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Li X, Luo X, Liu Z, Wang C, Lin A, Xiao K, Cao M, Fan J, Lian H, Xu P. FvDFR2 rather than FvDFR1 play key roles for anthocyanin synthesis in strawberry petioles. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 340:111960. [PMID: 38103695 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2023.111960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of anthocyanins can be found in both the fruit and petioles of strawberries, but the fruit appears red while the petioles appear purple-red. Additionally, in the white-fruited diploid strawberries, the petioles can accumulate anthocyanins normally, suggesting a different synthesis pattern between the petioles and fruits. We screened the EMS mutagenized population of a red-fruited diploid strawberry 'Ruegen' and discovered a mutant which showed no anthocyanin accumulation in the petioles but normal accumulation in the fruit. Through BSA sequencing and allelic test, it was found that a mutation in FvDFR2 was responsible for this phenotype. Furthermore, the complex formed by the interaction between the petiole-specific FvMYB10L and FvTT8 only binds the promoter of FvDFR2 but not FvDFR1, resulting in the expression of only FvDFR2 in the petiole. FvDFR2 can catalyze the conversion of DHQ and eventually the formation of cyanidin and peonidin, giving the petiole a purplish-red color. In the fruit, however, both FvDFR1 and FvDFR2 can be expressed, which can mediate the synthesis of cyanidin and pelargonidin. Our study clearly reveals different regulation of FvDFR1 and FvDFR2 in mediating anthocyanin synthesis in petioles and fruits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Li
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xi Luo
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Zhongchi Liu
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Chong Wang
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Anqi Lin
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kun Xiao
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Hebei Normal University of Science and Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Minghao Cao
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Department of Ecology, Lishui University, Lishui, China
| | - Junmiao Fan
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongli Lian
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Pengbo Xu
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
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Wang J, Zhao Y, Sun B, Yang Y, Wang S, Feng Z, Li J. The structure of anthocyanins and the copigmentation by common micromolecular copigments: A review. Food Res Int 2024; 176:113837. [PMID: 38163689 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Under natural physiological conditions, anthocyanins can keep bright and stable color for a long time due to the relatively stable acid-base environment of plant vacuoles and the copigmentation from various copigment substances, such as polyphenols, nucleotides, metallic ions and other substances. Therefore, the copigmentation caused by copigments is considered an effective way to stabilize anthocyanins against adverse environmental conditions. This is attributed to the covalent and noncovalent interactions between colored forms of anthocyanins (flavylium ions and quinoidal bases) and colorless or pale yellow organic molecules (copigments). These interactions are usually manifested in both hyperchromic effect and bathochromic shifts. In addition to making anthocyanins more stable, the copigmentation also could make an important contribution to the diversification of their tone. Based on the molecular structure of anthocyanins, this review focuses on the interaction mode of auxochrome groups or copigments with anthocyanins and their effects on the chemical and color stability of anthocyanins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiadong Wang
- School of Biotechnology and Food Science, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tian Jin 300134, China
| | - Yanqiao Zhao
- School of Biotechnology and Food Science, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tian Jin 300134, China.
| | - Bing Sun
- School of Biotechnology and Food Science, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tian Jin 300134, China
| | - Yutong Yang
- School of Biotechnology and Food Science, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tian Jin 300134, China
| | - Shaoping Wang
- School of Biotechnology and Food Science, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tian Jin 300134, China
| | - Zirui Feng
- School of Biotechnology and Food Science, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tian Jin 300134, China
| | - Jianying Li
- School of Biotechnology and Food Science, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tian Jin 300134, China
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Zhao X, Wu Y, Zhang X, Tian F, Yu F, Li X, Huang D. Association Analysis of Transcriptome and Targeted Metabolites Identifies Key Genes Involved in Iris germanica Anthocyanin Biosynthesis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16462. [PMID: 38003651 PMCID: PMC10671556 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway is the main pathway regulating floral coloration in Iris germanica, a well-known ornamental plant. We investigated the transcriptome profiles and targeted metabolites to elucidate the relationship between genes and metabolites in anthocyanin biosynthesis in the bitone flower cultivar 'Clarence', which has a deep blue outer perianth and nearly white inner perianth. In this study, delphinidin-, pelargonidin-, and cyanidin-based anthocyanins were detected in the flowers. The content of delphinidin-based anthocyanins increased with the development of the flower. At full bloom (stage 3), delphinidin-based anthocyanins accounted for most of the total anthocyanin metabolites, whereas the content of pelargonidin- and cyanidin-based anthocyanins was relatively low. Based on functional annotations, a number of novel genes in the anthocyanin pathway were identified, which included early biosynthetic genes IgCHS, IgCHI, and IgF3H and late biosynthetic genes Ig F3'5'H, IgANS, and IgDFR. The expression of key structural genes encoding enzymes, such as IgF3H, Ig F3'5'H, IgANS, and IgDFR, was significantly upregulated in the outer perianth compared to the inner perianth. In addition, most structural genes exhibited their highest expression at the half-color stage rather than at the full-bloom stage, which indicates that these genes function ahead of anthocyanins synthesis. Moreover, transcription factors (TFs) of plant R2R3-myeloblastosis (R2R3-MYB) related to the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis were identified. Among 56 R2R3-MYB genes, 2 members belonged to subgroup 4, with them regulating the expression of late biosynthetic genes in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, and 4 members belonged to subgroup 7, with them regulating the expression of early biosynthetic genes in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis was used to validate the data of RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq). The relative expression profiles of most candidate genes were consistent with the FPKM of RNA-seq. This study identified the key structural genes encoding enzymes and TFs that affect anthocyanin biosynthesis, which provides a basis and reference for the regulation of plant anthocyanin biosynthesis in I. germanica.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Dazhuang Huang
- Department of Landscape Architecture, Hebei Agricultural University, 2596 Lekai South Street, Baoding 071001, China; (X.Z.); (Y.W.); (X.Z.); (F.T.); (F.Y.); (X.L.)
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Li G, Serek M, Gehl C. Physiological changes besides the enhancement of pigmentation in Petunia hybrida caused by overexpression of PhAN2, an R2R3-MYB transcription factor. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2023; 42:609-627. [PMID: 36690873 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-023-02983-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Ectopic expression of PhAN2 in vegetative tissue can improve regeneration and adventitious rooting but inhibit axillary bud outgrowth of petunia, while overexpression specifically in flowers could shorten longevity. Anthocyanin 2 has been only treated as a critical positive regulation factor of anthocyanin biosynthesis in petunia flowers. To determine if this gene had other functions in plant growth, we overexpressed this gene in an an2 mutant petunia cultivar driven by promoters with different strengths or tissue specificity. Various physiological processes of transformants in different growth stages and environments were analyzed. Besides the expected pigmentation improvement in different tissues, the results also showed that ectopic expression of AN2 could improve the regeneration skill but inhibit the axillary bud germination of in vitro plants. Moreover, the rooting ability of shoot tips of transformants was significantly improved, while some transgenic lines' flower longevity was shortened. Gene expression analysis showed that the transcripts level of AN2, partner genes anthocyanin 1 (AN1), anthocyanin 11 (AN11), and target gene dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) was altered in the different transgenic lines. In addition, ethylene biosynthesis-related genes 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase (ACS1) and ACC oxidase (ACO1) were upregulated in rooting and flower senescence processes but at different time points. Overall, our data demonstrate that the critical role of this AN2 gene in plant growth physiology may extend beyond that of a single activator of anthocyanin biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Li
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Floriculture, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Margrethe Serek
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Floriculture, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Christian Gehl
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Floriculture, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
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Biosynthesis and regulation of anthocyanin pathway genes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:1783-1798. [PMID: 35171341 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-11835-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Anthocyanins are the phenolic compounds responsible for coloring pigments in fruits and vegetables. Anthocyanins offer a wide range of health benefits to human health. Their scope has expanded dramatically in the past decade, making anthocyanin control, influx, and outflow regulation fascinating for many researchers. The main culprit is anthocyanin stability and concentration form, which demands novel ways because these are critical in the food industry. This review aims to examine anthocyanin synthesis via triggering transcription genes that code for anthocyanin-producing enzymes. The balance between production and breakdown determines anthocyanin accumulation. Thus, increasing the anthocyanin content in food requires the stability of molecules in the vacuolar lumen, the pigment fading process, and a better understanding of the mechanism. The promising option is biosynthesis by metabolically engineered microorganisms with a lot of success. This study aims to look into and evaluate the existing literature on anthocyanin production, namely the biosynthesis of anthocyanin pathway genes, production by microbial cell factories, and the regulatory factors that can modulate the production of anthocyanins. Understanding these mechanisms will provide new biotechnological approaches.Key points• Factors affecting the regulation of anthocyanins• Focus on degradation, biosynthesis pathway genes, and alternative systems for the production of anthocyanins• Microbial cell factories can be used to produce large amounts of anthocyanins.
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Weissensteiner J, Molitor C, Marinovic S, Führer L, Waqas Hassan S, Hutabarat OS, Spornberger A, Stich K, Hausjell J, Spadiut O, Haselmair-Gosch C, Halbwirth H. Molecular and Enzymatic Characterization of Flavonoid 3'-Hydroxylase of Malus × domestica. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10091956. [PMID: 34579488 PMCID: PMC8469728 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Malus × domestica (apple) accumulates particularly high amounts of dihydrochalcones in various tissues, with phloridzin (phloretin 2′-O-glucoside) being prevalent, although small amounts of 3-hydroxyphloretin and 3-hydroxyphloridzin are also constitutively present. The latter was shown to correlate with increased disease resistance of transgenic M. × domestica plants. Two types of enzymes could be involved in 3-hydroxylation of dihydrochalcones: polyphenol oxidases or the flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase (F3′H), which catalyzes B-ring hydroxylation of flavonoids. We isolated two F3′H cDNA clones from apple leaves and tested recombinant Malus F3′Hs for their substrate specificity. From the two isolated cDNA clones, only F3′HII encoded a functionally active enzyme. In the F3′HI sequence, we identified two putatively relevant amino acids that were exchanged in comparison to that of a previously published F3′HI. Site directed mutagenesis, which exchanged an isoleucine into methionine in position 211 restored the functional activity, which is probably because it is located in an area involved in interaction with the substrate. In contrast to high activity with various flavonoid substrates, the recombinant enzymes did not accept phloretin under assay conditions, making an involvement in the dihydrochalcone biosynthesis unlikely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Weissensteiner
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Christian Molitor
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Silvija Marinovic
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Lisa Führer
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Syed Waqas Hassan
- Department of Bio-Sciences, University of Wah, Quaid Avenue, Wah 47040, Pakistan;
| | - Olly Sanny Hutabarat
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
- Department of Agricultural Engineering, Hasanuddin University, Makassar 90245, Indonesia
| | - Andreas Spornberger
- Institute of Viticulture and Pomology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Gregor-Mendel-Straße 33, 1180 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Karl Stich
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Johanna Hausjell
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Oliver Spadiut
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Christian Haselmair-Gosch
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
| | - Heidi Halbwirth
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria; (J.W.); (C.M.); (S.M.); (L.F.); (O.S.H.); (K.S.); (J.H.); (O.S.); (C.H.-G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +43-1-58801166559; Fax: +43-1-5880117399
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7
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Nitarska D, Boehm R, Debener T, Lucaciu RC, Halbwirth H. First genome edited poinsettias: targeted mutagenesis of flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase using CRISPR/Cas9 results in a colour shift. PLANT CELL, TISSUE AND ORGAN CULTURE 2021; 147:49-60. [PMID: 34776565 PMCID: PMC8550517 DOI: 10.1007/s11240-021-02103-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a remarkably promising tool for targeted gene mutagenesis, and becoming ever more popular for modification of ornamental plants. In this study we performed the knockout of flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H) with application of CRISPR/Cas9 in the red flowering poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) cultivar 'Christmas Eve', in order to obtain plants with orange bract colour, which accumulate prevalently pelargonidin. F3'H is an enzyme that is necessary for formation of cyanidin type anthocyanins, which are responsible for the red colour of poinsettia bracts. Even though F3'H was not completely inactivated, the bract colour of transgenic plants changed from vivid red (RHS 45B) to vivid reddish orange (RHS 33A), and cyanidin levels decreased significantly compared with the wild type. In the genetically modified plants, an increased ratio of pelargonidin to cyanidin was observed. By cloning and expression of mutated proteins, the lack of F3'H activity was confirmed. This confirms that a loss of function mutation in the poinsettia F3'H gene is sufficient for obtaining poinsettia with orange bract colour. This is the first report of successful use of CRISPR/Cas9 for genome editing in poinsettia. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11240-021-02103-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Nitarska
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Thomas Debener
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Rares Calin Lucaciu
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Heidi Halbwirth
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
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8
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Kou X, Chai L, Yang S, He Y, Wu CE, Liu Y, Zhou J, Xue Z, Wang Z. Physiological and metabolic analysis of winter jujube after postharvest treatment with calcium chloride and a composite film. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2021; 101:703-717. [PMID: 32710440 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ziziphus jujuba Miller cv. Dongzao is extremely susceptible to reddening, browning, nutritional loss, and perishability after harvest. In this study, we evaluated the mechanisms of calcium chloride and chitosan/nano-silica composite film treatments on the quality, especially in reddening, by physiological and metabolomic assays. RESULTS The treatment delayed the decline of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), chalcone synthase (CHS), and chalcone isomerase (CHI) activities. Meanwhile, the treated groups retarded the increases in anthocyanin and quercetin contents by inhibiting the gene expressions of flavonol synthase (ZjFLS), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (ZjDFR), and anthocyanidin synthase (ZjANS), while promoting leucoanthocyanidin reductase (ZjLAR) expression, which leads to retardation of fruit reddening. Anthocyanins were found to be responsible for post-harvest winter jujube reddening through principal component analysis. Results from the technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution indicated that the treated group delayed the decline of the quality of 'Dongzao' and extended its shelf life. CONCLUSION The treatment induced the heightening of flavonoids metabolism. They enhanced the nutritional value and the ability to resist stress by delaying the decline of PAL, CHS, and CHI activities. Meanwhile, the treated groups retarded the increase in anthocyanin and quercetin contents by inhibiting the gene expressions of ZjFLS, ZjDFR, and ZjANS and promoting ZjLAR expression, which leads to retardation of fruit reddening. Anthocyanins are responsible for post-harvest winter jujube reddening. Coating treatment effectively delayed the decline of winter jujube quality. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Kou
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Liping Chai
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Sen Yang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yulong He
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Cai E Wu
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yefang Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiaqian Zhou
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaohui Xue
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhanzhong Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
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Sood A, Kumar B, Singh SK, Prashar P, Gautam A, Gulati M, Pandey NK, Melkani I, Awasthi A, Saraf SA, Vidari G, Ozdemir M, Hussain FHS, Anwar ET, Ameen MSM, Gupta S, Porwal O. Flavonoids as Potential Therapeutic Agents for the Management of Diabetic Neuropathy. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 26:5468-5487. [DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200826164322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Flavonoids are secondary metabolites that are widely distributed in plants. These phenolic compounds
are classified into various subgroups based on their structures: flavones, flavonols, isoflavones, flavanones, and
anthocyanins. They are known to perform various pharmacological actions like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
anticancer, antimicrobial, antidiabetic and antiallergic, etc. Diabetes is a chronic progressive metabolic disorder
that affects several biochemical pathways and leads to secondary complications such as neuropathy, retinopathy,
nephropathy, and cardiomyopathy. Among them, the management of diabetic neuropathy is one of the major
challenges for physicians as well as the pharmaceutical industries. Naturally occurring flavonoids are extensively
used for the treatment of diabetes and its related complications due to their antioxidant properties. Moreover,
flavonoids inhibit various pathways that are involved in the progression of diabetic neuropathy like the reduction
of oxidative stress, decrease in glycogenolysis, increase glucose utilization, decrease in the formation of advanced
glycation end products, and inhibition of the α-glucosidase enzyme. This review entails current updates on the
therapeutic perspectives of flavonoids in the treatment of neuropathic pain. This manuscript explains the pathological
aspects of neuropathic pain, the chemistry of flavonoids, and their application in amelioration of neuropathic
pain through preclinical studies either alone or in combination with other therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Sood
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Bimlesh Kumar
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Sachin Kumar Singh
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Pankaj Prashar
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Anamika Gautam
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Monica Gulati
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Narendra Kumar Pandey
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Indu Melkani
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Ankit Awasthi
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Subhini A Saraf
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226025, India
| | - Giovani Vidari
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Mehmet Ozdemir
- Department of Densitry, Tishk International University- Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
| | | | - Esra Tariq Anwar
- Department of Pharmacy, Tishk International University-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
| | | | - Saurabh Gupta
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India
| | - Omji Porwal
- Department of Pharmacy, Tishk International University-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
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10
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Nitarska D, Stefanini C, Haselmair-Gosch C, Miosic S, Walliser B, Mikulic-Petkovsek M, Regos I, Slatnar A, Debener T, Terefe-Ayana D, Vilperte V, Hadersdorfer J, Stich K, Halbwirth H. The rare orange-red colored Euphorbia pulcherrima cultivar 'Harvest Orange' shows a nonsense mutation in a flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase allele expressed in the bracts. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 18:216. [PMID: 30285622 PMCID: PMC6171185 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-018-1424-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Commercially available poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) varieties prevalently accumulate cyanidin derivatives and show intense red coloration. Orange-red bract color is less common. We investigated four cultivars displaying four different red hues with respect to selected enzymes and genes of the anthocyanin pathway, putatively determining the color hue. RESULTS Red hues correlated with anthocyanin composition and concentration and showed common dark red coloration in cultivars 'Christmas Beauty' and 'Christmas Feeling' where cyanidin derivatives were prevalent. In contrast, orange-red bract color is based on the prevalent presence of pelargonidin derivatives that comprised 85% of the total anthocyanin content in cv. 'Premium Red' and 96% in cv. 'Harvest Orange' (synonym: 'Orange Spice'). cDNA clones of flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H) and dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) were isolated from the four varieties, and functional activity and substrate specificity of the corresponding recombinant enzymes were studied. Kinetic studies demonstrated that poinsettia DFRs prefer dihydromyricetin and dihydroquercetin over dihydrokaempferol, and thus, favor the formation of cyanidin over pelargonidin. Whereas the F3'H cDNA clones of cultivars 'Christmas Beauty', 'Christmas Feeling', and 'Premium Red' encoded functionally active enzymes, the F3'H cDNA clone of cv. 'Harvest Orange' contained an insertion of 28 bases, which is partly a duplication of 20 bases found close to the insertion site. This causes a frameshift mutation with a premature stop codon after nucleotide 132 and, therefore, a non-functional enzyme. Heterozygosity of the F3'H was demonstrated in this cultivar, but only the mutated allele was expressed in the bracts. No correlation between F3'H-expression and the color hue could be observed in the four species. CONCLUSIONS Rare orange-red poinsettia hues caused by pelargonidin based anthocyanins can be achieved by different mechanisms. F3'H is a critical step in the establishment of orange red poinsettia color. Although poinsettia DFR shows a low substrate specificity for dihydrokaempferol, sufficient precursor for pelargonidin formation is available in planta, in the absence of F3'H activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Nitarska
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Carmen Stefanini
- Fruit Science, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Christian Haselmair-Gosch
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Silvija Miosic
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benjamin Walliser
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maja Mikulic-Petkovsek
- Agronomy Department, Fruit, Wine and Vegetable Growing, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ionela Regos
- Fruit Science, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Ana Slatnar
- Agronomy Department, Fruit, Wine and Vegetable Growing, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Thomas Debener
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Diro Terefe-Ayana
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419 Hannover, Germany
| | - Vinicius Vilperte
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419 Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Karl Stich
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Heidi Halbwirth
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
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11
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Levisson M, Patinios C, Hein S, de Groot PA, Daran JM, Hall RD, Martens S, Beekwilder J. Engineering de novo anthocyanin production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microb Cell Fact 2018; 17:103. [PMID: 29970082 PMCID: PMC6029064 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-0951-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anthocyanins are polyphenolic pigments which provide pink to blue colours in fruits and flowers. There is an increasing demand for anthocyanins, as food colorants and as health-promoting substances. Plant production of anthocyanins is often seasonal and cannot always meet demand due to low productivity and the complexity of the plant extracts. Therefore, a system of on-demand supply is useful. While a number of other (simpler) plant polyphenols have been successfully produced in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, production of anthocyanins has not yet been reported. RESULTS Saccharomyces cerevisiae was engineered to produce pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside starting from glucose. Specific anthocyanin biosynthetic genes from Arabidopsis thaliana and Gerbera hybrida were introduced in a S. cerevisiae strain producing naringenin, the flavonoid precursor of anthocyanins. Upon culturing, pelargonidin and its 3-O-glucoside were detected inside the yeast cells, albeit at low concentrations. A number of related intermediates and side-products were much more abundant and were secreted into the culture medium. To optimize titers of pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside further, biosynthetic genes were stably integrated into the yeast genome, and formation of a major side-product, phloretic acid, was prevented by engineering the yeast chassis. Further engineering, by removing two glucosidases which are known to degrade pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside, did not result in higher yields of glycosylated pelargonidin. In aerated, pH controlled batch reactors, intracellular pelargonidin accumulation reached 0.01 µmol/gCDW, while kaempferol and dihydrokaempferol were effectively exported to reach extracellular concentration of 20 µM [5 mg/L] and 150 µM [44 mg/L], respectively. CONCLUSION The results reported in this study demonstrate the proof-of-concept that S. cerevisiae is capable of de novo production of the anthocyanin pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside. Furthermore, while current conversion efficiencies are low, a number of clear bottlenecks have already been identified which, when overcome, have huge potential to enhance anthocyanin production efficiency. These results bode very well for the development of fermentation-based production systems for specific and individual anthocyanin molecules. Such systems have both great scientific value for identifying and characterising anthocyanin decorating enzymes as well as significant commercial potential for the production of, on-demand, pure bioactive compounds to be used in the food, health and even pharma industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Levisson
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Constantinos Patinios
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Sascha Hein
- Department of Food Quality and Nutrition, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Centro Ricerca e Innovazione, Via E. Mach, 1, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, TN Italy
| | - Philip A. de Groot
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jean-Marc Daran
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Robert D. Hall
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Wageningen Plant Research, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Martens
- Department of Food Quality and Nutrition, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Centro Ricerca e Innovazione, Via E. Mach, 1, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, TN Italy
| | - Jules Beekwilder
- Wageningen Plant Research, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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12
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Dastmalchi M, Chapman P, Yu J, Austin RS, Dhaubhadel S. Transcriptomic evidence for the control of soybean root isoflavonoid content by regulation of overlapping phenylpropanoid pathways. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:70. [PMID: 28077078 PMCID: PMC5225596 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-3463-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Isoflavonoids are a class of specialized metabolites found predominantly in legumes. They play a role in signaling for symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and inhibiting pathogen infection. RESULTS A transcriptomic approach using soybean cultivars with high (Conrad and AC Colombe) and low (AC Glengarry and Pagoda) root isoflavonoid content was used to find elements that underlie this variation. Two genes, encoding the flavonoid-metabolizing enzymes, flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (GmF3'H) and dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (GmDFR), had lower expression levels in high isoflavonoid cultivars. These enzymes compete with isoflavonoid biosynthetic enzymes for the important branch-point substrate naringenin and its derivatives. Differentially expressed genes, between the two sets of cultivars, encode transcription factors, transporters and enzymatic families of interest, such as oxidoreductases, hydrolases and transferases. In addition, genes annotated with stress and disease response were upregulated in high isoflavonoid cultivars. CONCLUSIONS Coordinated regulation of genes involved in flavonoid metabolism could redirect flux into the isoflavonoid branch of the phenylpropanoid pathway, by reducing competition for the flavanone substrate. These candidate genes could help identify mechanisms to overcome the endogenous bottleneck to isoflavonoid production, facilitate biosynthesis in heterologous systems, and enhance crop resistance against pathogenic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Dastmalchi
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford Street, London, ON, N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Patrick Chapman
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford Street, London, ON, N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Jaeju Yu
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford Street, London, ON, N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Ryan S Austin
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford Street, London, ON, N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Sangeeta Dhaubhadel
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford Street, London, ON, N5V 4T3, Canada.
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13
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Fobofou SAT, Franke K, Porzel A, Brandt W, Wessjohann LA. Tricyclic Acylphloroglucinols from Hypericum lanceolatum and Regioselective Synthesis of Selancins A and B. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:743-753. [PMID: 26950610 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The chemical investigation of the chloroform extract of Hypericum lanceolatum guided by (1)H NMR, ESIMS, and TLC profiles led to the isolation of 11 new tricyclic acylphloroglucinol derivatives, named selancins A-I (1-9) and hyperselancins A and B (10 and 11), along with the known compound 3-O-geranylemodin (12), which is described for a Hypericum species for the first time. Compounds 8 and 9 are the first examples of natural products with a 6-acyl-2,2-dimethylchroman-4-one core fused with a dimethylpyran unit. The new compounds 1-9 are rare acylphloroglucinol derivatives with two fused dimethylpyran units. Compounds 10 and 11 are derivatives of polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols related to hyperforin, the active component of St. John's wort. Their structures were elucidated by UV, IR, extensive 1D and 2D NMR experiments, HRESIMS, and comparison with the literature data. The absolute configurations of 5, 8, 10, and 11 were determined by comparing experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism spectra. Compounds 1 and 2 were synthesized regioselectively in two steps. The cytotoxicity of the crude extract (88% growth inhibition at 50 μg/mL) and of compounds 1-6, 8, 9, and 12 (no significant growth inhibition up to a concentration of 10 mM) against colon (HT-29) and prostate (PC-3) cancer cell lines was determined. No anthelmintic activity was observed for the crude extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge A T Fobofou
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry , Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Katrin Franke
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry , Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Andrea Porzel
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry , Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Wolfgang Brandt
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry , Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Ludger A Wessjohann
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry , Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
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14
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Zhou TS, Zhou R, Yu YB, Xiao Y, Li DH, Xiao B, Yu O, Yang YJ. Cloning and Characterization of a Flavonoid 3'-Hydroxylase Gene from Tea Plant (Camellia sinensis). Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:261. [PMID: 26907264 PMCID: PMC4783990 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17020261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tea leaves contain abundant flavan-3-ols, which include dihydroxylated and trihydroxylated catechins. Flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H: EC 1.14.13.21) is one of the enzymes in the establishment of the hydroxylation pattern. A gene encoding F3'H, designated as CsF3'H, was isolated from Camellia sinensis with a homology-based cloning technique and deposited in the GenBank (GenBank ID: KT180309). Bioinformatic analysis revealed that CsF3'H was highly homologous with the characterized F3'Hs from other plant species. Four conserved cytochrome P450-featured motifs and three F3'H-specific conserved motifs were discovered in the protein sequence of CsF3'H. Enzymatic analysis of the heterologously expressed CsF3'H in yeast demonstrated that tea F3'H catalyzed the 3'-hydroxylation of naringenin, dihydrokaempferol and kaempferol. Apparent Km values for these substrates were 17.08, 143.64 and 68.06 μM, and their apparent Vmax values were 0.98, 0.19 and 0.44 pM·min(-1), respectively. Transcription level of CsF3'H in the new shoots, during tea seed germination was measured, along with that of other key genes for flavonoid biosynthesis using real-time PCR technique. The changes in 3',4'-flavan-3-ols, 3',4',5'-flavan-3-ols and flavan-3-ols, were consistent with the expression level of CsF3'H and other related genes in the leaves. In the study of nitrogen supply for the tea plant growth, our results showed the expression level of CsF3'H and all other tested genes increased in response to nitrogen depletion after 12 days of treatment, in agreement with a corresponding increase in 3',4'-catechins, 3',4',5'-catechins and flavan 3-ols content in the leaves. All these results suggest the importance of CsF3'H in the biosynthesis of 3',4'-catechins, 3',4',5'-catechins and flavan 3-ols in tea leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Shan Zhou
- Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - Rui Zhou
- Conagen Inc., 15 DeAngelo Dr., Bedford, MA 01730, USA.
| | - You-Ben Yu
- Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - Yao Xiao
- Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - Dong-Hua Li
- Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - Bin Xiao
- Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - Oliver Yu
- Conagen Inc., 15 DeAngelo Dr., Bedford, MA 01730, USA.
| | - Ya-Jun Yang
- Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 9 Meiling South Road, Hangzhou 310008, China.
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15
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Seitz C, Ameres S, Schlangen K, Forkmann G, Halbwirth H. Multiple evolution of flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase. PLANTA 2015; 242:561-73. [PMID: 25916309 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-015-2293-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Multiple F3'5'H evolution from F3'H has occurred in dicotyledonous plants. Efficient pollinator attraction is probably the driving force behind, as this allowed for the synthesis of delphinidin-based blue anthocyanins. The cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H) and flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H) hydroxylate the B-ring of flavonoids at the 3'- and 3'- and 5'-position, respectively. Their divergence took place early in plant evolution. While F3'H is ubiquitously present in higher plants, the distribution of F3'5'H is scattered. Here, we report that F3'5'H has repeatedly evolved from F3'H precursors at least four times in dicotyledonous plants: In the Asteraceae, we identified F3'5'Hs specific for the subfamilies Cichorioideae and Asteroideae, and additionally an F3'5'H that seems to be specific for the genus Echinops of the subfamily Carduoideae; moreover, characterisation of a sequence from Billardiera heterophylla (formerly Sollya heterophylla) (Pittosporaceae) showed that the independent evolution of an F3'5'H has occurred at least once also in another family. The evolution of F3'5'H from an F3'H precursor represents a gain of enzymatic function, probably triggered by an amino acid change at one position of substrate recognition site 6. The gain of F3'5'H activity allows for the synthesis of delphinidin-based anthocyanins which usually provide the basis for lilac to blue flower colours. Therefore, the need for an efficient pollinator attraction is probably the driving force behind the multiple F3'5'H evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Seitz
- Chair of Floriculture Crops and Horticultural Plant Breeding, Technical University Munich, Am Hochanger 4, 85350, Freising, Germany
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