoA-I/HDL to efflux cholesterol from macrophages within atherosclerotic plaques. It is now emerging that a number of the protective properties of HDL may be due to their effects on the endothelium.

RECENT FINDINGS

In addition to their well characterized anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, apoA-I and HDL regulate several other key biological pathways known to preserve endothelial function and promote vascular repair. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters ABCA1 and ABCG1, and the scavenger receptor B type 1 mediate multiple intracellular signaling pathways as well as the efflux of cholesterol and/or oxysterols in response to apoA-I/HDL. Although cholesterol efflux triggers a host of signaling events in endothelial cells, there is evidence that some of the beneficial actions of HDL may occur independently of efflux.

SUMMARY

Current data suggest that in endothelial cells ABCA1 and ABCG1 mediate the activation of intracellular signaling pathways primarily through the efflux of cholesterol and oxysterols to apoA-I/HDL. Interaction between HDL and scavenger receptor B type 1 initiates the greatest number of known signaling pathways and there is evidence that some of these are activated independent of efflux.

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine stimulates CCL2 production from human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) is a component of high-density lipoprotein particles. We investigated the functional role of SPC in HUVECs. SPC stimulation induced production of the CCL2 chemokine in a PTX-sensitive G-protein-dependent manner. SPC treatment caused the activation of NF-κB and AP-1, which are essential for SPC-induced CCL2 production, and induced the activation of three MAPKs, ERK, p38 MAPK, and JNK. Inhibition of p38 MAPK or JNK by specific inhibitors caused a dramatic decrease in SPC-induced CCL2 production. The Jak/STAT3 pathway was also activated upon SPC stimulation of HUVECs. Pretreatment with a Jak inhibitor blocked not only SPC-induced p38 MAPK and JNK activation, but also NF-κB and AP-1 activation. Our results suggest that SPC stimulates HUVECs, resulting in Jak/STAT3-, NF-κB-, and AP-1-mediated CCL2 production. We also observed that SPC stimulated expression of the adhesion molecule ICAM-1 in HUVECs. Our results suggest that SPC may contribute to atherosclerosis; therefore, SPC and its unidentified target receptor offer a starting point for the development of a treatment for atherosclerosis.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) induces expression of E-selectin and adhesion of monocytes via intracellular signalling pathways in vascular endothelial cells

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) - a constitutive component of human plasma - is implicated as a signalling molecule in the regulation of cell adhesion molecules (CAM) in vascular endothelial cells (EC), but the degree of the S1P-induced expression of CAM and the involvement of the S1P(1) receptor are still ambiguous. Here, we report that S1P, when added to vascular EC in the absence of other stimuli, induced a strictly proportional and concentration-dependent expression of E-selectin mRNA, of E-selectin protein and of the number of adhering THP-1 monocytes to EC. Experiments with exogenous [(3)H]S1P showed a multi-exponential influx kinetic of intracellular uptake of [(3)H]S1P up to a steady state level over 2h. This process could be inhibited or enhanced by various synthetic modulators targeting both, S1P(1) receptor-dependent (Akt, ERK1/2) as well as independent DMS-sensitive pathways. The S1P(1) receptor signalling was shown to drive the sphingosine kinase - the rate limiting enzyme for the formation of S1P - to a higher or lower activity. Furthermore, S1P as an intracellular messenger induced the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB and in turn the expression of E-selectin and monocyte adhesion. Taken together, these results suggest that the physiologically controlled variation in intracellular S1P concentrations may represent a novel not yet known mechanism of fine-tuning the expression of proinflammatory and atherogenic E-selectin cell adhesion molecule by vascular endothelial cells.

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. reduces the oxidized LDL-induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and E-selectin in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The flower of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (CM) with antioxidant, cardiovascular protective and anti-inflammatory functions, has been widely used in China for hundreds of years as a healthy beverage and medicine.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the present study is to investigate the effects of HCM (a hot water extract of the flower of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. [CM]), ECM (an ethanol extract of CM), and the abundant flavonoids apigenin and luteolin in CM on the oxidized LDL (oxLDL)-induced expression of ICAM-1 and E-selectin in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The possible mechanism of these effects was also determined.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MTT assay was for cell viability. Western blot was used for ICAM-1 and E-selection protein expression, and for activation of protein kinase B (PKB) and cAMP responsive element binding protein (CREB) proteins. Fluorescence flow cytometry was for ICAM-1 and E-selectin expression on cell surface. DCF-DA flow cytometric assay was used for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production.

RESULTS

HCM, ECM, apigenin, and luteolin dose-dependently inhibited ICAM-1 and E-selectin expression and adhesion of HL-60 by oxLDL. HCM, ECM, apigenin, and luteolin reversed the inhibition of phosphorylation of Akt and CREB by oxLDL; however, this reversion was abolished by wortmannin. In addition, wortmannin abrogated the inhibitory effects of CM extracts, apigenin and luteolin on adhesion molecule expression. The ROS scavenging capability of HCM, ECM, apigenin, and luteolin proceeded dose-dependently in the presence of oxLDL.

CONCLUSION

CM is a plant with cardiovascular-protective potential and the inhibitory effects of CM on ICAM-1 and E-selectin expression are, at least partially, attributed to its antioxidant activity and modulation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Direct relationship between levels of TNF-alpha expression and endothelial dysfunction in reperfusion injury

We previously found that myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) initiates expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) leading to coronary endothelial dysfunction. However, it is not clear whether there is a direct relationship between levels of TNF expression and endothelial dysfunction in reperfusion injury. We studied levels of TNF expression by using different transgenic animals expressing varying amounts of TNF in I/R. We crossed TNF overexpression (TNF(++/++)) with TNF knockout (TNF(-/-)) mice; thus we have a heterozygote population of mice with the expression of TNF "in between" the TNF(-/-) and TNF(++/++) mice. Mouse hearts were subjected to 30 min of global ischemia followed by 90 min of reperfusion and their vasoactivity before and after I/R was examined in wild type (WT), TNF(-/-), TNF(++/++) and TNF heterozygote (TNF(-/++), cross between TNF(-/-) and TNF(++/++)) mice. In heterozygote TNF(-/++) mice with intermediate cardiac-specific expression of TNF, acetylcholine-induced or flow-induced endothelial-dependent vasodilation following I/R was between TNF(++/++) and TNF(-/-) following I/R. Neutralizing antibodies to TNF administered immediately before the onset of reperfusion-preserved endothelial-dependent dilation following I/R in WT, TNF(-/++) and TNF(++/++) mice. In WT, TNF(-/++) and TNF(++/++) mice, I/R-induced endothelial dysfunction was progressively lessened by administration of free-radical scavenger TEMPOL immediately before initiating reperfusion. During I/R, production of superoxide (O(2) (.-)) was greatest in TNF(++/++) mice as compared to WT, TNF(-/++) and TNF(-/-) mice. Following I/R, arginase mRNA expression was elevated in the WT, substantially elevated in the TNF(-/++) and TNF(++/++) mice and not affected in the TNF(-/-) mice. These results suggest that the level of TNF expression determines arginase expression in endothelial cells during myocardial I/R, which is one of the mechanisms by which TNF compromises coronary endothelial function in reperfusion injury.

Involvement of 4E-BP1 in the protection induced by HDLs on pancreatic beta-cells

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) protect pancreatic beta-cells against apoptosis. This property might relate to the increased risk to develop diabetes in patients with low HDL blood levels. However, the mechanisms by which HDLs protect beta-cells are poorly characterized. Here we used a transcriptomic approach to identify genes differentially modulated by HDLs in beta-cells subjected to apoptotic stimuli. The transcript encoding 4E-binding protein (4E-BP)1 was up-regulated by serum starvation, and HDLs blocked this increase. 4E-BP1 inhibits cap-dependent translation in its non- or hypophosphorylated state but it loses this ability when hyperphosphorylated. At the protein level, 4E-BP1 was also up-regulated in response to starvation and IL-1beta, and this was blunted by HDLs. Whereas an ectopic increase of 4E-BP1 expression induced beta-cell death, silencing 4E-BP1 increase with short hairpin RNAs inhibited the apoptotic-inducing capacities of starvation. HDLs can therefore protect beta-cells by blocking 4E-BP1 protein expression, but this is not the sole protective mechanism activated by HDLs. Indeed, HDLs blocked apoptosis induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress with no associated decrease in total 4E-BP1 induction. Although, HDLs favored the phosphorylation, and hence the inactivation of 4E-BP1 in these conditions, this appeared not to be required for HDL protection. Our results indicate that HDLs can protect beta-cells through modulation of 4E-BP1 depending on the type of stress stimuli.

Lipids as targets for novel anti-inflammatory therapies

Lipids serve important functions as membrane constituents and also as energy storing molecules. Besides these functions certain lipid species have now been recognized as signalling molecules that regulate a multitude of cellular responses including cell growth and death, and also inflammatory reactions. Bioactive lipids are generated by hydrolysis from membrane lipids mainly by phospholipases giving rise to fatty acids and lysophospholipids that either directly exert their function or are further converted to active mediators. This review will summarize the present knowledge about bioactive lipids that either promote or attenuate inflammatory reactions. These lipids include polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), eicosanoids including the epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EET), peroxisome proliferation activating receptor (PPAR) activators, cannabinoids and the sphingolipids ceramide, sphingosine 1-phosphate and sphingosylphosphorylcholine.

Role of 3beta-hydroxysteroid-delta 24 reductase in mediating antiinflammatory effects of high-density lipoproteins in endothelial cells

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the ability of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) to upregulate genes with the potential to protect against inflammation in endothelial cells.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAECs) were exposed to reconstituted HDLs (rHDLs) for 16 hours before being activated with tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) for 5 hours. rHDLs decreased vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) promoter activity by 75% (P<0.05), via the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB) binding site. rHDLs suppressed the canonical NF-kappaB pathway and decreased many NF-kappaB target genes. Suppression of NF-kappaB and VCAM-1 expression by rHDLs or native HDLs was dependent on an increase in 3beta-hydroxysteroid-Delta 24 reductase (DHCR24) levels (P<0.05). The effect of HDLs on DHCR24 is dependent on SR-BI but not ABCAI or ABCGI. Silencing DHCR24 expression increased NF-kappaB (1.2-fold, P<0.05), VCAM-1 (30-fold, P<0.05), and NF-kappaB p50 (4-fold, P<0.05) and p65 subunits (150-fold, P<0.05). TNF-alpha activation of siDHCR24-treated cells increased expression of VCAM-1 (550-fold, P<0.001) and NF-kappaB (9-fold, P<0.001) that could no longer be suppressed by rHDLs.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that antiinflammatory effects of rHDLs are mediated partly through an upregulation of DHCR24. These findings raise the possibility of considering DHCR24 as a target for therapeutic modulation.

HDL3 reduces the association and modulates the metabolism of oxidized LDL by osteoblastic cells: a protection against cell death

Oxidized low density lipoproteins (OxLDL) are known to promote atherosclerosis, but it is only recently that OxLDL have been associated with alterations of the functions of bone-forming osteoblasts and osteoporosis. Although high density lipoproteins (HDL) are recognized for their anti-atherogenic action, there is less information about their ability to protect against osteoporosis. Therefore, we investigated the capacity of HDL3 to prevent the cell death induced by OxLDL in human osteoblastic cells. Simultaneous exposure of the cells to HDL3 and OxLDL abolished the reduction of cell viability monitored by MTT activity measurement and the induction of apoptosis determined by annexin V staining indicating that HDL3 prevent the apoptosis of osteoblasts induced by OxLDL. This protection correlated with the displacement by HDL3 of OxLDL association to osteoblasts, signifying that OxLDL binding and/or internalization are/is necessary for their cytotoxic effects. We also found that exposition of osteoblastic cells to HDL3 prior to incubation with OxLDL reduced cell death and preserved the lysosomal integrity. This protection was correlated with an increase of SR-BI expression, a modification of OxLDL metabolism with less global uptake of OxLDL and greater selective uptake of cholesterol from OxLDL. These results strongly suggest that, as for atherosclerosis, HDL may exert beneficial actions on bone metabolism.

Activation of sphingosine kinase by muscarinic receptors enhances NO-mediated and attenuates EDHF-mediated vasorelaxation

Local formation of the sphingomyelin metabolite sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) within the vascular wall has been shown to modulate vascular reactivity. In this study we investigated whether sphingosine kinase, the enzyme responsible for S1P synthesis, plays a role in muscarinic receptor-mediated NO production and vascular relaxation in different blood vessel types. For this purpose, sphingosine kinase translocation and sphingolipid-dependent NO-production after muscarinic receptor stimulation were assessed in an endothelial cell line. Furthermore, we used the sphingosine kinase inhibitor N,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS) to investigate the role of sphingosine kinase in the relaxant responses to the muscarinic agonist methacholine (MCh) in isolated rat aorta and mesenteric arteries. Activation of M(3)-receptors in an endothelial cell line induced a fast translocation of YFP-tagged sphingosine kinase-1 from the cytosol to the plasma membrane. Concomitant NO-production in this cell line was partially inhibited by DMS. Accordingly, in rat aorta the relaxant responses to MCh were attenuated in the presence of DMS, while the responses to the NO-donor sodium nitroprusside were unaltered. In contrast, DMS enhanced the relaxant responses to MCh in mesenteric artery preparations. This effect could also be observed in the presence of NO synthase and cyclooxygenase inhibitors, indicating that sphingosine kinase inhibition specifically enhanced endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor-mediated (i.e. non-NO and non-prostacyclin-dependent) relaxation. We conclude that sphingosine kinase differentially regulates vascular tone in different vessel types, enhancing NO-dependent vasorelaxation but counteracting EDHF-dependent vasorelaxation. This observation enhances our understanding of the complex mechanisms by which sphingolipids regulate vascular homeostasis. Moreover, a disturbed regulation of sphingolipid metabolism in the vascular wall may therefore play a role in the aetiology/pathology of disease states characterized by endothelial dysfunction.

Maturation-induces endothelial dysfunction via vascular inflammation in diabetic mice

We hypothesized that maturation-induced vascular inflammation produces endothelial dysfunction in type II diabetes and TNFalpha plays a key role in triggering inflammation in the development of diabetes. In control (Db/db) mice aged 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks, sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and acetylcholine (ACh) induced dose-dependent vasodilation, and dilation to ACh was blocked by the NO synthase inhibitor N (G)-monomethyl-L: -arginine. In type II diabetic (db/db) mice at age of 12, 18 and 24 weeks, ACh or flow-induced dilation was blunted compared to Db/db; endothelial function is normal at 6 weeks of age in db/db Vs. control mice, but SNP produced comparable dilation at age of 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks. Decrements in endothelial function in db/db mice progressively increased from 6-12 to 18-24 weeks. Administration of neutralizing antibodies to TNFalpha ameliorated endothelial dysfunction in db/db mice aged 12, 18 and 24 weeks. The effect was most prominent in the younger animals. Plasma concentration, expression of TNFalpha and TNFalpha receptor 1 (TNFR1) were elevated in coronary arterioles, even at the age of 6 weeks before the development of diabetes in db/db mice compared to control mice. Superoxide production was lower in Db/db mice compared to db/db mice and increments in superoxide production in db/db mice progressively increased from 6-12 to 18-24 weeks. NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor apocynin attenuated superoxide production in db/db mice at 12 weeks of age, mitochondria respiratory chain inhibitor rotenone attenuated superoxide production at 24 weeks in db/db and Db/db mice, but the combination of apocynin and rotenone reduced superoxide production at 18 weeks for db/db and Db/db mice. The expression of TNFalpha and its receptors increase progressively with maturation in concert with the development of diabetes. Incremental increases in TNFalpha/TNFR1 expression induces activation and production of superoxide via NAD(P)H oxidase and/or mitochondria respiratory chain, leading to endothelial dysfunction progressing to the development of type II diabetes.

The role of inflammatory cytokines in endothelial dysfunction

Clinical and experimental data support a link between endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. Inflammatory cytokines are important protagonists in formation of atherosclerotic plaque, eliciting effects throughout the atherosclerotic vessel. Importantly, the development of atherosclerotic lesions, regardless of the risk factor, e.g., diabetes, hypertension, obesity, is characterized by disruption in normal function of the endothelial cells. Endothelial cells, which line the internal lumen of the vasculature, are part of a complex system that regulates vasodilation and vasoconstriction, growth of vascular smooth muscle cells, inflammation, and hemostasis, maintaining a proper blood supply to tissues and regulating inflammation and coagulation. Current concepts suggest that the earliest event in atherogenesis is endothelial dysfunction, manifested by deficiencies in the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin. The focus of this review is to summarize recent evidence showing the effects of inflammation on vascular dysfunction in ischemic-heart disease, which may prompt new directions for targeting inflammation in future therapies.

Diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide suppress oxidized LDL-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule and E-selectin expression through protein kinase A- and B-dependent signaling pathways

Uptake of oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) by vascular endothelial cells is a critical step in the initiation and development of atherosclerosis. Adhesion molecules are upregulated by ox-LDL and numerous inflammatory cytokines and play a pivotal role in atherogenesis. In this study, we examined whether diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS), and diallyl trisulfide (DATS), 3 major organosulfur compounds of garlic oil, reduce adhesion molecule expression induced by ox-LDL and, if so, through what mechanism. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells were preincubated with 1 mmol/L DAS, 200 mumol/L DADS, or 100 mumol/L DATS for 16 h and then with 40 mg/L ox-LDL for an additional 24 h. ox-LDL induction of cellular and cell surface expression of E-selectin and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 was suppressed by garlic allyl sulfides in the order DATS > DADS > DAS. The adhesion of HL-60 cells to endothelial cells was inhibited 27 and 33% and the production of cellular peroxides was inhibited 43 and 50% by DADS and DATS, respectively (P < 0.05). ox-LDL alone dephosphorylated protein kinase B (PKB) and cAMP responsive element binding protein (CREB); such deactivation was reversed by DADS and DATS. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that the activation of CREB binding to DNA was consistent with changes in CREB phosphorylation. The protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H89 reversed the suppression of VCAM-1 by DADS and DATS, but the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor wortmannin had no effect. In contrast, wortmannin abolished DADS- and DATS-induced suppression of ox-LDL-induced E-selectin expression. These results suggest that the suppression of ox-LDL-induced E-selectin and VCAM-1 expression by DADS and DATS and, thus, monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells is likely dependent on the PI3K/PKB or PKA/CREB signaling pathway in an adhesion molecule-specific manner. To our knowledge, this is the first report that garlic modulates ox-LDL-mediated leukocyte adhesion to human endothelial cells through the PKB and PKA pathways.

Suppression of tissue necrosis factor-alpha or hydrogen peroxide-activated primary human T lymphocytes by Ginkgo biloba extract through down-regulation of activator protein-1 signal transduction

PURPOSE

It was unknown whether Ginkgo biloba extract has regulatory effects on human T lymphocytes activated by tissue necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), which has an important role on the progression of inflammatory atherosclerotic plaques. We evaluated the effects of G. biloba extract on activated human peripheral T lymphocytes, which were isolated from human whole blood.

METHODS

The human T lymphocytes were treated with 25-100 microg G. biloba extract for 2h first. Then they were activated by TNF-alpha and H(2)O(2) to investigate the modulatory effects of G. biloba extract on human T lymphocytes. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay, Western blot (Immunoblot) analysis and immunoprecipitation kinase assays were used.

RESULTS

The inhibition of activated human T lymphocyte specifically correlated with the down-regulation of AP-1 DNA-binding activities. G. biloba extract was unique in its ability to inhibit the activation of c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase.

CONCLUSIONS

G. biloba extract might have its novel therapeutic effects on inflammation-based atherosclerotic diseases.

Over-expression of angiotensin II type 2 receptor (agtr2) reduces atherogenesis and modulates LOX-1, endothelial nitric oxide synthase and heme-oxygenase-1 expression

Atherogenesis is associated with inflammation and oxidative stress. Activation of renin-angiotensin system with generation of angiotensin II and type 1 receptor (AT1R) stimulation has been amply reported in atherosclerosis. Since angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R) activity is purported to oppose the effects of AT1R, we hypothesized that AT2R (agtr2) over-expression would inhibit atherogenesis. We prepared recombinant adeno-associated virus type-2 (AAV) carrying AT2R cDNA (AAV/AT2R), and homozygous LDLR-deficient (KO) mice were given AAV/AT2R, AAV/Neo or saline. All mice were placed on a high cholesterol diet. After 18 weeks, AT2R was found to be over-expressed systemically in AAV/AT2R-treated mice. Atherogenesis in aorta was reduced in the AAV/AT2R group by approximately 50% compared to other LDLR KO mice groups. Expression of NADPH oxidase, nitrotyrosine and NF-kappaB was increased in aortic tissues of the LDLR KO mice given saline or AAV/Neo, but not in mice with AT2R upregulation. Expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) was decreased and that of the lectin-like oxidized-LDL receptor (LOX-1) increased in the LDLR KO mice, but not in the mice with AT2R over-expression. Further, Akt-1 phosphorylation was reduced in the LDLR KO mice, but not in the mice with AT2R over-expression. Thus, AT2R upregulation can reduce atherogenesis, possibly by modulating oxidative stress and the pro-inflammatory cascade, mediated via Akt-1. Over-expression of AT2R may be an important therapeutic approach in atherosclerosis.

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine acts in an anti-inflammatory manner in renal mesangial cells by reducing interleukin-1β-induced prostaglandin E2 formation

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) is a bioactive lipid that binds to G protein-coupled-receptors and activates various signaling cascades. Here, we show that in renal mesangial cells, SPC not only activates various protein kinase cascades but also activates Smad proteins, which are classical members of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) signaling pathway. Consequently, SPC is able to mimic TGFbeta-mediated cell responses, such as an anti-inflammatory and a profibrotic response. Interleukin-1beta-stimulated prostaglandin E(2) formation is dose-dependently suppressed by SPC, which is paralleled by reduced secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)) protein expression and activity. This effect is due to a reduction of sPLA(2) mRNA expression caused by inhibited sPLA(2) promoter activity. Furthermore, SPC upregulates the profibrotic connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) protein and mRNA expression. Blocking TGFbeta signaling by a TGFbeta receptor kinase inhibitor causes an inhibition of SPC-stimulated Smad activation and reverses both the negative effect of SPC on sPLA(2) expression and the positive effect on CTGF expression. In summary, our data show that SPC, by mimicking TGFbeta, leads to a suppression of proinflammatory mediator production and stimulates a profibrotic cell response that is often the end point of an anti-inflammatory reaction. Thus, targeting SPC receptors may represent a novel therapeutic strategy to cope with inflammatory diseases.

The role of lysosphingolipids in the regulation of biological processes

This review summarizes data on the role of lysosphingolipids (glucosyl- and galactosylsphingosines, sphingosine-1-phosphate, sphingosine-1-phosphocholine) in the regulation of various biological processes in normal and pathological states.

Hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia are associated with endothelial dysfunction during the development of type 2 diabetes

Diabetes mellitus impairs endothelial function, which can be considered as the hallmark in the development of cardiovascular diseases. Hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperlipidemia are believed to contribute to endothelial dysfunction. In the present study, we investigated the possible links among these plasma metabolic markers and endothelial function in a mouse model during the development of type 2 diabetes. C57BL/6J-Lepob/ob mice at 8, 12, and 16 weeks were used to study endothelial function during the establishment of type 2 diabetes. Endothelial function was accessed in vitro in the thoracic aorta by measuring acetylcholine (ACh)-stimulated vasodilatation. Blood plasma was obtained for the measurements of glucose, insulin, triglycerides, and cholesterol levels. Correlation and multiple regression analysis revealed strong negative associations between the ACh responsiveness and the plasma levels of glucose, insulin, and lipid profiles at the age of 8 weeks. Associations were observed at neither older age nor in C57BL/6J mice. In conclusion, the increase in plasma levels of glucose, insulin, and lipids is associated with the impairment of the endothelial function during the early stage of the development of type 2 diabetes. The loss of correlation at an older age suggests multifactorial regulation of endothelial function and cardiovascular complications at later stages of the disease.

Apolipoprotein M likely extends its anti-atherogenesis via anti-inflammation

Apolipoprotein M (apoM), a novel human apolipoprotein recently discovered, predominantly presents in high density lipoprotein (HDL) in plasma, exclusively expressed in liver and in kidney. The present data demonstrated apoM protects against atherosclerosis (AS) primarily via partaking in prebeta-HDL formation and promoting cholesterol efflux to HDL. However, this lipid-metabolism-associated pathway seems unlikely responsible for all atheroprotective effects of apoM. Notably, the human apoM gene is just located in the major histocompatibility complex class III region (MHC-III) on chromosome 6, many genes in this region are related to the immune and inflammatory response. Furthermore, apoM has been documented to link with some inflammatory factors including platelet activating factor (PAF) and leptin. These evidences indicate that apoM may be involved in inflammatory activities in vivo and the potential immuno- and inflam-reactive property of apoM may contribute to the anti-inflammatory function of HDL, as generally acknowledged as an important atheroprotective mechanism of HDL.