Molecular identification and phylogeny of Dermacentor nuttalli (Acari: Ixodidae)

Microbial diversity of ticks and a novel typhus group Rickettsia species (Rickettsiales bacterium Ac37b) in Inner Mongolia, China

Ticks can carry multiple pathogens, and Inner Mongolia's animal husbandry provides excellent environmental conditions for ticks. This study characterized the microbiome of ticks from different geographical locations in Inner Mongolia; 905 Dermacentor nuttalli and 36 Ixodes persulcatus were collected from sheep in three main pasture areas and from bushes within the forested area. Mixed DNA samples were prepared from three specimens from each region and tick species. Microbial diversity was analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing, and α and β diversity were determined. The predominant bacterial genera were Rickettsia (54.60%), including Rickettsiales bacterium Ac37b (19.33%) and other Rickettsia (35.27%), Arsenophonus (11.21%), Candidatus Lariskella (10.84%), and Acinetobacter (7.17%). Rickettsia bellii was identified in I. persulcatus, while Rickettsiales bacterium Ac37b was found in D. nuttalli from Ordos and Chifeng. Potential Rickettsia and Anaplasma coinfections were observed in the Ordos region. Tick microbial diversity analysis in Inner Mongolia suggests that sheep at the sampling sites were exposed to multiple pathogens.

Dermacentor reticulatus - a tick on its way from glacial refugia to a panmictic Eurasian population

The ornate dog tick (Dermacentor reticulatus) shows a recently expanding geographic distribution. Knowledge on its intraspecific variability, population structure, rate of genetic diversity and divergence, including its evolution and geographic distribution, is crucial to understand its dispersal capacity. All such information would help to evaluate the potential risk of future spread of associated pathogens of medical and veterinary concern. A set of 865 D. reticulatus ticks was collected from 65 localities across 21 countries, from Portugal in the west to Kazakhstan and southern Russia in the east. Cluster analyses of 16 microsatellite loci were combined with nuclear (ITS2, 18S) and mitochondrial (12S, 16S, COI) sequence data to uncover the ticks' population structures and geographical patterns. Approximate Bayesian computation was applied to model evolutionary relationships among the found clusters. Low variability and a weak phylogenetic signal showing an east-west cline were detected both for mitochondrial and nuclear sequence markers. Microsatellite analyses revealed three genetic clusters, where the eastern and western cluster gradient was supplemented by a third, northern cluster. Alternative scenarios could explain such a tripartite population structure by independent formation of clusters in separate refugia, limited gene flow connected with isolation by distance causing a "bipolar pattern", and the northern cluster deriving from admixture between the eastern and western populations. The best supported demographic scenario of this tick species indicates that the northern cluster derived from admixture between the eastern and western populations 441 (median) to 224 (mode) generations ago, suggesting a possible link with the end of the Little Ice Age in Europe.

The life cycle of Dermacentor nuttalli from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau under laboratory conditions and detection of spotted fever group Rickettsia spp

Dermacentor nuttalli has been a focus of study because tick-borne pathogens have been widely identified in this tick from northern and southwestern China. The aim of this study was to characterize the life cycle of D. nuttalli under laboratory conditions and to detect spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia in the midgut and salivary glands of both field-collected and first laboratory generation adults. D. nuttalli ticks were collected in the field on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau from March to April 2021 and their life cycle was studied under laboratory conditions. Tick identify was molecularly confirmed, and SFG Rickettsia were detected in the midgut and salivary glands of males and females by PCR targeting different rickettsial genes. The results showed that the life cycle of D. nuttalli under laboratory conditions was completed in an average of 86.1 days. High positivity of Rickettsia spp. was detected in the midgut and salivary glands of both males (92.0%) and females (93.0%) of field-collected D. nuttalli ticks. However, a relatively lower positivity (4.0-6.0%) was detected in first laboratory generation adults. Furthermore, sequencing analysis showed that the Rickettsia sequences obtained in this study shared 98.6 to 100% nucleotide identity with Rickettsia slovaca and Rickettsia raoultii isolated from Dermacentor spp. in China. Phylogenetic analysis of Rickettsia spp. based on the gltA, ompA, ompB and sca4 genes revealed that the Rickettsia sequences obtained could be classified as belonging to R. slovaca and R. raoultii clades. This study described for the first time the life cycle of D. nuttalli from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau under laboratory conditions. Two species of SFG Rickettsia were detected in the midgut and salivary glands of males and females in both field-collected and first laboratory-generation adults of D. nuttalli. Our study provides new insights into pathogen detection in ticks in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and the relationships among hosts, ticks, and pathogens.

An annotated checklist of the eukaryotic parasites of humans, exclusive of fungi and algae

The classification of "parasites" in the medical field is a challenging notion, a group which historically has included all eukaryotes exclusive of fungi that invade and derive resources from the human host. Since antiquity, humans have been identifying and documenting parasitic infections, and this collective catalog of parasitic agents has expanded considerably with technology. As our understanding of species boundaries and the use of molecular tools has evolved, so has our concept of the taxonomy of human parasites. Consequently, new species have been recognized while others have been relegated to synonyms. On the other hand, the decline of expertise in classical parasitology and limited curricula have led to a loss of awareness of many rarely encountered species. Here, we provide a comprehensive checklist of all reported eukaryotic organisms (excluding fungi and allied taxa) parasitizing humans resulting in 274 genus-group taxa and 848 species-group taxa. For each species, or genus where indicated, a concise summary of geographic distribution, natural hosts, route of transmission and site within human host, and vectored pathogens are presented. Ubiquitous, human-adapted species as well as very rare, incidental zoonotic organisms are discussed in this annotated checklist. We also provide a list of 79 excluded genera and species that have been previously reported as human parasites but are not believed to be true human parasites or represent misidentifications or taxonomic changes.

Molecular Characterization of Lipoptena fortisetosa from Environmental Samples Collected in North-Eastern Poland

Simple Summary

Lipoptenafortisetosa is an invasive, hematophagous insect, which lives on cervids and continues to spread across Europe. The species originated from the Far East and eastern Siberia. Besides wild animals, these ectoparasites can attack humans, companion animals, and livestock. These insects may also play a role in transmitting infectious diseases. The objective of this study was to confirm the presence of L.fortisetosa in north-eastern Poland and to characterize the examined population with the use of molecular methods. Deer keds were collected from six natural forests in the region of Warmia and Mazury. DNA of L.fortisetosa was extracted and subjected to molecular studies. Two species of deer keds (Lipoptenacervi and L.fortisetosa) were obtained in each location during field research. There were no differences in the sex distribution of these two ectoparasite species. During the research, more L.cervi than L.fortisetosa specimens were obtained. The studied insects were very closely related to specimens from Lithuania, the Czech Republic, and Japan. Our study indicates various ectoparasite lineages, and such research contributes to the improvement of basic knowledge on the distribution, genetic structure, and variability of the invasive ked fly L. fortisetosa.

Abstract

Recent years have witnessed an increase in the population of Lipoptenafortisetosa in Central Europe. The genetic profile of this ectoparasite has not been studied in Poland to date. The aim of the present study was to confirm the presence of L.fortisetosa in north-eastern Poland and to characterize the examined population with the use of molecular methods. Deer keds were collected between June and July 2019 in six natural, mixed forests. A fragment of the rRNA 16S gene was used as a marker to identify L.fortisetosa by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). DNA samples were sequenced in the last step. Six new locations of L. fortisetosa were confirmed. No significant differences were observed in the sex ratios of L. cervi and L. fortisetosa (L. cervi p-value = 0.74; L. fortisetosa p-value = 0.65). Significant differences were noted between the total size of L. cervi and L. fortisetosa populations (p-value < 0.001). The similarity to GenBank sequences ranged from 95.56% to 100%. The obtained nucleotide sequences were very closely related to L. fortisetosa sequences from Lithuania, the Czech Republic, and Japan. Molecular analyses revealed considerable genetic diversity, which could indicate that various ectoparasite lineages have spread throughout Europe.

Ectoparasites of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) with a particular focus on ticks in subcutaneous tissues

In the present study, we identified the ectoparasite communities of red foxes in three regions of Poland that encompassed two endemic regions for the occurrence of Dermacentor reticulatus, as well as a region that is free of this tick species ('gap' area). Our study sites were selected to enable the role of foxes as hosts for juvenile (nest dwelling) and adult (exophilic) D. reticulatus ticks to be determined, and to assess their contribution to the spread of this important vector of Babesia canis. We compared also ectoparasite communities between adult foxes with those of fox cubs. Finally, we carried out a systematic search for subcutaneous ticks determining their prevalence and abundance. In 2016-2018, 366 adult foxes and 25 live-trapped cubs were examined for ectoparasites. Ectoparasites were identified based on morphological features, PCR amplification and sequencing. The total prevalence of ectoparasites was higher in cubs (68%) than in adults (62.8%). In adults, 15 parasite species were recorded, including four tick species, seven flea species, scabies, and one Anopluran species each in the genera Felicola and Lipoptena. In cubs, six ectoparasite species were found, including Ixodes kaiseri, a species not found in adults. Although Ixodes ricinus and D. reticulatus were the dominant tick species on adult foxes, no D. reticulatus ticks were found on cubs. Subcutaneous ticks were common (38%) and abundant in all areas. Molecular analysis of subcutaneous nodules allowed the identification of 17 I. ricinus and five D. reticulatus. In conclusion, red foxes play a minor role as hosts of D. reticulatus.

Genetic diversity analysis of Dermacentor nuttalli within Inner Mongolia, China

Background

Ticks (Arthropoda, Ixodida), after mosquitoes, are the second most prevalent vector of infectious diseases. They are responsible for spreading a multitude of pathogens and threatening the health and welfare of animals and human beings. However, given the history of tick-borne pathogen infections in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China, surprisingly, neither the genetic diversity nor the spatial distribution of haplotypes within ticks has been studied.

Methods

We characterized the haplotype distribution of Dermacentor nuttalli in four main pastoral areas of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, by sampling 109 individuals (recovered from sheep) in April–August 2019. The 16S rRNA gene, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), and the internal transcribed spacer 2 region (ITS2) were amplified and sequenced from extracted DNA.

Results

Twenty-six haplotypes were identified using 16S rRNA sequences, 57 haplotypes were identified with COI sequences, and 75 haplotypes were identified with ITS2 sequences. Among the three genes, total haplotype diversity was greater than 0.7, while total nucleotide diversity was greater than 0.06. Neutrality tests revealed a significantly negative Tajima’s D result, while Fu's Fs was not significantly positive. Fixation index values (F_ST) indicated that the degree of genetic differentiation among some sampled populations was small, while for others it was moderate. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed that the variation within populations was greater than that among populations. The mismatch analysis of D. nuttalli exhibited double peaks.

Conclusion

The genetic diversity of D. nuttalli populations in our region can likely adapt to different geographical environments, thereby leading to genetic diversity, and creating genetic differentiation among different populations. However, genetic differentiation is cryptic and does not form a pedigree geographical structure.

Molecular characterization of Lipoptena cervi from environmental samples collected in Poland

The activity of Lipoptena cervi has intensified in Poland in recent years. The population genetics of this ectoparasite in Poland has never been described in the literature. The objectives of this study were to investigate the population genetics of L. cervi in selected regions of Poland, to evaluate molecular differences between L. cervi populations, and to determine phylogenetic relationships with other L. cervi sequences obtained in previous studies. In 2019, louse flies were sampled in natural mixed forests in five Polish voivodeships. Seven samples of L. cervi were collected from each voivodeship, and a total of 35 insects were analyzed molecularly. In the first step, Lipoptena spp. were identified to species level under a stereoscopic microscope. A fragment of the rRNA 16S gene was used as a marker to identify L. cervi by the PCR assay. The sequences were assigned accession numbers MT337409 to MT337416. A total of eight haplotypes were identified, two of which were dominant. In the obtained sequences, intraspecific pairwise genetic distances varied between 0.000 and 0.0496 (m = 0.0135; SD = 0.0149; SE = 0.0006; V = 110.11). Mean interpopulation diversity was d = 0.0135 (SE = 0.0027). The acquired nucleotide sequences were highly similar to the sequences from the Czech Republic (MF495940, AF322437), Lithuania (MN889542-MN889544) and Poland (MF541726–MF541729). The similarity with GenBank sequences ranged from 97.24% to 100%. This study revealed two dominant haplotypes of L. cervi in Poland, MT337410 and MT337413. Fragments of the analyzed sequences were detected in only one voivodeship. These findings suggest that the two dominant sequences are the oldest sequences that gave rise to the locally identified haplotypes. The lack of significant correlations with the sequences obtained in regions situated west of the research sites suggests the presence of other genetic populations in Europe.

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Eight new haplotypes with 0.000–0.0496 intraspecific pairwise genetic distance.

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Similarity with sequences from GenBank ranged from 97.24% to 100%.

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Two dominant haplotypes of L.cervi were observed in Central Europe.

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Part of the sequences have been discovered in single studied location.

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The lack of significant connections with sequences obtained from West Europe.

A Novel Arthropod Host of Brucellosis in the Arid Steppe Ecosystem

Brucellosis is a severe public health problem in the Inner Mongolia regions of China. The recent prevalence of brucellosis outbreaks may be attributed to an increase in the activity of ticks and other air-borne vectors. Dermacentor nuttalli (D. nuttalli) is a native tick species of Inner Mongolia; similar to other tick species, D. nuttalli carries a variety of pathogens that can be transmitted to a wide range of animals. In this study, we have investigated the potential of D. nuttalli in transmitting brucellosis. From 2015 to 2019, 2,256 ticks were collected from 23 different pastoral areas of Hulun Buir. Brucellosis pathogen was detected using DNA extracted from different developmental stages of ticks. Salivary gland and midgut tissue samples were used as templates to amplify Brucella Bscp31 gene (Brucella genus-specific gene) by using TaqMan Real-Time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). To detect the presence of Bscp31 protein, which is specific to Brucella spp., in the midgut and salivary gland tissues of D. nuttalli, Western blotting and immunofluorescence were performed. Additionally, Brucella spp. were isolated using a culture medium. Tick samples were identified as D. nuttalli. Different percentages of Brucella genus-specific genes could be found in the tick samples. From 2015 to 2019, the positivity rate for the detection of Bscp31 gene in D. nuttalli ranged from 0.00 to 87.80%, with the highest rate of 89.00%. In addition, Brucella genus-specific genes were successfully detected in the samples isolated from all the developmental stages and anatomical regions of ticks. Bscp31 protein was present in the midgut and salivary gland of D. nuttalli. Further, B. melitensis biotype 3 was isolated from eggs and engorged adults of D. nuttalli. These findings demonstrate that D. nuttalli is a potent, long-term carrier of Brucella spp. that can exhibit transovarial transmission potential, presenting D. nuttalli as a novel arthropod host for Brucella spp. This study, therefore, indicates the potential risk of transmission of brucellosis via tick bites among animals as well as human beings.

Species delimitation of the Dermacentor ticks based on phylogenetic clustering and niche modeling

Three species belonging to the genus Dermacentor (Acari: Ixodidae), D. marginatus, D. nuttalli and D. silvarum are well known as vectors for a great variety of infection pathogens. All three of them are host ticks, which are very similar in morphology characteristics, life cycle, seasonal variation and ecological conditions, making it difficult to distinguish the three species. In the present study, these three species were delimitated based on molecular data and ecological niche. The molecular analysis showed that the three species can be distinguished by COI and ITS2 sequences. We created future potential distribution maps for the three species under climate changes with MaxEnt, which highlighted the different levels of the suitable habitats for each tick species. In addition, niche comparisons among the three species in Dermacentor were conducted, and the analysis suggested that niche overlap was relatively high with D. nuttalli and D. silvarum compared to the other species pairs, which was consistent with the molecular data. Niche equivalency and similarity test confirmed that these Dermacentor species were closely related but distinct species. In conclusion, delimitation of these three species within Dermacentor was supported by molecular phylogeny and quantitative ecological space. This study will provide deep insights into the biology, ecology, and diversification processes within Dermacentor species, and for the development of effective control for ticks.

A new focus of the tick Haemaphysalis concinna in Western Poland

The relict tick Haemaphysalis concinna has a fragmented and focal distribution in Central Europe and Asia. Although in the majority of neighboring countries the occurrence of this tick species is well-documented (i.e., in Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine), to-date its occurrence in Poland has been registered only once, in 1953 in Troszyn in North-Western Pomerania, close to the German-Polish border. In the present study we report the first documented finding of H. concinna in Western Poland, confirmed both by collection of juvenile ticks from rodent hosts and questing ticks from vegetation. Trapping of rodents took place in the summer of 2018 in three locations in Western Poland (Słonin, Nowy Młyn 1, Nowy Młyn 2). Rodents were inspected for ectoparasites, which were detached and fixed in 70% ethanol. All the collected ticks were assigned to species and developmental stages using appropriate morphological keys, and representative individuals were genotyped by molecular methods. A total of 1482 feeding ticks were collected from 106 rodents from three sites. The common tick Ixodes ricinus was found in abundance on small rodents at all three sites; Dermacentor reticulatus ticks were identified at two sites in small numbers and, finally, numerous juvenile H. concinna (n = 427) were found at one of our study sites (Nowy Młyn 2). The highest prevalence and abundance of H. concinna were recorded on voles, Microtus agrestis and M. oeconomus, from this site in August. Additionally, questing nymphs and adult H. concinna were collected locally from vegetation (n = 20). Genotyping and phylogenetic analysis confirmed the species as H. concinna. A new focus of H. concinna has been described in Western Poland. Our long-term field work monitoring the expansion of the distribution of D. reticulatus in Poland, during which all collected ticks are identified, suggests that H. concinna is still very rare in the country.

Argasid and ixodid systematics: Implications for soft tick evolution and systematics, with a new argasid species list

The systematics of the genera and subgenera within the soft tick family Argasidae is not adequately resolved. Different classification schemes, reflecting diverse schools of scientific thought that elevated or downgraded groups to genera or subgenera, have been proposed. In the most recent classification scheme, Argas and Ornithodoros are paraphyletic and the placement of various subgenera remains uncertain because molecular data are lacking. Thus, reclassification of the Argasidae is required. This will enable an understanding of soft tick systematics within an evolutionary context. This study addressed that knowledge gap using mitochondrial genome and nuclear (18S and 28S ribosomal RNA) sequence data for representatives of the subgenera Alectorobius, Argas, Chiropterargas, Ogadenus, Ornamentum, Ornithodoros, Navis (subgen. nov.), Pavlovskyella, Persicargas, Proknekalia, Reticulinasus and Secretargas, from the Afrotropical, Nearctic and Palearctic regions. Hard tick species (Ixodidae) and a new representative of Nuttalliella namaqua (Nuttalliellidae), were also sequenced with a total of 83 whole mitochondrial genomes, 18S rRNA and 28S rRNA genes generated. The study confirmed the utility of next-generation sequencing to retrieve systematic markers. Paraphyly of Argas and Ornithodoros was resolved by systematic analysis and a new species list is proposed. This corresponds broadly with the morphological cladistic analysis of Klompen and Oliver (1993). Estimation of divergence times using molecular dating allowed dissection of phylogeographic patterns for argasid evolution. The discovery of cryptic species in the subgenera Chiropterargas, Ogadenus and Ornithodoros, suggests that cryptic speciation is common within the Argasidae. Cryptic speciation has implications for past biological studies of soft ticks. These are discussed in particular for the Ornithodoros (Ornithodoros) moubata and Ornithodoros (Ornithodoros) savignyi groups.

A novel tick-borne phlebovirus, closely related to severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus and Heartland virus, is a potential pathogen

Tick-borne viral diseases have attracted much attention in recent years because of their increasing incidence and threat to human health. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome phlebovirus (SFTSV) and Heartland virus (HRTV) were recently identified as tick-borne phleboviruses (TBPVs) in Asia and the United States, respectively, and are associated with severe human diseases with similar clinical manifestations. In this study, we report the first identification and isolation of a novel TBPV named Guertu virus (GTV) from Dermacentor nuttalli ticks in Xinjiang Province, China, where TBPVs had not been previously discovered. Genome sequence and phylogenetic analyses showed that GTV is closely related to SFTSV and HRTV and was classified as a member of the genus Phlebovirus, family Phenuiviridae, order Bunyavirales. In vitro and in vivo investigations of the properties of GTV demonstrated that it was able to infect animal and human cell lines and can suppress type I interferon signaling, similar to SFTSV, that GTV nucleoprotein (NP) can rescue SFTSV replication by replacing SFTSV NP, and that GTV infection can cause pathological lesions in mice. Moreover, a serological survey identified antibodies against GTV from serum samples of individuals living in Guertu County, three of which contained neutralizing antibodies, suggesting that GTV can infect humans. Our findings suggested that this virus is a potential pathogen that poses a threat to animals and humans. Further studies and surveillance of GTV are recommended to be carried out in Xinjiang Province as well as in other locations.

Genetic and phylogenetic analysis of the ticks from the Sinai Massif, Egypt, and their possible role in the transmission of Babesia behnkei

Following the description of Babesia behnkei in the region of St. Katherine, Sinai, the present study was undertaken to determine the role of local tick species as vectors of piroplasms. First we assessed the local fauna of ticks, especially species occurring on rodents, camels and encountered in the environment, and then we compared genotypes of ticks from isolated wadis. Finally, we assessed the role of local tick species as potential vectors of Babesia spp. During our expedition to the Sinai Massif in a 4-week period in August-September 2012, 393 ticks were collected, including 235 adult questing ticks collected from the environment (ground level in the wadis) and 158 engorging ticks from camels and rodents. Amplification and sequencing of a 600 bp fragment of the conservative 18S rDNA and a 440 bp fragment of the more variable mitochondrial (mt) 16S rDNA were carried out to enable the identification of 54 ticks and to assess the genetic variability of ticks collected from two distant isolated wadis. The camel tick Hyalomma dromedarii constituted the majority (80-90%) of adult ticks collected from three wadis in the Sinai Mountains near St. Katherine. Among juvenile ticks collected from rodents, three genotypes were identified: H. dromedarii; Hyalomma sp. showing low homology with H. dromedarii, H. lusitanicum or H. aegyptium; and Rhipicephalus sp. A new genotype of Hyalomma was identified in an isolated montane valley, W. Gebal. Babesia/Theileria DNA was not detected in any of the ticks, which is likely due to the low infection rate in the limited number of ticks that were examined.

Genetic variation in mitochondrial genes of the tick Haemaphysalis flava collected from wild hedgehogs in China

The tick Haemaphysalis flava (Acari: Ixodidae) is an important ectoparasite, which causes direct damage to their hosts and also acts as a vector of various infectious disease agents in China. Despite its significance, the epidemiology, genetics and biology of H. flava has not been studied in detail. In the present study, the genetic variation in three mitochondrial (mt) DNA regions, namely cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 and 4 (nad1 and nad4), was examined in H. flava ticks collected from wild hedgehogs in China. A portion of cox1 (pcox1), nad1 (pnad1) and nad4 (pnad4) genes were PCR amplified from individual H. flava ticks and the amplicons were sequenced. The length of the sequences of pcox1, pnad1 and pnad4 were 849, 285 and 626 bp, respectively. The intra-specific sequence variation within H. flava was 0-0.4% for pcox1, 0-0.4% for pnad1 and 0-0.3% for pnad4. However, the inter-specific variation was significantly higher, 12.5-14.3%, 13.6-24.8% and 14.8-19% for pcox1, pnad1 and pnad4, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis based on Maximum likelihood (ML) method using the combined target mt gene sequences confirmed that all isolates of Haemaphysalis were H. flava. The molecular approach employed in this study provides a tool for further elucidating the molecular diversity of H. flava in China and elsewhere in Asia.

Does Haemaphysalis bispinosa (Acari: Ixodidae) really occur in China?

Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann has been considered to exist in China, especially in the southern part of the country. However, H. bispinosa referred to in many Chinese research papers may in fact be H. longicornis, which is widely distributed in most regions of China. In order to clarify the occurrence of H. bispinosa, Haemaphysalis ticks collected from 18 of 23 provinces of China (Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Guangxi, Gansu, Yunnan, Xinjiang, Anhui, Zhejiang, Shannxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, Shanxi, Shandong, Ningxia, Fujian, Qinghai and Jiangxi) were examined based on morphological and molecular characteristics. We found no evidence of H. bispinosa being present in China. Our results indicate that all of the so called "H. bispinosa" ticks reported in China are in fact H. longicornis.

Vector ecology of equine piroplasmosis

Equine piroplasmosis is a disease of Equidae, including horses, donkeys, mules, and zebras, caused by either of two protozoan parasites, Theileria equi or Babesia caballi. These parasites are biologically transmitted between hosts via tick vectors, and although they have inherent differences they are categorized together because they cause similar pathology and have similar morphologies, life cycles, and vector relationships. To complete their life cycle, these parasites must undergo a complex series of developmental events, including sexual-stage development in their tick vectors. Consequently, ticks are the definitive hosts as well as vectors for these parasites, and the vector relationship is restricted to a few competent tick species. Because the vector relationship is critical to the epidemiology of these parasites, we highlight current knowledge of the vector ecology of these tick-borne equine pathogens, emphasizing tick transmissibility and potential control strategies to prevent their spread.