Origin and stability of pit lake water in Baiyinhua, Inner Mongolia, based on hydrochemistry and stable isotopes

Isotope technology is widely used in geochemical mechanisms analysis; however, studies on the origin of pit lake water by isotopes in coal concentration areas in grassland are rare. In this study, 20 groups of water samples were collected, which were subjected to chemical analysis to determine the hydrogeochemical characteristics of pit lake water. The mechanisms of pit lake water formation and recharge-evaporation were ascertained through principal component analysis and the Rayleigh fractionation model. The results indicate that the phreatic water is least affected by evaporation, followed by confined water, surface water and pit lake water. The ionic composition of surface water, phreatic water and most of the confined water is mainly affected by leaching, some confined water can be recharged by surface or phreatic water; while the ionic composition of pit lake water is dominantly affected by evaporation (69.4 %) and is less affected by groundwater recharge (17.1 %) and human activities (11.5 %). The pit lake water is recharged by precipitation, phreatic water and the lateral runoff of confined water; however, the proportion of phreatic and confined water recharge is small. The evaporative loss of the pit lake water is 40-61 % of the initial water body.

Phenological characteristics of net ecosystem carbon exchange of Stipa krylovii steppe in Inner Mongolia, China and its remote sensing monitoring

To accurately monitor the phenology of net ecosystem carbon exchange (NEE) in grasslands with remote sensing, we analyzed the variations in NEE and its phenology in the Stipa krylovii steppe and discussed the remote sensing vegetation index thresholds for NEE phenology, with the observational data from the Inner Mongolia Xilinhot National Climate Observatory's eddy covariance system and meteorological gradient observation system during 2018-2021, as well as Sentinel-2 satellite data from January 1, 2018 to December 31, 2021. Results showed that, from 2018 to 2021, NEE exhibited seasonal variations, with carbon sequestration occurring from April to October and carbon emission in other months, resulting in an overall carbon sink. The average Julian days for the start date (SCUP) and the end date (ECUP) of carbon uptake period were the 95th and 259th days, respectively, with an average carbon uptake period lasting 165 days. Photosynthetically active radiation showed a negative correlation with daily NEE, contributing to carbon absorption of grasslands. The optimal threshold for capturing SCUP was a 10% threshold of the red-edge chlorophyll index, while the normalized difference vegetation index effectively reflected ECUP with a threshold of 75%. These findings would provide a basis for remote sensing monitoring of grassland carbon source-sink dynamics.

Extreme drought alters methane uptake but not methane sink in semi-arid steppes of Inner Mongolia

Global climate change, particularly drought, is expected to alter grassland methane (CH4) oxidation, a key natural process against atmospheric greenhouse gas accumulation, yet the extent of this effect and its interaction with future atmospheric CH4 concentrations increases remains uncertain. To address this research gap, we measured CH4 flux during an imposed three-month rain-free period corresponding to a 100-year recurrence drought in soil mesocosms collected from 16 different Eurasian steppe sites. We also investigated the abundance and composition of methanotrophs. Additionally, we conducted a laboratory experiment to explore the impact of elevated CH4 concentration on the CH4 uptake capacity of grassland soil under drought conditions. We found that regardless of the type of grassland, CH4 flux was still being absorbed at its peak, meaning that all grasslands functioned as persistent CH4 sinks even when the soil water content (SWC) was <5 %. A bell-shaped relationship between SWC and CH4 uptake was observed in the soils. The average maximum CH4 oxidation rate in the meadow steppe was higher than that in the typical and desert steppe soils during extreme drought. The experimental elevation of atmospheric CH4 concentration counteracted the anticipated reduction in CH4 uptake related to physiological water stress on methanotrophic soil microbes under the drought stress. On the contrary, we found that across the regional scale, nitrogen, phosphorous, and total soil organic content played a crucial role in moderating the duration and magnitude of CH4 uptake with respect to SWC. USC-γ (Upland Soil Cluster γ) and JR-3 (Jasper Ridge Cluster) were the dominant group of soil methanotrophic bacteria in three types of grassland. However, the methanotrophic abundance, rather than the methanotrophic community composition, was the dominant microbiological factor governing CH4 uptake during the drought.

Dynamic monitoring of aboveground biomass in inner Mongolia grasslands over the past 23 Years using GEE and analysis of its driving forces

Aboveground biomass (AGB) in grasslands directly reflects the net primary productivity, making it a sensitive indicator of grassland resource quality and ecological degradation. Accurately estimating AGB over large regions to reveal long-term AGB evolution trends remains a formidable challenge. In this study, we divided Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) grasslands into three study regions based on their spatial distribution of grassland types. We combined remote sensing data with ground-based sample data collected over the past 19 years from 6114 field plots using the Google Earth Engine platform. We constructed random forest (RF) and traditional regression AGB inversion models for each region and selected the best-performing model through accuracy assessment to estimate IMAR grassland AGB for the period 2000-2022. We also examined the trends in AGB changes and identified the driving forces affecting IMAR grasslands through the application of Theil-Sen estimation, Mann-Kendall trend analysis, and the Geodetector model. The main findings are as follows: (1) Compared with the univariate parametric traditional regression model, the AGB monitoring accuracy of the multivariate non-parametric RF model in the three study regions increased by 5.94%, 5.08% and 19.14%, respectively. (2) The average AGB per unit area of IMAR grasslands from 2000 to 2022 was 731.41 kg/hm2, with alpine meadow having the highest average AGB (1271.70 kg/hm2) and temperate grassland desertification having the lowest (469.06 kg/hm2). IMAR grasslands exhibited an overall increasing trend in AGB over the past 23 years (6.01 kg/hm2•yr), with the increasing trend covering 83.52% of the grassland area and the decreasing trend covering 16.48%. (3) Spatially, IMAR grassland AGB showed a gradual decline from northeast to southwest and exhibited an increasing trend with increasing longitude (45.423 kg/hm2 per degree) and latitude (71.9 kg/hm2 per degree). (4) Meteorological factors were the most significant factors affecting IMAR grassland AGB, with precipitation (five-year average q value of 0.61) being the most prominent. In the western part of IMAR, where precipitation is consistently limited throughout the year, the primary drivers of influence were human activities, with particular emphasis on the number of livestock (with a five-year average q value of 0.44). It is evident that reducing human activity disturbance and pressure in fragile grassland areas or implementing near-natural restoration measures will be beneficial for the sustainable development of grassland ecosystems. The results of this research hold substantial reference importance for the protection and restoration of grasslands, the supervision and administration of grassland resources, as well as the development of policies related to grassland management.

Surveillance of tick-borne bacteria infection in ticks and forestry populations in Inner Mongolia, China

Ticks are one of the most important vectors that can transmit pathogens to animals and human beings. This study investigated the dominant tick-borne bacteria carried by ticks and tick-borne infections in forestry populations in Arxan, Inner Mongolia, China. Ticks were collected by flagging from May 2020 to May 2021, and blood samples were collected from individuals at high risk of acquiring tick-borne diseases from March 2022 to August 2023. The pooled DNA samples of ticks were analyzed to reveal the presence of tick-borne bacteria using high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rDNA V3-V4 region, and species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) related to sequencing was performed to confirm the presence of pathogenic bacteria in individual ticks and human blood samples. All sera samples were examined for anti-SFGR using ELISA and anti-B. burgdorferi using IFA and WB. A total of 295 ticks (282 Ixodes persulcatus and 13 Dermacentor silvarum) and 245 human blood samples were collected. Rickettsia, Anaplasma, Borrelia miyamotoi, and Coxiella endosymbiont were identified in I. persulcatus by high-throughput sequencing, while Candidatus R. tarasevichiae (89.00%, 89/100), B. garinii (17.00%, 17/100), B. afzelii (7.00%, 7/100), and B. miyamotoi (7.00%, 7/100) were detected in I. persulcatus, as well the dual co-infection with Candidatus R. tarasevichiae and B. garinii were detected in 13.00% (13/100) of I. persulcatus. Of the 245 individuals, B. garinii (4.90%, 12/245), R. slovaca (0.82%, 2/245), and C. burnetii (0.41%, 1/245) were detected by PCR, and the sequences of the target genes of B. garinii detected in humans were identical to those detected in I. persulcatus. The seroprevalence of anti-SFGR and anti-B. burgdorferi was 5.71% and 13.47%, respectively. This study demonstrated that Candidatus R. tarasevichiae and B. garinii were the dominant tick-borne bacteria in I. persulcatus from Arxan, and that dual co-infection with Candidatus R. tarasevichiae and B. garinii was frequent. This is the first time that B. miyamotoi has been identified in ticks from Arxan and R. solvaca has been detected in humans from Inner Mongolia. More importantly, this study demonstrated the transmission of B. garinii from ticks to humans in Arxan, suggesting that long-term monitoring of tick-borne pathogens in ticks and humans is important for the prevention and control of tick-borne diseases.

Spatial Variation in Responses of Plant Spring Phenology to Climate Warming in Grasslands of Inner Mongolia: Drivers and Application

Plant spring phenology in grasslands distributed in the Northern Hemisphere is highly responsive to climate warming. The growth of plants is intricately influenced by not only air temperature but also precipitation and soil factors, both of which exhibit spatial variation. Given the critical impact of the plant growth season on the livelihood of husbandry communities in grasslands, it becomes imperative to comprehend regional-scale spatial variation in the response of plant spring phenology to climate warming and the effects of precipitation and soil factors on such variation. This understanding is beneficial for region-specific phenology predictions in husbandry communities. In this study, we analyzed the spatial pattern of the correlation coefficient between the start date of the plant growth season (SOS) and the average winter-spring air temperature (WST) of Inner Mongolia grassland from 2003 to 2019. Subsequently, we analyzed the importance of 13 precipitation and soil factors for the correlation between SOS and average WST using a random forest model and analyzed the interactive effect of the important factors on the SOS using linear mixing models (LMMs). Based on these, we established SOS models using data from pastoral areas within different types of grassland. The percentage of areas with a negative correlation between SOS and average WST in meadow and typical grasslands was higher than that in desert grasslands. Results from the random forest model highlighted the significance of snow cover days (SCD), soil organic carbon (SOC), and soil nitrogen content (SNC) as influential factors affecting the correlation between SOS and average WST. Meadow grasslands exhibited significantly higher levels of SCD, SOC, and SNC compared to typical and desert grasslands. The LMMs indicated that the interaction of grassland type and the average WST and SCD can effectively explain the variation in SOS. The multiple linear models that incorporated both average WST and SCD proved to be better than models utilizing WST or SCD alone in predicting SOS. These findings indicate that the spatial patterns of precipitation and soil factors are closely associated with the spatial variation in the response of SOS to climate warming in Inner Mongolia grassland. Moreover, the average WST and SCD, when considered jointly, can be used to predict plant spring phenology in husbandry communities.

Applying the projection pursuit and DPSIR model for evaluation of ecological carrying capacity in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China

The ecological carrying capacity (ECC) of Inner Mongolia is the foundation of its sustainable development. As a result, a comprehensive investigation of Inner Mongolia's ECC and its influencing factors is critical for promoting regional sustainable development. However, an ECC evaluation index system for the ecological environment and economic development features of Inner Mongolia has not yet been developed. In addition, as ECC attributes rise, traditional methods become ineffective at extracting the structural characteristics of high-dimensional data, leading to an incomplete evaluation. In view of this, based on the driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework, we developed an ECC evaluation index system that takes into account the ecological environment and economic development features of Inner Mongolia. The projection pursuit model based on real coded accelerating genetic algorithm (RAGA-PP), which can analyze high-dimensional data, was applied to achieve ECC comprehensive assessment in Inner Mongolia. Finally, the analysis of the ECC obstacle factors in the study area was conducted. The findings reveal that (1) from 2000 to 2020, there was an average increase of 28.4% in the ECC for all of Inner Mongolia cities. The spatial divergence feature is obvious, and the northeastern cities' ECC is higher than the southwestern. (2) From 2000 to 2020, the value of the drive, pressure, and state subsystems primarily shows fluctuation. The impact and response subsystems both exhibit an increase, while the response subsystem's characteristic values are lower. (3) The obstacle degree of driving force subsystem is significant and ranges from 17.6 to 33.9% between 2000 and 2020. Main obstacles to ECC are the average annual temperature, the disposable income of farmers and herdsmen, the urban registered unemployment rate, and the seeded area per capita. The findings of the research can provide useful guidance to developing efficient policies that take into account the various ECC in different cities in order to improve ECC performance throughout Inner Mongolia.

Light grazing intensity enhances ecosystem services in semi-arid grasslands through plant trait associations

Grasslands provide multiple ecosystem services (ESs) including provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services that are largely affected by livestock grazing. Linking plant functional traits (PFTs) to ecosystem processes and functions has attracted extensive ecological research to explore the responses and inter-relations of ecosystem services to environmental and management changes. However, little information is available on the links between PFTs and ESs in most ecosystems. We conducted a grazing experiment to investigate the response of PFTs at different levels, including in plant organs (leaves and stems), individual plants, and the overall community in a typical steppe region of Inner Mongolia. Additionally, we examined the effect of animal grazing at four intensities (nil, light, moderate, and heavy) and explored the dynamic interconnections between PFTs and ecosystem services in grasslands. Our analysis revealed that the highest total ecosystem service and provisioning service were achieved under light- and moderate-grazing treatments, respectively. Heavy grazing also increased provisioning service but with a large decline in regulating and total ecosystem services. These changes in ESs were closely associated with grazing-induced variations in PFTs. Compared to no grazing, light grazing increased plant size-related functional traits, such as height, leaf length, leaf area, stem length, and the ratio of stem length to diameter. In contrast, heavy grazing decreased these PFTs. Provisioning and regulating services were determined by plant above-ground community function and structural properties, while supporting service was jointly affected by the below-ground community and soil properties. Our results indicate that light grazing should be recommended for the best total ESs, although moderate grazing may lead to high short-term economic benefits. Moreover, PFTs are powerful indicators for provisioning and regulating services. These findings provide a valuable reference for developing effective management practices to achieve targeted ESs using PFTs as indicators.

Microbial diversity of ticks and a novel typhus group Rickettsia species (Rickettsiales bacterium Ac37b) in Inner Mongolia, China

Ticks can carry multiple pathogens, and Inner Mongolia's animal husbandry provides excellent environmental conditions for ticks. This study characterized the microbiome of ticks from different geographical locations in Inner Mongolia; 905 Dermacentor nuttalli and 36 Ixodes persulcatus were collected from sheep in three main pasture areas and from bushes within the forested area. Mixed DNA samples were prepared from three specimens from each region and tick species. Microbial diversity was analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing, and α and β diversity were determined. The predominant bacterial genera were Rickettsia (54.60%), including Rickettsiales bacterium Ac37b (19.33%) and other Rickettsia (35.27%), Arsenophonus (11.21%), Candidatus Lariskella (10.84%), and Acinetobacter (7.17%). Rickettsia bellii was identified in I. persulcatus, while Rickettsiales bacterium Ac37b was found in D. nuttalli from Ordos and Chifeng. Potential Rickettsia and Anaplasma coinfections were observed in the Ordos region. Tick microbial diversity analysis in Inner Mongolia suggests that sheep at the sampling sites were exposed to multiple pathogens.

Morphological Description and Potential Geographic Distribution of the Genus Dolichopus Latreille (Diptera, Dolichopodidae, Dolichopodinae) in Inner Mongolia, China

Eight species of Dolichopus Latreille were previously recorded in Inner Mongolia. However, there have been only a few studies on their potential distribution. Here, three newly discovered species from Inner Mongolia are described, namely Dolichopus (Dolichopus) apicimaculatus sp. nov., Dolichopus (Dolichopus) jiufengensis sp. nov., and Dolichopus (Dolichopus) luae sp. nov. There were also twelve known Dolichopus species that were newly recorded in Inner Mongolia, including the newly recorded subgenus Hygroceleuthus. A key to the Dolichopus species from Inner Mongolia and the potential geographic distribution of Dolichopus in Inner Mongolia were provided. Potential geographic distribution of the genus in Inner Mongolia were determined as well.

Seroprevalence of five diarrhea-related pathogens in bovine herds of scattered households in Inner Mongolia, China between 2019 and 2022

Bovine diarrhea is a multi-factorial disease and remains one of the biggest health problems in animal husbandry. The endemic trends of the main pathogens responsible for bovine diarrhea in Inner Mongolia have not been analyzed systematically before. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of bovine diarrhea pathogens found in the scattered households of Inner Mongolia in China. Additionally, we assessed for differences in the prevalence of infection based on age and region, as well as determined local prevalence rates and the rates of mixed infections. Using a two-stage random sampling strategy, 3,050 serum samples were collected from 72 bovine herds in 11 leagues and cities in Inner Mongolia, and the positive rates of BVDV, BRV, BCoV, K99, and Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (M. paratuberculosis) antibodies in the samples were detected by ELISA to determine the epidemic trends and epidemic differences of the five pathogens in Inner Mongolia. The positive rates of antibodies based on serum samples were: BVDV, 18.79% (95% CI [17.44-20.22]); BRV, 12.39% (95% CI [11.27-13.61]); BCoV, 12.82% (95% CI [11.68-14.05]); K99, 13.80% (95% CI [12.62-15.07]); and M. paratuberculosis, 10.79% (95% CI [9.74-11.94]). The prevalence rates of BRV, BCoV and K99 at 0-2 months were significantly different from that at 2-6 months, 6-18 months and adult cattle (P < 0.05). The prevalence of BVDV and M. paratuberculosis was the highest in adult cattle, which was significantly different from that in other age groups (P < 0.05). Furthermore, obvious regional epidemiological differences among the five diseases were observed. There was a mixed infection of BRV+BCoV in each age stage, the highest mixed infection being BVDV+BRV+K99 at 0-2 months of age. Our results showed that the cattle of scattered households in the Inner Mongolia of China were endemicly infected with several important cattle pathogens. Most of the pathogens studied occurred between 0-2 months of age and were mixed infections, which greatly influences the health of the cattle and leads to economic loss. These findings are of practical significance for the future prevention and control of bovine diarrhea in the Inner Mongolia or other regions of China.

Why does rangeland integration by transfer fail to overcome the tragedy of anticommons?

In China, rangeland fragmentation leads to the problems of anticommons, in terms of livestock production and ecological conditions. As the countermeasure, rangeland use right transfer has been encouraged by the governments recently, which aims to integrate the fragmented rangelands by lease. Can transfer overcome the problems of anticommons? We addressed this question through a case study in Inner Mongolia, by comparing livelihoods and ecological conditions between the households with lease-in pastures and those without practicing transfer. We found that though transfer could make the livelihoods of lease-in households with larger rangeland better-off in weather good years, but worse-off in drought years; and the over grazing was intensified on the transferred pastures. We concluded that the transfer may not be able to fundamentally overcome the problems of anticommons. We argued that spatial anticommons and right anticommons are interrelated to each other, rather than two juxtaposed types as defined by anticommons scholars.

Intraspecific trait variation and adaptability of Stipa krylovii: Insight from a common garden experiment with two soil moisture treatments

Understanding patterns of intraspecific trait variation can help us understand plant adaptability to environmental changes. To explore the underlying adaptation mechanisms of zonal plant species, we selected seven populations of Stipa krylovii, a dominant species in the Inner Mongolia Steppe of China, and evaluated the effects of phenotypic plasticity and genetic differentiation, the effects of climate variables on population trait differentiation, and traits coordinated patterns under each soil moisture treatment. We selected seeds from seven populations of S. krylovii in the Inner Mongolia Steppe, China, and carried out a soil moisture (2) × population origin (7) common garden experiment at Tianjin City, China, and measured ten plant traits of S. krylovii. General linear analyses were used to analyze how soil moisture and population origin affected each trait variation, Mantel tests were used to analyze population trait differentiation-geographic distance (or climatic difference) relationships, regression analyses were used to evaluate trait-climatic variable relationships, and plant trait networks (PTNs) were used to evaluate traits coordinated patterns. Both soil moisture and population origin showed significant effects on most of traits. Aboveground biomass, root-shoot ratio, leaf width, specific leaf area, and leaf nitrogen (N) content were significantly correlated with climate variables under the control condition. Specific leaf area and leaf N content were significantly correlated with climate variables under the drought condition. By PTNs, the hub trait(s) was plant height under the control condition and were aboveground biomass, root length, and specific leaf area under the drought condition. This study indicates that both phenotypic plasticity and genetic differentiation can significantly affect the adaptability of S. krylovii. In addition, soil moisture treatments show significant effects on trait-climate relationships and traits coordinated patterns. These findings provide new insights into the adaptive mechanisms of zonal species in the semiarid grassland region.

Are teachers "butter lamps"? Teacher stress in Chinese Minzu "ethnic" schools

China is a unified multi-ethnic country. Although research on teacher stress is plentiful in this context, the specific case of Minzu ("ethnic") teachers is under-researched. Using Minzu schools located in a diverse county of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (North China), as a case study, the authors examine factors behind Minzu teacher stress. Using mixed methods, three main results were identified by analyzing interviews and questionnaires with both the software NVivo and dialogical discourse analysis: societal, school and Self factors. In general, the teachers confirmed that their job was extremely stressful. While some of these aspects derived directly from the specific context of Minzu education (e.g., rural and pastoralist families send their children to towns leading to teachers taking over parents' responsibilities), some elements were also found in other contexts of Chinese education and/or internationally. The article ends with some recommendations specifically about Minzu aspects in the treatment of teacher stress, which will also be of interest for international audiences.

The current distribution of tick species in Inner Mongolia and inferring potential suitability areas for dominant tick species based on the MaxEnt model

BACKGROUND

Ticks are known to transmit a wide range of diseases, including those caused by bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. The expansion of tick habitats has been intensified in recent years due to various factors such as global warming, alterations in microclimate, and human activities. Consequently, the probability of human exposure to diseases transmitted by ticks has increased, leading to a higher degree of risk associated with such diseases.

METHODS

In this study, we conducted a comprehensive review of domestic and international literature databases to determine the current distribution of tick species in Inner Mongolia. Next, we employed the MaxEnt model to analyze vital climatic and environmental factors influencing dominant tick distribution. Subsequently, we predicted the potential suitability areas of these dominant tick species under the near current conditions and the BCC-CSM2.MR model SSP245 scenario for the future periods of 2021-2040, 2041-2060, 2061-2080, and 2081-2100.

RESULTS

Our study revealed the presence of 23 tick species from six genera in Inner Mongolia, including four dominant tick species (Dermacentor nuttalli, Ixodes persulcatus, Dermacentor silvarum, and Hyalomma asiaticum). Dermacentor nuttalli, D. silvarum, and I. persulcatus are predominantly found in regions such as Xilin Gol and Hulunbuir. Temperature seasonality (Bio4), elevation (elev), and precipitation seasonality (Bio15) were the primary variables impacting the distribution of three tick species. In contrast, H. asiaticum is mainly distributed in Alxa and Bayannur and demonstrates heightened sensitivity to precipitation and other climatic factors. Our modeling results suggested that the potential suitability areas of these tick species would experience fluctuations over the four future periods (2021-2040, 2041-2060, 2061-2080, and 2081-2100). Specifically, by 2081-2100, the centroid of suitable habitat for D. nuttalli, H. asiaticum, and I. persulcatus was predicted to shift westward, with new suitability areas emerging in regions such as Chifeng and Xilin Gol. The centroid of suitable habitat for H. asiaticum will move northeastward, and new suitability areas are likely to appear in areas such as Ordos and Bayannur.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provided a comprehensive overview of the tick species distribution patterns in Inner Mongolia. Our research has revealed a significant diversity of tick species in the region, exhibiting a wide distribution but with notable regional disparities. Our modeling results suggested that the dominant tick species' suitable habitats will significantly expand in the future compared to their existing distribution under the near current conditions. Temperature and precipitation are the primary variables influencing these shifts in distribution. These findings can provide a valuable reference for future research on tick distribution and the surveillance of tick-borne diseases in the region.

[Medicinal plant resources in Inner Mongolia autonomous region of China and Mongolia: a comparative study]

Inner Mongolia autonomous region of China and Mongolia are the primary regions where Chinese and Mongolian medicine and its medicinal plant resources are distributed. In this study, 133 families, 586 genera, and 1 497 species of medicinal plants in Inner Mongolia as well as 62 families, 261 genera, and 467 species of medicinal plants in Mongolia were collected through field investigation, specimen collection and identification, and literature research. And the species, geographic distribution, and influencing factors of the above medicinal plants were analyzed. The results revealed that there were more plant species utilized for medicinal reasons in Inner Mongolia than in Mongolia. Hotspots emerged in Hulunbuir, Chifeng, and Tongliao of Inner Mongolia, while there were several hotspots in Eastern province, Sukhbaatar province, Gobi Altai province, Bayankhongor province, Middle Gobi province, Kobdo province, South Gobi province, and Central province of Mongolia. The interplay of elevation and climate made a non-significant overall contribution to the diversity of plant types in Inner Mongolia and Mongolia. The contribution of each factor increased significantly when the vegetation types of Inner Mongolia and Mongolia were broadly divided into forest, grassland and desert. Thus, the distribution of medicinal plant resources and vegetation cover were jointly influenced by a variety of natural factors such as topography, climate and interactions between species, and these factors contributed to and constrained each other. This study provided reference for sustainable development and rational exploitation of medicinal plant resources in future.

Evaluating the Hydrological Components Contributions to Terrestrial Water Storage Changes in Inner Mongolia with Multiple Datasets

In this study, multiple remote sensing data were used to quantitatively evaluate the contributions of surface water, soil moisture and groundwater to terrestrial water storage (TWS) changes in five groundwater resources zones of Inner Mongolia (GW_I, GW_II, GW_III, GW_IV and GW_V), China. The results showed that TWS increased at the rate of 2.14 mm/a for GW_I, while it decreased at the rate of 4.62 mm/a, 5.89 mm/a, 2.79 mm/a and 2.62 mm/a for GW_II, GW_III, GW_IV and GW_V during 2003-2021. Inner Mongolia experienced a widespread soil moisture increase with the rate of 4.17 mm/a, 2.13 mm/a, 1.20 mm/a, 0.25 mm/a and 1.36 mm/a for the five regions, respectively. Significant decreases were detected for regional groundwater storage (GWS) with the rate of 2.21 mm/a, 6.76 mm/a, 6.87 mm/a, 3.01 mm/a, and 4.14 mm/a, respectively. Soil moisture was the major contributor to TWS changes in GW_I, which accounted 58% of the total TWS changes. Groundwater was the greatest contributor to TWS changes in other four regions, especially GWS changes, which accounted for 76% TWS changes in GW_IV. In addition, this study found that the role of surface water was notable for calculating regional GWS changes.

Disease burden of tuberculosis and post-tuberculosis in Inner Mongolia, China, 2016-2018 - based on the disease burden of post-TB caused by COPD

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the most serious infectious diseases worldwide. China has the second highest TB burden globally, but existing studies have mostly neglected the post-tuberculosis (post-TB) disease burden. This study estimated the disease burden of TB and post-TB in Inner Mongolia, China, from 2016 to 2018.

METHODS

Population data were collected from TB Information Management System. Post-TB disease burden was defined as the burden caused by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) occurring after patients with TB were cured. To estimate the incidence rate of TB, standardized mortality rate, life expectancy, and cause eliminated life expectancy, using descriptive epidemiological, abridged life table and cause eliminated life table. On this basis, the Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY), Years Lived with Disability (YLD) and Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to TB were further be estimated. The data were analyzed using Excel 2016 and SPSS 26.0. Joinpoint regression models were used to estimate the time and age trends of the disease burden of TB and post-TB.

RESULTS

The TB incidence in 2016, 2017, and 2018 was 41.65, 44.30, and 55.63/100,000, respectively. The standardized mortality in the same period was 0.58, 0.65, and 1.08/100,000, respectively. From 2016 to 2018, the total DALYs of TB and post-TB were 5923.33, 6258.03, and 8194.38 person-years, and the DALYs of post-TB from 2016 to 2018 were 1555.89, 1663.33, and 2042.43 person-years. Joinpoint regression showed that the DALYs rate increased yearly from 2016 to 2018, and the rate of males was higher than that of females. TB and post-TB DALYs rates showed a rising tendency with increasing age (AAPC values were 149.6% and 157.0%, respectively, P < 0.05), which was higher in the working-age population and elderly.

CONCLUSION

The disease burden of TB and post-TB was heavy and increased year by year in Inner Mongolia from 2016 to 2018. Compared with the youngster and females, working-age population and the elderly and males had a higher disease burden. Policymakers should be paid more attention to the patients' sustained lung injury after TB cured. There is a pressing need to identify more effective measures for reducing the burden of TB and post-TB of people, to improve their health and well-being.

in sheep and goats from some areas in Inner Mongolia, Northern China

Blastocystis sp. is a kind of unicellular intestinal commensal which is widely distributed in humans and animals, and frequently found in the people who are in close contact with animals. To investigate the prevalence and evaluate the zoonotic potential of Blastocystis sp. in sheep and goats from Inner Mongolia, China, a total of 1037 samples were collected from them, and subjected to nested PCR amplification based on the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene of Blastocystis sp. The sanger sequencing was used for Blastocystis sp. subtype identification. The results indicated that the average infection rate of Blastocystis sp. was 10.70% [95CI: 8.82%-12.58%] (111/1037), including 11.30% [95CI: 7.96%-14.64%] for sheep (39/345) and 10.40% [95CI: 8.13%-12.67%] for goats (72/692). Five Blastocystis subtypes (ST5, ST10, ST14, ST21 and ST26) were identified in the present study. Among them, ST10 was the most dominant subtype in sheep and goats, accounting for 70.27% (78/111) of the total identified positive samples. This is the first report regarding Blastocystis sp. subtypes ST21 and ST26 in goats in China. This study has provided a detail epidemiological data on the prevalence and subtypes distribution of Blastocystis sp. in sheep and goats in Inner Mongolia, China. Our results indicated that sheep and goats could be reservoir host for multiple Bastocystis subtypes, including the zoonotic subtypes. Further studies among humans, livestock and wild animals are needed to better understand their role in the spread of Blastocystis sp.

Variation in Vegetation Phenology and Its Response to Climate Change in Marshes of Inner Mongolian

Inner Mongolia has a large area of marsh wetland in China, and the marsh in this region is important for maintaining ecological balance. Understanding variations in vegetation phenology of marsh ecosystems and their responses to climatic change is crucial for vegetation conservation of marsh wetlands in Inner Mongolia. Using the climate and NDVI data during 2001-2020, we explored the spatiotemporal changes in the start (SOS), end (EOS), and length (LOS) of vegetation growing season and analyzed the effects of climate change on vegetation phenology in the Inner Mongolia marshes. Results showed that SOS significantly (p < 0.05) advanced by 0.50 days/year, EOS significantly delayed by 0.38 days/year, and thus LOS considerably increased by 0.88 days/year during 2001-2020 in marshes of Inner Mongolia. Warming temperatures in winter and spring could significantly (p < 0.05) advance the SOS, and increased summer and autumn temperatures could delay EOS in Inner Mongolia marshes. We found for the first time that daytime maximum temperature (T_max) and night minimum temperature (T_min) had asymmetric effects on marsh vegetation phenology. Increasing T_max had a stronger advancing effect on SOS than increasing T_min from December to April. The increase of T_min in August could obviously delayed EOS, while increasing T_max in August had no significant effect on EOS. This study highlights that the asymmetric influences of nighttime and daytime temperatures should be taken into account in simulating marsh vegetation phenology in temperate arid and semi-arid regions worldwide, particularly in the context of global asymmetric diurnal warming.

Quantifying the spatial nonstationary response of influencing factors on ecosystem health based on the geographical weighted regression (GWR) model: an example in Inner Mongolia, China, from 1995 to 2020

The identification of ecosystem health and its influencing factors is crucial to the sustainable management of ecosystems and ecosystem restoration. Although numerous studies on ecosystem health have been carried out from different perspectives, few studies have systematically investigated the spatiotemporal heterogeneity between ecosystem health and its influencing factors. Considering this gap, the spatial relationships between ecosystem health and its factors concerning climate, socioeconomic, and natural resource endowment at the county level were estimated based on a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. The spatiotemporal distribution pattern and driving mechanism of ecosystem health were systematically analysed. The results showed the following: (1) the ecosystem health level in Inner Mongolia spatially increases from northwest to southeast, displaying notable global spatial autocorrelation and local spatial aggregation. (2) The factors influencing ecosystem health exhibit significant spatial heterogeneity. Annual average precipitation (AMP) and biodiversity (BI) are positively correlated with ecosystem health, and annual average temperature (AMT) and land use intensity (LUI) are estimated to be negatively correlated with ecosystem health. (3) Annual average precipitation (AMP) significantly improves ecosystem health, whereas annual average temperature (AMT) significantly worsens eco-health in the eastern and northern regions. LUI negatively impacts ecosystem health in western counties (such as Alxa, Ordos, and Baynnur). This study contributes to extending our understanding of ecosystem health depending on spatial scale and can inform decision-makers about how to control various influencing factors to improve the local ecology under local conditions. Finally, this study also proposes some relevant policy suggestions and provides effective ecosystem preservation and management support in Inner Mongolia.

A New Gnetalean Macrofossil from the Mid-Jurassic Daohugou Formation

Macrofossil evidence has demonstrated a first radiation of gnetophytes in the Early Cretaceous. However, the origin of the diversity of gnetophytes remains ambiguous because gnetalean macrofossils have rarely been reported from pre-Cretaceous strata. Here, we report a new putative gnetalean macrofossil reproductive shoot which possesses opposite phyllotaxy, long linear leaves more or less decurrent and having a prominent midvein and pedicled ovoid-ellipsoid and longitudinally striated chlamydosperms. Our new fossil is different from other known gnetalean macrofossils in the linear-lanceolate leaves with a midvein and pedicled chlamydosperms. As a result, we describe this new macrofossil reproductive shoot as new to science, i.e., Daohugoucladus sinensis gen. et sp. nov. Our new macrofossil displays additional morphological characters distinct from other known Mesozoic and modern gnetalean species and provides additional evidence of the origin and early evolution of female reproductive organs of gnetophytes.

Vitamin D status among residents of Molidawa Daur Autonomous Banner, Inner Mongolia, North China

OBJECTIVES

To retrospectively analyze the vitamin D (VD) status of residents in northeastern Inner Mongolia and its relationship with the average monthly sunshine hours.

METHODS

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D[s-25(OH)D] samples from 4982 outpatients (2092 males) in Moli Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner People's Hospital, Hulunbuir, China from July 2018 to January 2022 were included in this study.

RESULTS

The overall median s-25(OH)D was 53.3 nmol/L, VD deficiency (<30 nmol/L), deficiency (30-50 nmol/L), sufficient (>50-250 nmol/L) and excess (>250 nmol/L) were 16% (796/4982), 30% (1495/4982), 53.4% (2658/4982) and 0.7% (33/4982). There were statistically significant differences in median s-25(OH)D by month, age-groups and gender (p<0.001). Low VD status (LVDS, including VD deficiency and insufficiency) in females was 54.6% and males was 33.9%, and the LVDS composition differed significantly by age-group and month (p<0.05). The changing trend of the median s-25(OH)D level was similar to the monthly average sunshine hours, with a slight lag.

CONCLUSION

Nearly half of residents live in LVDS. LVDS is affected by month, gender, and age.

Spatiotemporal change and driving factors of ecological status in Inner Mongolia based on the modified remote sensing ecological index

Remote sensingmonitoring of regional ecological quality has advanced significantly with the rapid developments of remote sensing technology. At present, remote sensing ecological index (RSEI) has been widely used in ecological status monitoring. However, RSEI was proposed for urban environments, and the rationality and accuracy of its applicability to desert-dominated arid region ecosystems need to be demonstrated. Therefore, in this study, we incorporated desertification monitoring index (DMI) and salinity monitoring index (SMI) to RSEI and developed the modified remote sensing ecological index (MRSEI) for arid regions. Moreover, we analyzed the stability of MRSEI in ecological status monitoring for arid regions. The MRSEI was then used to evaluate the ecological quality of Inner Mongolia from 2000 to 2020 and exploring its causes. The results show that (1) Although the evaluation results of RSEI and MRSEI are more consistent in areas with high ecological status grades, the MRSEI results are more cautious and reliable in extreme conditions (e.g., desertification, salinization) than the RSEI. (2) Approximately 87.66% of ecological quality have improved or remain stable from 2000 to 2020, but the remaining areas (accounting for 12.34% of the whole area) are still under degraded conditions. This demonstrates that although local governments have made some progress in ecological conservation, the areas that are fluctuating or degraded still require protection or management. (3) In Inner Mongolia, the ecological quality which drove by precipitation (P) & temperature (T) accounting for 26.67% of the study area, population density (D) and GDP per capita (G) affected 13.23% of regional ecological quality. Overall, this research is crucial for evaluating spatial and temporal changes in arid region ecology and establishing conservation strategies.

Ruppia mongolica (Ruppiaceae), a new species from Inner Mongolia (China), based on morphological and genetic data

Ruppia mongolica Y. Zou & X.W. Xu, a new species from Inner Mongolia, China, is described and illustrated. The phylogenetic position of the new species within the genus was analyzed based on eight chloroplast DNA fragments and an ingroup sampling of all Eurasian species of Ruppia. The results showed that R. mongolica formed a separate branch between R. sinensis and the clade of R. maritima, R. brevipedunculata, R. drepanensis, and R. cirrhosa. Based on molecular and geographical evidence, our study reveals that R. mongolica is closely related to R. sinensis and R. brevipedunculata but differs from the former in the length and shape of the peduncle and seed size, and from the latter in the length of the peduncle, number of carpels per flower, and seed size. In addition, the karyotype analysis revealed that R. mongolica is octoploid, which is first reported within Ruppia, further supporting R. mongolica as a new species.

Geochemical characteristics and implications of hydrocarbon in source rocks of Chagan Sag, Yin'e basin of Inner Mongolia

Chagan Sag is one of the most significant tectonic unit in the Yin'e Basin. The special component of the organic macerals and biomarkers in the Chagan sag suggests great difference of its hydrocarbon generation process. In this paper, forty samples of source rocks are subjected to carry out on the geochemical characteristics by methods of rock-eval analysis, organic petrology and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to reveal the origin, depositional environment and maturity of organic matter in Chagan Sag, Yin'e Basin of Inner Mongolia. The total organic matter of the analyzed samples ranges from 0.4 wt%∼3.89 wt% with an average of 1.12 wt%, indicating fair to excellent hydrocarbon generation potential. The rock-eval results show that the S₁+S₂ and hydrocarbon index range from 0.03 mg/g∼16.34 mg/g (avg.3.6 mg/g) and 6.24-521.32 mg/g (avg. 199.63 mg/g), suggesting most of the kerogen types are type II and III, with small amount of type I. The Tmax ranges from 428 to 496 °C, suggesting low mature to mature stage. The macerals component of morphological macerals presents with certain amount of vitrinite, liptinite and some inertinite. However, the amorphous component takes the dominant part of the macerals with account of 50%-80%. The amorphous components are dominated by sapropelite in the source rock, indicating bacteriolytic amorphous promote the organic generation process. Hopanes and sterane are widely distributed in the source rocks. The biomarker results suggest a mix of planktonic-bacterial and higher plant origins, with wide range of thermal maturity and relatively reducing depositional environment. Abnormal high content of hopanes were observed in the biomarkers, and some special biomarkers such as monomethylalkanes, long-chain-alkyl naphthalenes, aromatized de A-triterpenes, 8,14-seco-triterpenes, and A, B-cyclostane are detected in Chagan Sag. The presence of these compounds suggests that bacterial and microorganisms are of great significance to the generation of hydrocarbon in the source rock in Chagan Sag.

Infection by a previously uncharacterized Ehrlichia species in rodents from Inner Mongolia, Northern China

Ehrlichia are intracellular bacteria of medical importance to both humans and domestic animals. They are mainly vectored by ticks and harbored by domestic and wild animals such as rodents. In this study, we investigated the prevalence and genetic diversity of Ehrlichia in rodents from Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Northern China. In 2021, a total of 359 rodents representing 10 species were captured in two locations of Inner Mongolia: Siziwang Banner and Ar Horqin Banner. Subsequently, an Ehrlichia was detected and characterized in three Spermophilus dauricus and one Meriones unguiculatus. Its rrs, gltA, and groEL sequences have the highest identities of 100%, 87.9%, and 99.7% to known Ehrlichia species, respectively, and they form distinct clades in the phylogenetic trees. Ehrlichia strains mostly related to this species have been detected in ticks from Russia, suggesting that it may be exposed to humans and animals through tick bites. The pathogenicity of this Ehrlichia should be further studied.

Cancer mortality in 2020 and its trend analysis in Inner Mongolia during four time periods from 1973 to 2020

Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality in China and is responsible for placing a major burden on its economic system. Inner Mongolia is located close to the northern border of China and spans more than 2,400 km from east to west. It has a total area of 1,183,000 km², which accounts for about one-third of the total area of the country. Its ethnic demographics are complex and unique. We were interested in understanding whether these situations lead to a higher mortality rate for certain types of cancer, which was the motivation behind our research. This study aims to estimate cancer mortality in Inner Mongolia, its burden, and its trend over a 60-year time span. We compiled data pertaining to cancer in Inner Mongolia, obtained from the three national causes of death sample surveys. In addition, we obtained data pertaining to cancer mortality rates from the cause of death surveillance system in Inner Mongolia in the year 2020. The proportion of deaths from various cancers, crude mortality rates, and standardized mortality rates were calculated. The Joinpoint Regression Program was used to calculate mortality trends and the periodic percentage change (PPC) in these rates. We found that the mortality rate of cancer was 142.15/10⁵; the age-standardized mortality rate using the Chinese standard population in 2000 (ASMRC) and Segi's world population (ASMRW) were 86.49/10⁵ and 85.73/10⁵ in 2020, respectively. From 1973 to 2020, during the four time periods, the leading five cancer types contributing to the mortality rate among Inner Mongolia residents in 2020 were stomach cancer, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, cervix/uterine cancer, and lung cancer. The four periods of time PYLL ‰ were 9.05‰, 10.79‰, 12.1‰, and 10.38‰ from 1973 to 2020. The overall trend of the crude mortality rate of cancer in Inner Mongolia from 1973 to 2020 increased (PPC =1.77%, P<0.05). Also, the crude mortality rate and ASMRC were higher in men than in women (P<0.05). The mortality rates of cancer in Inner Mongolia increased with age ie first time period and in 2020 for ages 10 to 84. The same trend was observed for ages 0 and 74 in the second and the third time periods. Overall, in 2020, the CMR and the ASMRW in Inner Mongolia were lower than the national level and significantly lower than those in other domestic Chinese provinces. Lung cancer was the most reported cancer. Cancers from the first to seventh place ranking were consistent with the national ranking in 2020. The overall crude mortality rate of cancer in Inner Mongolia during the four periods revealed an increasing trend, and liver cancer-related mortality also showed an upward trend during the four periods. The findings may provide baseline data for cancer research.

Salinity significantly affects methane oxidation and methanotrophic community in Inner Mongolia lake sediments

Methanotrophs oxidize methane (CH₄) and greatly help in mitigating greenhouse effect. Increased temperatures due to global climate change can facilitate lake salinization, particularly in the regions with cold semiarid climate. However, the effects of salinity on the CH₄ oxidation activity and diversity and composition of methanotrophic community in the sediment of natural lakes at a regional scale are still unclear. Therefore, we collected lake sediment samples from 13 sites in Mongolian Plateau; CH₄ oxidation activities of methanotrophs were investigated, and the diversity and abundance of methanotrophs were analyzed using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and high throughput sequencing approach. The results revealed that the diversity of methanotrophic community decreased with increasing salinity, and community structure of methanotrophs was clearly different between the hypersaline sediment samples (HRS; salinity > 0.69%) and hyposaline sediment samples (HOS; salinity < 0.69%). Types II and I methanotrophs were predominant in HRS and HOS, respectively. Salinity was significantly positively correlated with the relative abundance of Methylosinus and negatively correlated with that of Methylococcus. In addition, CH₄ oxidation rate and pmoA gene abundance decreased with increasing salinity, and salinity directly and indirectly affected CH₄ oxidation rate via regulating the community diversity. Moreover, high salinity decreased cooperative association among methanotrophs and number of key methanotrophic species (Methylosinus and Methylococcus, e.g). These results suggested that salinity is a major driver of CH₄ oxidation in lake sediments and acts by regulating the diversity of methanotrophic community and accociation among the methanotrophic species.

The spatial pattern and influencing factors of tourism eco-efficiency in Inner Mongolia, China

Background

Tourism eco-efficiency is a performance basis for evaluating green total factor productivity and sustainable development.

Objective

The objective of this study was to measure tourism eco-efficiency in Inner Mongolia and explore its influencing factors. The aim was to provide an accurate reference for improving the quality and efficiency of tourism in Inner Mongolia and promoting the sustainable development of the regional economy and society.

Methods

Tourism eco-efficiency in Inner Mongolia from 2009 to 2019 was calculated using a super-slacks-based measure (SBM) model with an undesirable output. The spatial variation function was used to explore the spatial evolution pattern of tourism eco-efficiency in Inner Mongolia, and the influencing factors of the spatial evolution were analyzed by geographically weighted regression.

Results

Tourism eco-efficiency in Inner Mongolia is relatively low. Eco-efficiency values among cities in Inner Mongolia vary, and their distribution is not balanced. The structural eco-efficiency of tourism in Inner Mongolia has been consistent from 2009 to 2019. The degree of homogenization in the overall direction is relatively good. Furthermore, its spatial distribution form and internal structure evolution show a certain regularity and continuity. The pattern evolution of tourism eco-efficiency in Inner Mongolia is jointly driven by the economic level, environmental regulation, industrial structure, traffic conditions, resource endowment, and tourism reception facilities. These influencing factors show obvious spatial heterogeneity.

Conclusion

From the perspective of Inner Mongolia, the difference in the tourism eco-efficiency value from 2009 to 2019 was relatively large, but the number of effective areas in the efficiency frontier generally showed a fluctuating growth trend. The range parameters of tourism eco-efficiency showed a decreasing trend, and the spatial correlation effect of tourism eco-efficiency in Inner Mongolia showed a decreasing trend under the influence of structural and spatial differentiation.

Evaluation of Terrestrial Water Storage Changes and Major Driving Factors Analysis in Inner Mongolia, China

Quantitative assessment of the terrestrial water storage (TWS) changes and the major driving factors have been hindered by the lack of direct observations in Inner Mongolia, China. In this study, the spatial and temporal changes of TWS and groundwater storage (GWS) in Inner Mongolia during 2003-2021 were evaluated using the satellite gravity data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and the GRACE Follow On combined with data from land surface models. The results indicated that Inner Mongolia has experienced a widespread TWS loss of approximately 1.82 mm/yr from 2003-2021, with a more severe depletion rate of 4.15 mm/yr for GWS. Meteorological factors were the driving factors for water storage changes in northeastern and western regions. The abundant precipitation increased TWS in northeast regions at 2.36 mm/yr. Anthropogenic activities (agricultural irrigation and coal mining) were the driving factors for water resource decline in the middle and eastern regions (especially in the agropastoral transitional zone), where the decrease rates were 4.09 mm/yr and 3.69 mm/yr, respectively. In addition, the severities of hydrological drought events were identified based on water storage deficits, with average severity values of 17 mm, 18 mm, 24 mm, and 33 mm for the west, middle, east, and northeast regions, respectively. This study established a basic framework for water resource changes in Inner Mongolia and provided a scientific foundation for further water resources investigation.

Anxiety and depression and their interdependent influencing factors among medical students in Inner Mongolia: the cross-sectional survey

BACKGROUND

Mental health has become a global problem, among which anxiety and depression disorder were ranked as the first and sixth leading causes of disability, respectively, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Medical students experienced higher levels of anxiety and depression than the general population. But there was a lack of research on the emotional situation among medical students in Inner Mongolia. The main objectives of this study were to investigate the prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms as well as the factors that influence them among medical students in Inner Mongolia.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted on 1282 students from a university in Inner Mongolia, China, ranging in age from 16 to 27 years. They were assessed demographic indicators, the disorder of anxiety and depression using Zung's Self-Rating Anxiety Scale and Self-Rating Depression Scale (SAS and SDS) by an anonymous, self-administered questionnaire. The internal reliability and validity of the questionnaire were determined using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO), and Bartlett's sphericity. T-tests and one-way ANOVA were used to explore factors, including demographic and behavioral information influencing anxiety and depression disorder. According to the above results of exploring the influencing factors based on univariate analysis, significant factors (p < 0.05) were entered into multiple linear regressions that sequentially fitted to predictors associated with anxiety and depression. The collected data were entered into EpiData for windows and analyzed using SPSS 26.0. The p < 0.05 was considered to be significantly different.

RESULTS

The questionnaire was completed by 1187 students with a 92.59% response rate. The prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms among medical students were 10.36% and 24.43%, and the mean ± standard deviation (M ± SD) anxiety and depression scores were 39.60 ± 7.81 and 48.23 ± 9.06, respectively, among the medical students. The specific contributions of the two scales with good reliability and validity were 60.58% and 63.59%, respectively. For univariate analysis, age, whether the daily meal was at a fixed time, grade, the birthplace of students, average daily eating habits, were the factors that influenced both the total score of SAS and SDS (p < 0.05). For further analysis, the results showed that "Birthplace of students" and "Whether daily meals at a fixed time" were significantly associated with anxiety and depression. Furthermore, "Age" and "Mode of delivery" were independent risk factors for depressive disorder.

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed that high prevalence of mental health problems among medical students in Inner Mongolia. The Ministry of Medical Education should make a targeted intervention for specific risk factors of this study to improve psychological well-being and face uncertain future challenges among university students in Inner Mongolia.

Food Consumption Characteristics and Influencing Factors in a Grassland Transect of Inner Mongolia Based on the Emergy Method

Food consumption is the vital connection between human beings and natural resources. Our research explores the characteristics and drivers of food consumption patterns within Mongolian grasslands with a vulnerable ecology and environment. Food consumption data were obtained via a household questionnaire survey, and the emergy method was applied to analyze the food consumption characteristics in different grassland areas. This led to the following results: (1) The total per capita food consumption in different banners showed greater consumption and higher percentage of animal-based food in regions farther north. (2) From south to north, the main meat consumption in different banners varied, the predominant meat type consumed in Taibus was pork, that in Zhenglan was mutton, and that in West Ujimqin was beef. The farther north, the more fruits and vegetables were consumed. (3) The characteristics of food consumption in different areas were influenced by a series of factors, including social, economic, and ecological ones. Local food supply and disposable income were the main factors that had important effects on food consumption structure, as these two factors provided accessibility to foods for consumption.

Increased Rates of Health Management and Health Education on Hypertension and Diabetes in Inner Mongolia, China: 10-Year Population Level Trends (2009-2018)

Health management and health education are two important tasks in the national basic public health service project with a wide audience, large service volume, and high accessibility. From 2009 to 2018, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China launched the basic public health service (BPHS) project comprehensively. The implementation of health management and health education was supported and instructed actively. This study aimed to document population-level trends in health management and health education on chronic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes in Inner Mongolia, China. We collected monthly and annual reports on the implementation progress of the BPHS project in Inner Mongolia, China. A two-stage random sampling method was used to investigate health management and health education for hypertension and diabetes patients. The rate of standard health management for both hypertension and diabetes has significantly increased. The blood pressure control rate and glycemic control rate have also improved. This work provides the most comprehensive evidence to date regarding the upward trends in health management and health education on chronic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes in Inner Mongolia, China.

Intra- and interannual dynamics of grassland community phylogenetic structure are influenced by meteorological conditions before the growing season

The impact of global climate change on ecosystem structure has attracted much attention from researchers. However, how climate change and meteorological conditions influence community phylogenetic structure remains poorly understood. In this research, we quantified the responses of grassland communities' phylogenetic structure to long- and short-term meteorological conditions in Inner Mongolia, China. The net relatedness index (NRI) was used to characterize phylogenetic structure, and the relationship between the NRI and climate data was analyzed to understand the dynamics of community phylogenetic structure and its relationship with extreme meteorological events. Furthermore, multiple linear regression and structural equation models (SEMs) were used to quantify the relative contributions of meteorological factors before and during the current growing season to short-term changes in community phylogenetic structure. In addition, we evaluated the effect of long-term meteorological factors on yearly NRI anomalies with classification and regression trees (CARTs). We found that 1) the degree of phylogenetic clustering of the community is relatively low in the peak growing season, when habitat filtering is relatively weak and competition is fiercer. 2) Extreme meteorological conditions (i.e., drought and cold) may change community phylogenetic structure and indirectly reduce the degree of phylogenetic clustering by reducing the proportion of dominant perennial grasses. 3) Meteorological conditions before the growing season rather than during the current growing season explain more variation in the NRI and interannual NRI anomalies. Our results may provide useful information for understanding grassland community species assembly and how climate change affects biodiversity.

Nutrient budgets drive the changes in shoot N and P concentrations of plants in Inner Mongolia's grasslands over the past 40 years

The nutrient budgets of grassland ecosystems have been extensively disturbed by human activity. The aims of this study were to quantify nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) budgets, and evaluate their contributions to changes in shoot nutrient concentrations of dominant plants in Inner Mongolia's grasslands over the past 40 years. N and P budgets were assessed using a nutrient budget model based on flowing intensity of nutrients in and out of the grassland. Meta-analysis was then conducted to quantify changes in shoot nutrient concentrations. The N budget remained positive and continued to increase throughout the study period, while enhanced N deposition and increased supplementary feeding dominated N input (76% of the total in 2017). In contrast, the P budget was negative until 2003, and became positive thereafter. The P input was mainly attributed to supplementary feeding (88% of the total in 2017). The mean shoot N concentration in 1979-1986 was 2.25%, while an increase to 2.53% was observed in 2006-2016. In contrast, the mean shoot P concentration was 0.17% in 1979-1991, subsequently leveling off at 0.17% in 2006-2016. The mean shoot N: P ratio basically remain unchanged over time from 16.72 to 15.85. The N surplus caused major increases in the shoot N concentration of the grassland plants; also, the increased P budget to compensate for past P deficiency resulted in no significant change of shoot P concentrations. Consequently, the grassland system had been in the joint N and P co-limitation over the past 40 years.

Epidemiological Analysis of Patients with Pre-Hospital First Aid in Keyouqian Banner, Hinggan League, Inner Mongolia

Objective

To summarize the characteristics of patients calling the 120 emergency number for pre-hospital first aid in Keyouqian Banner, Hinggan League.

Methods

The clinical data of adult patients with pre-hospital first aid from 2016 to 2018 were retrospectively analyzed.

Results

There were 2711 cases with pre-hospital first aid. Males significantly outnumbered females. Young and middle-aged patients comprised 81.5%. Patients were mainly Han and Mongolians. Most injuries and illnesses occurred at home and on the road. The time to arrival of medical services was 30.34 ± 28.29 minutes. The proportion of pre-hospital first aid for trauma was the highest, followed by diseases concerning the cardiovascular and neurological systems. The proportion of patients with improved medical conditions after onsite first aid was 43.3%, the proportion with unchanged conditions was 51.7%, and the total mortality rate was 3.9%.

Conclusion

The disease spectrum, ethnic distribution, age at onset, and pre-hospital first aid capabilities for outpatients were analyzed. These results may facilitate the establishment of a pre-hospital first aid system for the local prevention and control of acute and critical illnesses, increase the success rate of the region's pre-hospital first aid services, and improve the prognosis.

Land Use Dynamic Evolution and Driving Factors of Typical Open-Pit Coal Mines in Inner Mongolia

Although coal is difficult to replace in the short term, the large-scale production and consumption of coal have significant impacts on the ecological environment. The severe disturbances, such as land excavation and occupation, that accompany the mining of mineral resources have caused dramatic changes in land cover and a significant pressure on the sensitive and fragile ecological environment. To analyze the temporal and spatial evolution trends and the differences in land use in different typical mining areas in Inner Mongolia, as well as the evaluation system and driving mechanisms of land use evolution, this study takes the typical open-pit coal mines in Inner Mongolia as the research objects and, based on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, analyzes the dynamic evolution characteristics and driving factors of land use in typical open-pit coal mines in Inner Mongolia from 2001 to 2020. The change trend of land use in typical open-pit mining areas in Inner Mongolia for the past 20 years is obvious, with the highest fluctuations for grassland, mining land, cropland, and residential/industrial land. Land use in the open-pit coal mining area is greatly affected by mining factors. From the perspective of spatial variation, the most important driving factor is the distance from national roads and railways, followed by the annual average temperature and annual average precipitation and topographical conditions, such as elevation. In terms of policy, land reclamation and ecological restoration in mining areas have a positive impact on land use change. Improving the mechanism for environmental compensation in mining areas can promote the efficient and rational use of mining areas and the protection of ecosystems.

Distribution and phylogeography of the genus Mattirolomyces with a focus on the Asian M. terfezioides haplotypes

Mattirolomyces is an edible commercial sequestrate genus that is globally distributed. From the five described taxa of this genus, Mattirolomyces terfezioides is the most common species in Asia. Our recent attempts to locate M. terfezioides outside its current distribution area in China documented its first records in areas of poplar trees with the lowest known temperature and precipitation averages ever recorded for this species. This peculiar ecology was not reflected on the species-morphological features nor on its phylogenetic position in the genus. The first attempt to apply the phylogenetic network approach to Mattirolomyces revealed its geographic origin in the Asian-Pacific areas prior to frequent long-distance migration events. Based on data from recent study areas, we found that the collections from Inner Mongolia and the Shanxi province were similar to European collections. Asian haplotypes were less distant from the outgroup comparing to collections from Europe, supporting the hypothesis that M. terfezioides was originated from this Chinese area and was subsequently transported to Europe. Exploring M. terfezioides ecology and its mycorrhiza potential to grow in association with poplars would be of great importance for planning cultivation projects of this valuable desert truffle species in Central and Eastern China, a currently underexploited economic sector that deserves further ecological and M. terfezioides mycorrhizal synthesis investigations.

Molecular characterizations of Giardia duodenalis based on multilocus genotyping in sheep, goats, and beef cattle in Southwest Inner Mongolia, China

Giardia duodenalis is an important zoonotic parasite that causes economic losses to animal husbandry and threatens public health. In the present study, a total of 1466 fresh fecal samples were collected from sheep (n = 797), goats (n = 561) and beef cattle (n = 108) in Southwest Inner Mongolia, China. Giardia duodenalis was initially screened via nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the β-giardin (bg) gene, and bg-positive samples were subjected to PCR amplification targeting the glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) and triose phosphate isomerase (tpi) genes. A total of 4.0% of samples (58/1466) were positive for G. duodenalis, with a prevalence of 3.4% in sheep, 3.7% in goats and 5.2% in beef cattle. Three G. duodenalis assemblages (A, B, and E) were identified, with E as the prevalent assemblage. Four and one novel assemblage E sequences were obtained for the gdh and tpi loci, respectively and four assemblage E multilocus genotypes (MLG) were obtained. This study demonstrates high genetic variations in G. duodenalis assemblage E, and provides baseline data for preventing and controlling G. duodenalis infection in livestock in Inner Mongolia.

Dermacentor silvarum, a Medically Important Tick, May Not Be a Competent Vector to Transmit Jingmen Tick Virus

Background: Jingmen tick virus (JMTV) has attracted great attention due to its potential pathogenicity in humans and its transmission by ticks. Dermacentor silvarum (D. silvarum) is one of the dominant tick species in northeastern China, and can transmit many pathogens to humans and animals. However, there have been no report of transmission of JMTV by D. silvarum. Materials and Methods: Ticks were collected from vegetation at the Aershan Port in Inner Mongolia in April 2019. And we do attempt to infect D. silvarum with JMTV by the immersion technique in laboratory conditions. The transmission of JMTV was examined by reverse transcriptase PCR, fluorescence in situ hybridization, and indirect immunofluorescence assay. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 24.0. Results: We found that JMTV may only be maintained in the tick without replication, and could not be transmitted to a host following transstadial transmission. Moreover, no virus colonization was found in the midgut or salivary glands of unfed D. silvarum; therefore, D. silvarum may not be susceptible to JMTV infection and therefore unlikely to carry and transmit JMTV. Conclusion: Our study has to some extent filled the knowledge gap regarding the possibility of JMTV transmission by a medically important tick vector, D. silvarum.

An improved method of using two-dimensional model to evaluate the carrying capacity of regional water resource in Inner Mongolia of China

The evaluation of regional water resource carrying capacity has been repeatedly conducted to provide a scientific basis for the local water resource management and the sustainable development, in particular in the water-limited regions. However, the definition of regional water resource carrying capacity and its evaluation method are still arguable. Through a case study of Inner Mongolia, located in the arid and semi-arid northern China, this paper developed an improved method to calculate regional water resource carrying capacity by the combination of the water supply-demand analysis and the S-shaped curve threshold analysis. The spatial and temporal patterns of the regional water resource carrying capacity in Inner Mongolia during 2000-2019 was evaluated at three scales, namely the province scale, the basin scale and the city scale. The results showed that the average regional water resource carrying capacity of the whole province was 0.25 (the full mark is 1.00); at the basin scale, the Yellow River Basin had the lowest regional water resource carrying capacity (0.17) among all the basins, showing that the utilization of the water resources was unreasonable; at the city scale, the average regional water resource carrying capacities in Hulunbuir and Xilingol were both over 0.25, while those in Alxa, BayanNur and Wuhai were below 0.1; Hulunbuir had 25.48 billion m³ water surplus, while BayanNur suffered from an average water deficit of 4.51 billion m³ from 2000 to 2019. This paper has provided a reasonable way to measure the regional water resource carrying capacity using an improved method by incorporating S-shaped curve threshold analysis, which may have a wider application for the clustering and optimization of regional water management. In addition, the spatial and temporal patterns of regional water carrying capacity are beneficial for policymakers in the implementation of the effective water usage.

Spatial-temporal distributions and influential factors of phthalate acid esters in sediments of three lakes in Inner Mongolia

The spatiotemporal distributions, influential factors, and ecological risks of 15 phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in the sediments of three typical lakes in Inner Mongolia were investigated in this work. PAEs were widespread in all surface sediments ranging from 598.3 to 3873.8 μg/kg dry weight. Average PAE concentrations were highest in the surface sediments of Wuliangsuhai Lake followed by Daihai and Hulun Lakes, which were consistent with population density and intensity of anthropogenic activities. Dibutyl phthalate, di-iso-butyl phthalate (DIBP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP) were the dominant PAEs with similar abundance orders for the three lakes. The cold climate could explain the higher DEP abundance in the sediments of lakes at higher latitudes. The highest Σ PAE and most individual PAE concentrations were located at one of the discharge river estuaries because most PAEs were terrestrial pollutants. Σ PAE concentrations in the core sediments increased with years and fluctuations owing to the increasing PAE usage and input. The second highest PAE concentration peaks were associated with the high gross domestic product growth rates in 2003-2008. Redundancy analysis revealed that butyl benzyl phthalate and diamyl phthalate in the surface sediments of Hulun Lake were principally positively influenced by organic matter (65.6% contribution among geochemical variables), Fe oxides (25.1% contribution among metals), and Mn oxides (23.8% contribution among metals). The DIBP and DEP exhibited high risks to sensitive fish according to a risk quotient assessment. This work presents new insights into PAE status and deposition mechanisms in the lakes within high latitudes or cold climates, and provides important information for future environmental protection and management.

Microcredit programs may increase risk to pastoralist livelihoods in Inner Mongolia

The literature on microcredit programs has largely focused on positive socioeconomic outcomes and low accessibility issues in farming areas and has provided less insight into the effects of easily acquired microcredit in pastoral areas. Using a case study approach, and econometric models, this paper addresses this gap by examining why and how easily acquired microcredit loans in Inner Mongolian pastoral areas increase the risk to the financial security of households or livelihood risk. Results show that existing microcredit programs increase livelihood risk because loan and repayment requirements do not align with the husbandry production cycle of contemporary Inner Mongolian pastoralists. This misalignment forces pastoralists to borrow from usurers to repay bank loans. Furthermore, households that need to borrow from usurers typically own smaller numbers of livestock and are less likely to be able to repay the usurers by selling animals. Instead, they tend to increase their bank loans in the coming year to repay the previous year's debt, trapping them in a vicious and ultimately impoverishing circle of annual loans they cannot fully pay back, and feeding increasing debt. We suggest that microcredit programs in semiarid areas should be in sync with the local production cycle and recognize environmental constraints that cause high variation in production seasonally and year to year. Our results supplement previous findings on microcredit applications and are particularly pertinent for other semiarid areas of the world.

Characterization of drinking groundwater quality in rural areas of Inner Mongolia and assessment of human health risks

Groundwater is an important natural resource of drinking water in rural areas in Inner Mongolia, China. In this study, 4438 drinking groundwater samples were collected from the rural areas of 81 counties in Inner Mongolia, and were analyzed for 16 parameters, including pH, total hardness (TH), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS), sulfate (SO42-), chloride (Cl-), fluoride (F-), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), hexavalent chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), aluminum (Al), cuprum (Cu), zinc (Zn). The groundwater quality was evaluated with water quality index (WQI) and human health risk assessment (HRA). Monte Carlo simulation were applied for the uncertainty and sensitivity analysis in the health risk assessment. The spatial map was employed based on the inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation technique. The results reveal that while the hazard quotient (HQ) suggests that the risk of single element contamination is feeble, the hazard index (HI) indicates a potential health risk for the local population. The observed cumulative carcinogenic risk (CCR) indicates a probable risks of carcinogenic health hazards in the study area. The sensitivity analysis revealed that daily ingestion rate (IR), exposure frequency (EF), and the concentrations of As, Mn, F-, and Cr are the most influential parameters for health hazards. The highly polluted areas are mainly distributed in the central and western regions of Inner Mongolia, including Xianghuangqi, New Barag Zuoqi, and Togtoh. It is observed that the groundwater may cause a potential health risk after long-term ingestion. The results of this study will contribute to groundwater management and protection in Inner Mongolia.

Spatial Heterogeneity of Household Food Consumption and Nutritional Characteristics of Grassland Transects in Inner Mongolia, China

Household food consumption is the associative link between ecosystems and anthropogenic activities. In grassland areas, inappropriate food consumption patterns will cause irreversible damage to vulnerable local ecosystems. For this study, we selected three typical transitional grassland areas of Inner Mongolia, China (i.e., meadow steppe, typical steppe, and desert steppe), to analyze spatial heterogeneity in household food consumption and nutritional characteristics. Results showed that: (a) Food consumption structures exhibited zonal gradients from east to west alongside a reduction in grassland conditions. Additionally, the average food consumption quantity also decreased. Available food supplies altered household preferences for vegetables and fruits, meat, dairy products, and other food consumption category types. (b) The nutritional structure implied that grains provided the main source of energy, proteins, and fat for local rural households, while meat, dairy products, beans (including bean byproducts), and oils caused a fluctuation in the nutritional structure of residents. (c) Local food supplies affect short-term local food consumption patterns, while socioeconomic development affects long-term food consumption patterns. This study is intended to provide a reference for the development of sustainable strategies for regional resource management.

The salt secretion of leaves promotes the competitiveness of Reaumuria soongarica in a desert grassland

BACKGROUND

For better understanding the mechanism of Reaumuria soongarica community formation in a salt stressed grassland ecosystem, we designed a field experiment to test how leaves salt secretion changes the competitive relationship between species in this plant communities.

RESULTS

Among the three species (R. soongarica, Stipa glareosa and Allium polyrhizum) of the salt stressed grassland ecosystem, the conductivity of R. soongarica rhizosphere soil was the highest in five soil layers (0-55 cm depth). The high soil conductivity can increase the daily salt secretion rate of plant leaves of R. soongarica. In addition, we found the canopy size of R. soongarica was positively related to the distance from S. glareosa or A. polyrhizum. The salt-tolerance of R. soongarica was significantly higher than the other two herbs (S. glareosa and A. polyrhizum). Moreover, there was a threshold (600 µS/cm) for interspecific competition of plants mediated by soil conductivity. When the soil conductivity was lower than 600 µS/cm, the relative biomass of R. soongarica increased with the soil conductivity increase.

CONCLUSIONS

The efficient salt secretion ability of leaves increases soil conductivity under the canopy. This leads the formation of a "saline island" of R. soongarica. Meanwhile R. soongarica have stronger salt tolerance than S. glareosa and A. polyrhizum. These promote the competitiveness of R. soongarica and inhibit interspecies competition advantage of the other two herbs (S. glareosa and A. polyrhizum) in the plant community. It is beneficial for R. soongarica to establish dominant communities in saline regions of desert grassland.

Protocol of the Inner Mongolian Healthy Aging Study (IMAGINS): a longitudinal cohort study

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of premature mortality and burden of diseases in the world. The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region is located in northern China, constitute 17.66% individuals with Mongolian, which have unique diet and lifestyles. Therefore, the Inner Mongolian Healthy Aging Study (IMAGINS) was designed to explore risk factors for chronic diseases and evaluate the effectiveness of health management on CVDs in population at high-risk.

METHODS

The IMAGINS is an ongoing and prospective cohort study of men and women aged ≥35 years from Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, northern China. This study performed in investigating risk factors for CVDs, screening and providing health management strategy for high-risk population of CVDs. The IMAGINS began in September 2015 and scheduled to recruiting and follow-up outcome until 2030. For general population, a long-term follow-up will be conducted every 5 years to collect the information above and data on clinical outcomes. For high-risk population, comprehensive health managements were performed and scheduled to follow-up annually. All IMAGINS participants are followed for incident CVDs and death.

DISCUSSION

The IMAGINS is designed to increase understanding how cardiovascular-related risk factors contribute to the development of CVDs and the positive effect of health management strategy for high-risk CVD participants. Key features of this study include (i) a carefully characterized cohort between high risk of CVDs and non-high risk population; (ii) detailed measurement of CVDs risk factors and health management strategies for high risk population; (iii) long-term follow-up of CVDs and death. The IMAGINS represents a good research opportunity to investigate clinical and genetic factors in high-risk population, might providing basis for the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases.

Influence of Rural Social Capital and Production Mode on the Subjective Well-Being of Farmers and Herdsmen: Empirical Discovery on Farmers and Herdsmen in Inner Mongolia

Rural areas are crucial to the realization of sustainable development goals (SDGs). Rural social capital is indispensable for these areas to fulfil the SDGs. As China pursues rural revitalization, it is essential to achieve the sustainable development of rural areas within the agropastoral transition zone (APTZ) in northern China. The same applies to the SDGs' realization in other APTZs across the globe. From the micro perspective of individual farmers and herdsmen, this article collected 732 microscopic datapoints through repeated rural surveys, and adopted the multivariate ordered probit model to empirically analyze how the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen in northern China's APTZ was affected by the individual (person) and collective (community) layers of rural social capital. Specifically, the production mode was introduced to study the relationship between social capital and subjective well-being, and social capital was measured by a self-designed theoretical analysis framework, which covered six dimensions and two layers (person and community). It was verified that the individual social capital and collective social capital were mutually replaceable in terms of the effect on the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen. Additionally, this article examined the influence of different production modes on the social capital and subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen, and discussed how the same amount of social capital contributes differently to the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen under different production models. The results showed that: (1) Social capital significantly promoted the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen, and social network was the leading contributor among the dimensions of individual social capital, while social trust was the leading contributor among the dimensions of collective social capital. By the contribution to the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen, the six dimensions of social capital can be ranked as social network > social trust > social participation > social standard > social fame > common vision. (2) Individual social capital and collective social capital were mutually replaceable in terms of enhancing the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen; when the individual social capital was insufficient, the collective social capital would exert a much greater influence on the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen; when the individual social capital grows, the farmers and herdsmen would depend less on collective social capital. (3) The same amount of social capital contributes differently to the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen under different production models; by contribution strength, the production models can be ranked as pure herdsmen (PH) > pure farmers (PF) > non-farmers/herdsmen (NFH) > farmers + herdsmen (FH). Finally, several policy suggestions were provided to improve the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen in APTZ. The results show that collective social capital eliminates the negative effect of individual social capital shortage on the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen. Thus, it is suggested to consider not only the construction of macroscopic hardware environment, but also to roll out policies and measures to improve the subjective well-being from the micro perspective of farmers and herdsmen. These suggestions are concentrated on the implementation of China's rural revitalization strategy, and the creation of relevant institutions and cultural environments, as well as the optimization of the internal hierarchy of farmers and herdsmen's social capital. The research results may help to promote the subjective well-being of farmers and herdsmen in rural areas within the APTZs of China and the world, and provide a reference and a path to realize SDGs in China and similar places across the globe.

Epidemiological Characteristics of COVID-19 under Government-mandated Control Measures during January-February 2020 in Inner Mongolia, China

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused severe health impacts to worldwide. The aim of our study was to provide suggestions for government to manage serious infectious disease outbreaks in remote regions with relatively poor medical resources. The basic reproduction number (R₀), incubation period, time from symptom onset to confirmed and duration of hospitalization were analyzed. We compared the composition of imported and local secondary cases, and cases with mild/common and severe/critical illness according to age, sex, and clinical symptoms. From January 23 to February 19, 2020 (less than 1 month), 75 local COVID-19 cases were confirmed in Inner Mongolia. Among them, the median age was 45.0 years and 33 (44.0%) were imported. More than 80.0% cases were mild/common. The case fatality rate was 1.3% and the R₀ was estimated to be 2.3. The median incubation period was 8.5 days. There was a significant difference in the incubation period between imported and local secondary cases (P<0.001). The early and mandatory control strategies implemented by government were associated with a rapid reduction in COVID-19 incidence in Inner Mongolia.