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Noctor G, Cohen M, Trémulot L, Châtel-Innocenti G, Van Breusegem F, Mhamdi A. Glutathione: a key modulator of plant defence and metabolism through multiple mechanisms. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2024; 75:4549-4572. [PMID: 38676714 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erae194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
Redox reactions are fundamental to energy conversion in living cells, and also determine and tune responses to the environment. Within this context, the tripeptide glutathione plays numerous roles. As an important antioxidant, glutathione confers redox stability on the cell and also acts as an interface between signalling pathways and metabolic reactions that fuel growth and development. It also contributes to the assembly of cell components, biosynthesis of sulfur-containing metabolites, inactivation of potentially deleterious compounds, and control of hormonal signalling intensity. The multiplicity of these roles probably explains why glutathione status has been implicated in influencing plant responses to many different conditions. In particular, there is now a considerable body of evidence showing that glutathione is a crucial player in governing the outcome of biotic stresses. This review provides an overview of glutathione synthesis, transport, degradation, and redox turnover in plants. It examines the expression of genes associated with these processes during pathogen challenge and related conditions, and considers the diversity of mechanisms by which glutathione can influence protein function and gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Noctor
- Institut des Sciences des Plantes de Paris-Saclay, Unité Mixte de Recherche 8618 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), France
| | - Mathias Cohen
- Institut des Sciences des Plantes de Paris-Saclay, Unité Mixte de Recherche 8618 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lug Trémulot
- Institut des Sciences des Plantes de Paris-Saclay, Unité Mixte de Recherche 8618 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
| | - Gilles Châtel-Innocenti
- Institut des Sciences des Plantes de Paris-Saclay, Unité Mixte de Recherche 8618 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
| | - Frank Van Breusegem
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Amna Mhamdi
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
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Kozieł E, Otulak-Kozieł K, Rusin P. Glutathione-the "master" antioxidant in the regulation of resistant and susceptible host-plant virus-interaction. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1373801. [PMID: 38533404 PMCID: PMC10963531 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1373801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
The interaction between plant hosts and plant viruses is a very unique and complex process, relying on dynamically modulated intercellular redox states and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Plants strive to precisely control this state during biotic stress, as optimal redox levels enable proper induction of defense mechanisms against plant viruses. One of the crucial elements of ROS regulation and redox state is the production of metabolites, such as glutathione, or the activation of glutathione-associated enzymes. Both of these elements play a role in limiting the degree of potential oxidative damage in plant cells. While the role of glutathione and specific enzymes is well understood in other types of abiotic and biotic stresses, particularly those associated with bacteria or fungi, recent advances in research have highlighted the significance of glutathione modulation and mutations in genes encoding glutathione-associated enzymes in triggering immunity or susceptibility against plant viruses. Apparently, glutathione-associated genes are involved in precisely controlling and protecting host cells from damage caused by ROS during viral infections, playing a crucial role in the host's response. In this review, we aim to outline the significant improvements made in research on plant viruses and glutathione, specifically in the context of their involvement in susceptible and resistant responses, as well as changes in the localization of glutathione. Analyses of essential glutathione-associated enzymes in susceptible and resistant responses have demonstrated that the levels of enzymatic activity or the absence of specific enzymes can impact the spread of the virus and activate host-induced defense mechanisms. This contributes to the complex network of the plant immune system. Although investigations of glutathione during the plant-virus interplay remain a challenge, the use of novel tools and approaches to explore its role will significantly contribute to our knowledge in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Kozieł
- *Correspondence: Edmund Kozieł, ; Katarzyna Otulak-Kozieł,
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Otulak-Kozieł K, Kozieł E, Treder K, Király L. Glutathione Contribution in Interactions between Turnip mosaic virus and Arabidopsis thaliana Mutants Lacking Respiratory Burst Oxidase Homologs D and F. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087128. [PMID: 37108292 PMCID: PMC10138990 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory burst oxidase homologs (Rbohs) play crucial and diverse roles in plant tissue-mediated production of reactive oxygen species during the development, growth, and response of plants to abiotic and biotic stress. Many studies have demonstrated the contribution of RbohD and RbohF in stress signaling in pathogen response differentially modulating the immune response, but the potential role of the Rbohs-mediated response in plant-virus interactions remains unknown. The present study analyzed, for the first time, the metabolism of glutathione in rbohD-, rbohF-, and rbohD/F-transposon-knockout mutants in response to Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) infection. rbohD-TuMV and Col-0-TuMV interactions were characterized by susceptible reaction to TuMV, associated with significant activity of GPXLs (glutathione peroxidase-like enzymes) and induction of lipid peroxidation in comparison to mock-inoculated plants, with reduced total cellular and apoplastic glutathione content observed at 7-14 dpi and dynamic induction of apoplast GSSG (oxidized glutathione) at 1-14 dpi. Systemic virus infection resulted in the induction of AtGSTU1 and AtGSTU24, which was highly correlated with significant downregulation of GSTs (glutathione transferases) and cellular and apoplastic GGT (γ-glutamyl transferase) with GR (glutathione reductase) activities. On the contrary, resistant rbohF-TuMV reactions, and especially enhanced rbohD/F-TuMV reactions, were characterized by a highly dynamic increase in total cellular and apoplastic glutathione content, with induction of relative expression of AtGGT1, AtGSTU13, and AtGSTU19 genes. Moreover, virus limitation was highly correlated with the upregulation of GSTs, as well as cellular and apoplastic GGT with GR activities. These findings clearly indicate that glutathione can act as a key signaling factor in not only susceptible rbohD reaction but also the resistance reaction presented by rbohF and rbohD/F mutants during TuMV interaction. Furthermore, by actively reducing the pool of glutathione in the apoplast, GGT and GR enzymes acted as a cell first line in the Arabidopsis-TuMV pathosystem response, protecting the cell from oxidative stress in resistant interactions. These dynamically changed signal transductions involved symplast and apoplast in mediated response to TuMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Otulak-Kozieł
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Edmund Kozieł
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Treder
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostic and Biochemistry, Bonin Research Center, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-National Research Institute, 76-009 Bonin, Poland
| | - Lóránt Király
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network (ELKH), 15 Herman Ottó Str., H-1022 Budapest, Hungary
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AtGSTU19 and AtGSTU24 as Moderators of the Response of Arabidopsis thaliana to Turnip mosaic virus. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911531. [PMID: 36232831 PMCID: PMC9570173 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants produce glutathione as a response to the intercellular redox state. Glutathione actively participates in the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent signaling pathway, especially under biotic stress conditions. Most of the glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are induced in cells during the defense response of plants not only through highly specific glutathione-binding abilities but also by participating in the signaling function. The tau class of GSTs has been reported to be induced as a response under stress conditions. Although several studies have focused on the role of the tau class of GSTs in plant–pathogen interactions, knowledge about their contribution to the response to virus inoculation is still inadequate. Therefore, in this study, the response of Atgstu19 and Atgstu24 knockout mutants to mechanical inoculation of Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) was examined. The systemic infection of TuMV was more dynamically promoted in Atgstu19 mutants than in wild-type (Col-0) plants, suggesting the role of GSTU19 in TuMV resistance. However, Atgstu24 mutants displayed virus limitation and downregulation of the relative expression of TuMV capsid protein, accompanied rarely by TuMV particles only in vacuoles, and ultrastructural analyses of inoculated leaves revealed the lack of virus cytoplasmic inclusions. These findings indicated that Atgstu24 mutants displayed a resistance-like reaction to TuMV, suggesting that GSTU24 may suppress the plant resistance. In addition, these findings confirmed that GSTU1 and GSTU24 are induced and contribute to the susceptible reaction to TuMV in the Atgstu19–TuMV interaction. However, the upregulation of GSTU19 and GSTU13 highly correlated with virus limitation in the resistance-like reaction in the Atgstu24–TuMV interaction. Furthermore, the highly dynamic upregulation of GST and glutathione reductase (GR) activities resulted in significant induction (between 1 and 14 days post inoculation [dpi]) of the total glutathione pool (GSH + GSSG) in response to TuMV, which was accompanied by the distribution of active glutathione in plant cells. On the contrary, in Atgstu19, which is susceptible to TuMV interaction, upregulation of GST and GR activity only up to 7 dpi symptom development was reported, which resulted in the induction of the total glutathione pool between 1 and 3 dpi. These observations indicated that GSTU19 and GSTU24 are important factors in modulating the response to TuMV in Arabidopsis thaliana. Moreover, it was clear that glutathione is an important component of the regulatory network in resistance and susceptible response of A. thaliana to TuMV. These results help achieve a better understanding of the mechanisms regulating the Arabidopsis–TuMV pathosystem.
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Gasperl A, Zellnig G, Kocsy G, Müller M. Organelle-specific localization of glutathione in plants grown under different light intensities and spectra. Histochem Cell Biol 2022; 158:213-227. [PMID: 35486180 PMCID: PMC9399215 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-022-02103-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Plant ascorbate and glutathione metabolism counteracts oxidative stress mediated, for example, by excess light. In this review, we discuss the properties of immunocytochemistry and transmission electron microscopy, redox-sensitive dyes or probes and bright-field microscopy, confocal microscopy or fluorescence microscopy for the visualization and quantification of glutathione at the cellular or subcellular level in plants and the quantification of glutathione from isolated organelles. In previous studies, we showed that subcellular ascorbate and glutathione levels in Arabidopsis are affected by high light stress. The use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) is gaining increasing importance in growing indoor crops and ornamental plants. A combination of different LED types allows custom-made combinations of wavelengths and prevents damage related to high photon flux rates. In this review we provide an overview on how different light spectra and light intensities affect glutathione metabolism at the cellular and subcellular levels in plants. Findings obtained in our most recent study demonstrate that both light intensity and spectrum significantly affected glutathione metabolism in wheat at the transcriptional level and caused genotype-specific reactions in the investigated Arabidopsis lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Gasperl
- Institute of Biology, Plant Sciences, NAWI Graz, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Günther Zellnig
- Institute of Biology, Plant Sciences, NAWI Graz, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Gábor Kocsy
- Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary
| | - Maria Müller
- Institute of Biology, Plant Sciences, NAWI Graz, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Otulak-Kozieł K, Kozieł E, Przewodowski W, Ciacka K, Przewodowska A. Glutathione Modulation in PVY NTN Susceptible and Resistant Potato Plant Interactions. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073797. [PMID: 35409157 PMCID: PMC8998174 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione is a metabolite that plays an important role in plant response to biotic stress through its ability to remove reactive oxygen species, thereby limiting the degree of potential oxidative damage. It can couple changes in the intracellular redox state to the development, especially the defense responses, of plants. Several studies have focused on measuring glutathione levels in virus infected plants, but have not provided complete information. Therefore, we analyzed, for the first time, the content of glutathione as well as its ultrastructural distribution related to susceptible and hypersensitive potato–Potato virus Y NTN (PVYNTN) interaction, with an aim of providing new insight into interactive responses to PVYNTN stress. Our findings reported that the inoculation of PVYNTN caused a dynamic increase in the content of glutathione, not only in resistance but also in susceptible reaction, especially at the first steps of plant–virus interaction. Moreover, the increase in hypersensitive response was much more dynamic, and accompanied by a significant reduction in the content of PVYNTN. By contrast, in susceptible potato Irys, the content of glutathione decreased between 7 and 21 days after virus inoculation, which led to a significant increase in PVYNTN concentration. Additionally, our findings clearly indicated the steady induction of two selected potato glutathione S-transferase StGSTF1 and StGSTF2 genes after PVYNTN inoculation, regardless of the interaction type. However, the relative expression level of StGSTF1 did not significantly differ between resistant and susceptible plants, whereas the relative expression levels of StGSTF2 differed between susceptible and resistant reactions. Therefore, we proposed that StGSTF2 can act as a marker of the type of response to PVYNTN. Our observations indicated that glutathione is an important component of signaling as well as the regulatory network in the PVYNTN–potato pathosystem. In resistance responses to PVYNTN, this metabolite activates plant defenses by reducing potential damage to the host plant cell, causing a reduction in virus concentration, while it can also be involved in the development of PVYNTN elicited symptoms, as well as limiting oxidative stress, leading to systemic infection in susceptible potato plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Otulak-Kozieł
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence: (K.O.-K.); (E.K.)
| | - Edmund Kozieł
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence: (K.O.-K.); (E.K.)
| | - Włodzimierz Przewodowski
- Laboratory of Potato Gene Resources and Tissue Culture, Bonin Research Center, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute—National Research Institute, 76-009 Bonin, Poland; (W.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Katarzyna Ciacka
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska Street 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Agnieszka Przewodowska
- Laboratory of Potato Gene Resources and Tissue Culture, Bonin Research Center, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute—National Research Institute, 76-009 Bonin, Poland; (W.P.); (A.P.)
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Zhu F, Zhang Q, Che Y, Zhu P, Zhang Q, Ji Z. Glutathione contributes to resistance responses to TMV through a differential modulation of salicylic acid and reactive oxygen species. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2021; 22:1668-1687. [PMID: 34553471 PMCID: PMC8578835 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is induced by pathogens and confers protection against a broad range of pathogens. Several SAR signals have been characterized, but the nature of the other unknown signalling by small metabolites in SAR remains unclear. Glutathione (GSH) has long been implicated in the defence reaction against biotic stress. However, the mechanism that GSH increases plant tolerance against virus infection is not entirely known. Here, a combination of a chemical, virus-induced gene-silencing-based genetics approach, and transgenic technology was undertaken to investigate the role of GSH in plant viral resistance in Nicotiana benthamiana. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection results in increasing the expression of GSH biosynthesis genes NbECS and NbGS, and GSH content. Silencing of NbECS or NbGS accelerated oxidative damage, increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), compromised plant resistance to TMV, and suppressed the salicylic acid (SA)-mediated signalling pathway. Application of GSH or l-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (a GSH activator) alleviated oxidative damage, decreased accumulation of ROS, elevated plant local and systemic resistance, enhanced the SA-mediated signalling pathway, and increased the expression of ROS scavenging-related genes. However, treatment with buthionine sulfoximine (a GSH inhibitor) accelerated oxidative damage, elevated ROS accumulation, compromised plant systemic resistance, suppressed the SA-mediated signalling pathway, and reduced the expression of ROS-regulating genes. Overexpression of NbECS reduced oxidative damage, decreased accumulation of ROS, increased resistance to TMV, activated the SA-mediated signalling pathway, and increased the expression of the ROS scavenging-related genes. We present molecular evidence suggesting GSH is essential for both local and systemic resistance of N. benthamiana to TMV through a differential modulation of SA and ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhu
- College of Horticulture and Plant ProtectionJoint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri‐Product Safety, the Ministry of Education of ChinaYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Qi‐Ping Zhang
- College of Horticulture and Plant ProtectionJoint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri‐Product Safety, the Ministry of Education of ChinaYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Yan‐Ping Che
- College of Horticulture and Plant ProtectionJoint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri‐Product Safety, the Ministry of Education of ChinaYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Peng‐Xiang Zhu
- College of Horticulture and Plant ProtectionJoint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri‐Product Safety, the Ministry of Education of ChinaYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Qin‐Qin Zhang
- College of Horticulture and Plant ProtectionJoint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri‐Product Safety, the Ministry of Education of ChinaYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Zhao‐Lin Ji
- College of Horticulture and Plant ProtectionJoint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri‐Product Safety, the Ministry of Education of ChinaYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
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Király L, Albert R, Zsemberi O, Schwarczinger I, Hafez YM, Künstler A. Reactive Oxygen Species Contribute to Symptomless, Extreme Resistance to Potato virus X in Tobacco. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2021; 111:1870-1884. [PMID: 33593113 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-12-20-0540-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Here we show that in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cultivar Samsun NN Rx1) the development of Rx1 gene-mediated, symptomless, extreme resistance to Potato virus X (PVX) is preceded by an early, intensive accumulation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) superoxide (O2·-), evident between 1 and 6 h after inoculation and associated with increased nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase activities. This suggests a direct contribution of this ROS to virus restriction during symptomless, extreme resistance. Superoxide inhibition in PVX-inoculated leaves by infiltration of antioxidants (superoxide dismutase [SOD] and catalase [CAT]) partially suppresses extreme resistance in parallel with the appearance of localized leaf necrosis resembling a hypersensitive resistance (HR) response. F1 progeny from crosses of Rx1 and ferritin overproducer (deficient in production of the ROS OH·) tobaccos also display a suppressed extreme resistance to PVX, because significantly increased virus levels are coupled to HR, suggesting a role of the hydroxyl radical (OH·) in this symptomless antiviral defense. In addition, treatment of PVX-susceptible tobacco with a superoxide-generating agent (riboflavin/methionine) results in HR-like symptoms and reduced PVX titers. Finally, by comparing defense responses during PVX-elicited symptomless, extreme resistance and HR-type resistance elicited by Tobacco mosaic virus, we conclude that defense reactions typical of an HR (e.g., induction of cell death/ROS-regulator genes and antioxidants) are early and transient in the course of extreme resistance. Our results demonstrate the contribution of early accumulation of ROS (superoxide, OH·) in limiting PVX replication during symptomless extreme resistance and support earlier findings that virus-elicited HR represents a delayed, slower resistance response than symptomless, extreme resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lóránt Király
- Department of Plant Pathophysiology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network (ELKH), H-1022 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Réka Albert
- Department of Plant Pathophysiology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network (ELKH), H-1022 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Orsolya Zsemberi
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ildikó Schwarczinger
- Department of Plant Pathophysiology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network (ELKH), H-1022 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Yaser Mohamed Hafez
- EPCRS Excellence Center & Plant Pathology and Biotechnology Lab, Department of Agricultural Botany, Faculty of Agriculture, Kafrelsheikh University, 33516 Kafr-El-Sheikh, Egypt
| | - András Künstler
- Department of Plant Pathophysiology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network (ELKH), H-1022 Budapest, Hungary
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The Versatile Roles of Sulfur-Containing Biomolecules in Plant Defense-A Road to Disease Resistance. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9121705. [PMID: 33287437 PMCID: PMC7761819 DOI: 10.3390/plants9121705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Sulfur (S) is an essential plant macronutrient and the pivotal role of sulfur compounds in plant disease resistance has become obvious in recent decades. This review attempts to recapitulate results on the various functions of sulfur-containing defense compounds (SDCs) in plant defense responses to pathogens. These compounds include sulfur containing amino acids such as cysteine and methionine, the tripeptide glutathione, thionins and defensins, glucosinolates and phytoalexins and, last but not least, reactive sulfur species and hydrogen sulfide. SDCs play versatile roles both in pathogen perception and initiating signal transduction pathways that are interconnected with various defense processes regulated by plant hormones (salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and ethylene) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Importantly, ROS-mediated reversible oxidation of cysteine residues on plant proteins have profound effects on protein functions like signal transduction of plant defense responses during pathogen infections. Indeed, the multifaceted plant defense responses initiated by SDCs should provide novel tools for plant breeding to endow crops with efficient defense responses to invading pathogens.
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Zechmann B. Subcellular Roles of Glutathione in Mediating Plant Defense during Biotic Stress. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9091067. [PMID: 32825274 PMCID: PMC7569779 DOI: 10.3390/plants9091067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione and reactive oxygen species (ROS) play important roles, within different cell compartments, in activating plant defense and the development of resistance. In mitochondria, the accumulation of ROS and the change of glutathione towards its oxidized state leads to mitochondrial dysfunction, activates cell death, and triggers resistance. The accumulation of glutathione in chloroplasts and peroxisomes at the early stages of plant pathogen interactions is related to increased tolerance and resistance. The collapse of the antioxidative system in these two cell compartments at the later stages leads to cell death through retrograde signaling. The cytosol can be considered to be the switchboard during biotic stress where glutathione is synthesized, equally distributed to, and collected from different cell compartments. Changes in the redox state of glutathione and the accumulation of ROS in the cytosol during biotic stress can initiate the activation of defense genes in nuclei through pathways that involve salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, auxins, and abscisic acid. This review dissects the roles of glutathione in individual organelles during compatible and incompatible bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases in plants and explores the subcelluar roles of ROS, glutathione, ascorbate, and related enzymes in the development of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Zechmann
- Center for Microscopy and Imaging, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97046, Waco, TX 76798, USA
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11
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Künstler A, Kátay G, Gullner G, Király L. Artificial elevation of glutathione contents in salicylic acid-deficient tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi NahG) reduces susceptibility to the powdery mildew pathogen Euoidium longipes. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2020; 22:70-80. [PMID: 31283085 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The effects of elevated glutathione levels on defence responses to powdery mildew (Euoidium longipes) were investigated in a salicylic acid-deficient tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi NahG) and wild-type cv. Xanthi plants, where salicylic acid (SA) contents are normal. Aqueous solutions of reduced glutathione (GSH) and its synthetic precursor R-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OTC) were injected into leaves of tobacco plants 3 h before powdery mildew inoculation. SA-deficient NahG tobacco was hyper-susceptible to E. longipes, as judged by significantly more severe powdery mildew symptoms and enhanced pathogen accumulation. Strikingly, elevation of GSH levels in SA-deficient NahG tobacco restored susceptibility to E. longipes to the extent seen in wild-type plants (i.e. enhanced basal resistance). However, expression of the SA-mediated pathogenesis-related gene (NtPR-1a) did not increase significantly in GSH or OTC-pretreated and powdery mildew-inoculated NahG tobacco, suggesting that the induction of this PR gene may not be directly involved in the defence responses induced by GSH. Our results demonstrate that artificial elevation of glutathione content can significantly reduce susceptibility to powdery mildew in SA-deficient tobacco.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Künstler
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - G Kátay
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - G Gullner
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - L Király
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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12
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Künstler A, Király L, Kátay G, Enyedi AJ, Gullner G. Glutathione Can Compensate for Salicylic Acid Deficiency in Tobacco to Maintain Resistance to Tobacco Mosaic Virus. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1115. [PMID: 31608082 PMCID: PMC6769422 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Earlier studies showed that the artificial elevation of endogenous glutathione (GSH) contents can markedly increase the resistance of plants against different viruses. On the other hand, salicylic acid (SA)-deficient NahG plants display enhanced susceptibility to viral infections. In the present study, the biochemical mechanisms underlying GSH-induced resistance were investigated in various tobacco biotypes displaying markedly different GSH and SA levels. The endogenous GSH levels of Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi NN and N. tabacum cv. Xanthi NN NahG tobacco leaves were increased by infiltration of exogenous GSH or its synthetic precursor R-2-oxo-4-thiazolidine-carboxylic acid (OTC). Alternatively, we also used tobacco lines containing high GSH levels due to transgenes encoding critical enzymes for cysteine and GSH biosynthesis. We crossed Xanthi NN and NahG tobaccos with the GSH overproducer transgenic tobacco lines in order to obtain F1 progenies with increased levels of GSH and decreased levels of SA. We demonstrated that in SA-deficient NahG tobacco the elevation of in planta GSH and GSSG levels either by exogenous GSH or by crossing with glutathione overproducing plants confers enhanced resistance to Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) manifested as both reduced symptoms (i.e. suppression of hypersensitive-type localized necrosis) and lower virus titers. The beneficial effects of elevated GSH on TMV resistance was markedly stronger in NahG than in Xanthi NN leaves. Infiltration of exogenous GSH and OTC or crossing with GSH overproducer tobacco lines resulted in a substantial rise of bound SA and to a lesser extent of free SA levels in tobacco, especially following TMV infection. Significant increases in expression of pathogenesis related (NtPR-1a, and NtPRB-1b), and glutathione S-transferase (NtGSTtau, and NtGSTphi) genes were evident in TMV-inoculated leaves in later stages of pathogenesis. However, the highest levels of defense gene expression were associated with SA-deficiency, rather than enhanced TMV resistance. In summary, elevated levels of glutathione in TMV-infected tobacco can compensate for SA deficiency to maintain virus resistance. Our results suggest that glutathione-induced redox changes are important components of antiviral signaling in tobacco.
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Affiliation(s)
- András Künstler
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Lóránt Király
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - György Kátay
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Alexander J Enyedi
- Office of Academic Affairs, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, United States
| | - Gábor Gullner
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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Tuzet A, Rahantaniaina MS, Noctor G. Analyzing the Function of Catalase and the Ascorbate-Glutathione Pathway in H 2O 2 Processing: Insights from an Experimentally Constrained Kinetic Model. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 30:1238-1268. [PMID: 30044135 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2018.7601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Plant stress involves redox signaling linked to reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which can be generated at high rates in photosynthetic cells. The systems that process H2O2 include catalase (CAT) and the ascorbate-glutathione pathway, but interactions between them remain unclear. Modeling can aid interpretation and pinpoint areas for investigation. Recent Advances: Based on emerging data and concepts, we introduce a new experimentally constrained kinetic model to analyze interactions between H2O2, CAT, ascorbate, glutathione, and NADPH. The sensitivity points required for accurate simulation of experimental observations are analyzed, and the implications for H2O2-linked redox signaling are discussed. CRITICAL ISSUES We discuss several implications of the modeled results, in particular the following. (i) CAT and ascorbate peroxidase can share the load in H2O2 processing even in optimal conditions. (ii) Intracellular H2O2 concentrations more than the low μM range may rarely occur. (iii) Ascorbate redox turnover is largely independent of glutathione until ascorbate peroxidation exceeds a certain value. (iv) NADPH availability may determine glutathione redox status through its influence on monodehydroascorbate reduction. (v) The sensitivity of glutathione status to oxidative stress emphasizes its potential suitability as a sensor of increased H2O2. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Important future questions include the roles of other antioxidative systems in interacting with CAT and the ascorbate-glutathione pathway as well as the nature and significance of processes that achieve redox exchange between different subcellular compartments. Progress in these areas is likely to be favored by integrating kinetic modeling analyses into experimentally based programs, allowing each approach to inform the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrée Tuzet
- 1 Unité Mixte de Recherche ECOSYS/Pôle BIOCLIMATOLOGIE, INRA-AgroParisTech, Thiverval-Grignon, France
| | - Marie-Sylviane Rahantaniaina
- 1 Unité Mixte de Recherche ECOSYS/Pôle BIOCLIMATOLOGIE, INRA-AgroParisTech, Thiverval-Grignon, France.,2 Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, INRA, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Sorbonne Paris-Cité, Orsay, France
| | - Graham Noctor
- 2 Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, INRA, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Sorbonne Paris-Cité, Orsay, France
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14
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Siddiqui ZA, Khan MR, Abd_Allah EF, Parveen A. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles affect some bacterial diseases, and growth and physiological changes of beetroot. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/19315260.2018.1523267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Manzoor R. Khan
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - Elsayed F. Abd_Allah
- Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Food & Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Aiman Parveen
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
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De S, Chavez‐Calvillo G, Wahlsten M, Mäkinen K. Disruption of the methionine cycle and reduced cellular gluthathione levels underlie potex-potyvirus synergism in Nicotiana benthamiana. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2018; 19:1820-1835. [PMID: 29363853 PMCID: PMC6638099 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Infection caused by the synergistic interaction of two plant viruses is typically manifested by severe symptoms and increased accumulation of either virus. In potex-potyviral synergism, the potyviral RNA silencing suppressor helper component proteinase (HCPro) is known to enhance the pathogenicity of the potexvirus counterpart. In line with this, Potato virus X (PVX; genus Potexvirus) genomic RNA (gRNA) accumulation and gene expression from subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) are increased in Nicotiana benthamiana by Potato virus A (PVA; genus Potyvirus) HCPro expression. Recently, we have demonstrated that PVA HCPro interferes with the host cell methionine cycle by interacting with its key enzymes S-adenosyl-l-methionine synthetase (SAMS) and S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine hydrolase (SAHH). To study the involvement of methionine cycle enzymes in PVX infection, we knocked down SAMS and SAHH. Increased PVX sgRNA expression between 3 and 9 days post-infiltration (dpi) and upregulation of (-)-strand gRNA accumulation at 9 dpi were observed in the SAHH-silenced background. We found that SAMS and SAHH silencing also caused a significant reduction in glutathione (GSH) concentration, specifically in PVX-infected plants between 2 and 9 dpi. Interestingly, HCPro expression in PVX-infected plants caused an even stronger reduction in GSH levels than did SAMS + SAHH silencing and a similar level of reduction was also achieved by knocking down GSH synthetase. PVX sgRNA expression was increased in the GSH synthetase-silenced background. GSH is a major antioxidant of plant cells and therefore GSH shortage may explain the strong oxidative stress and severe symptoms observed during potex-potyvirus mixed infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarnalok De
- Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Viikki Plant Sciences CentreUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinki 00014Finland
| | - Gabriela Chavez‐Calvillo
- Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Viikki Plant Sciences CentreUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinki 00014Finland
- Present address:
Department of Entomology and Plant PathologyAuburn UniversityAuburn36849, ALUSA
| | - Matti Wahlsten
- Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Viikki Plant Sciences CentreUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinki 00014Finland
| | - Kristiina Mäkinen
- Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Viikki Plant Sciences CentreUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinki 00014Finland
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Hu B, Sakakibara H, Takebayashi Y, Peters FS, Schumacher J, Eiblmeier M, Arab L, Kreuzwieser J, Polle A, Rennenberg H. Mistletoe infestation mediates alteration of the phytohormone profile and anti-oxidative metabolism in bark and wood of its host Pinus sylvestris. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 37:676-691. [PMID: 28338758 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpx006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
European mistletoe (Viscum album L.) has largely infested Central European forests and causes high mortality probability particularly in dry years. However, little information is available about the consequences of mistletoe infestation for metabolic processes in bark and wood of its host, despite their important roles in infestation defense. We analyzed the tissue hydration, carbohydrate composition, phytohormone profile, reactive oxygen species and anti-oxidant levels in bark and wood of Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris L.), as dependent on mistletoe infestation. As a consequence of mistletoe infestation, host bark and wood showed impaired hydration and reduced total carbon content. In the bark, soluble sugar and lignin contents increased, apparently at the expense of holo-cellulose. Hydrogen peroxide accumulation was accompanied by increased glutathione and decreased reduced ascorbic acid levels. Mistletoe infestation mediated alteration of the phytohormone profile in bark and wood of its host. Cytokinins, jasmonic acid and abscisic acid levels increased in both tissues, whereas salicylic acid and indole-3-acetic acid, which were only detected in the bark, declined. The present results show that mistletoe infestation affects both the host's anti-oxidative defense system and the phytohormone profile after establishment of the xylem tapping haustorium. The significance of these processes for the development of the woody mistletoe stem and the haustorium is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Hu
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, 712100 Yangling, China
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 53/54, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Hitoshi Sakakibara
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Tsurumi, 230-0045 Yokohama, Japan
| | - Yumiko Takebayashi
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Tsurumi, 230-0045 Yokohama, Japan
| | - Franziska S Peters
- Department of Forest Protection, FVA Forest Research Institute of Baden-Württemberg (FVA-BW), Wonnhaldestr. 4, 79100 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Schumacher
- Department of Forest Protection, FVA Forest Research Institute of Baden-Württemberg (FVA-BW), Wonnhaldestr. 4, 79100 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Monika Eiblmeier
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 53/54, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Leila Arab
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 53/54, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Kreuzwieser
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 53/54, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andrea Polle
- Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, Georg-August Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Heinz Rennenberg
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 53/54, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- College of Sciences, King Saud University, 11451 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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17
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Spoustová P, Hýsková V, Müller K, Schnablová R, Ryšlavá H, Čeřovská N, Malbeck J, Cvikrová M, Synková H. Tobacco susceptibility to Potato virus Y(NTN) infection is affected by grafting and endogenous cytokinin content. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 235:25-36. [PMID: 25900563 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Faster or stronger response to pathogen occurs if plants undergo prior priming. Cytokinins seem to be also involved in plant priming and in response to pathogens. Susceptibility to Potato virus Y(NTN) (PVY(NTN)) was studied in transgenic cytokinin overproducing (Pssu-ipt) tobacco and compared with nontransgenic plants. Since cytokinin overproduction inhibits development of plant roots and grafting overcomes this limitation, both types were grown as rooted and/or grafted plants to check also the effect of grafting. Control rooted tobacco (C), the most susceptible to PVY(NTN), showed always symptoms during the infection together with the rising virus content and a systemic response, such as accumulation of H2O2, salicylic acid (SA) and other phenolic acids, and stress-induced enzyme activities. In transgenic and grafted plants, the response to PVY(NTN) was dependent on protective mechanisms activated prior to the inoculation. In Pssu-ipt tobacco, cytokinin active forms and SA contents exceeded manifold their content in C. Grafting promoted the accumulation of phenolics, but SA, and stimulated peroxidase activities. Thus, the pre-infection barrier established in both transgenic and grafted plants helped to suppress partly the virus multiplication and resulted in milder symptom development. However, only the synergic effect of both grafting and the high cytokinins led to PVY(NTN) tolerance in transgenic grafts. Possible mechanisms were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Spoustová
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the CR, Rozvojová 313, CZ-165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic; Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 5, CZ-128 43 Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Hýsková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030, 128 43 Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Müller
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the CR, Rozvojová 313, CZ-165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Renata Schnablová
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the CR, Rozvojová 313, CZ-165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Ryšlavá
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030, 128 43 Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Noemi Čeřovská
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the CR, Rozvojová 313, CZ-165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Malbeck
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the CR, Rozvojová 313, CZ-165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Milena Cvikrová
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the CR, Rozvojová 313, CZ-165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Synková
- Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the CR, Rozvojová 313, CZ-165 02 Praha 6, Czech Republic.
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Anjum NA, Gill R, Kaushik M, Hasanuzzaman M, Pereira E, Ahmad I, Tuteja N, Gill SS. ATP-sulfurylase, sulfur-compounds, and plant stress tolerance. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:210. [PMID: 25904923 PMCID: PMC4387935 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Sulfur (S) stands fourth in the list of major plant nutrients after N, P, and K. Sulfate (SO4 (2-)), a form of soil-S taken up by plant roots is metabolically inert. As the first committed step of S-assimilation, ATP-sulfurylase (ATP-S) catalyzes SO4 (2-)-activation and yields activated high-energy compound adenosine-5(')-phosphosulfate that is reduced to sulfide (S(2-)) and incorporated into cysteine (Cys). In turn, Cys acts as a precursor or donor of reduced S for a range of S-compounds such as methionine (Met), glutathione (GSH), homo-GSH (h-GSH), and phytochelatins (PCs). Among S-compounds, GSH, h-GSH, and PCs are known for their involvement in plant tolerance to varied abiotic stresses, Cys is a major component of GSH, h-GSH, and PCs; whereas, several key stress-metabolites such as ethylene, are controlled by Met through its first metabolite S-adenosylmethionine. With the major aim of briefly highlighting S-compound-mediated role of ATP-S in plant stress tolerance, this paper: (a) overviews ATP-S structure/chemistry and occurrence, (b) appraises recent literature available on ATP-S roles and regulations, and underlying mechanisms in plant abiotic and biotic stress tolerance, (c) summarizes ATP-S-intrinsic regulation by major S-compounds, and (d) highlights major open-questions in the present context. Future research in the current direction can be devised based on the discussion outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naser A. Anjum
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies & Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, AveiroPortugal
| | - Ritu Gill
- Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Lab, Centre for Biotechnology, Maharshi Dayanand University, RohtakIndia
| | - Manjeri Kaushik
- Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Lab, Centre for Biotechnology, Maharshi Dayanand University, RohtakIndia
| | - Mirza Hasanuzzaman
- Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, DhakaBangladesh
| | - Eduarda Pereira
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies & Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, AveiroPortugal
| | - Iqbal Ahmad
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies & Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, AveiroPortugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies & Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, AveiroPortugal
| | - Narendra Tuteja
- Plant Molecular Biology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New DelhiIndia
| | - Sarvajeet S. Gill
- Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Lab, Centre for Biotechnology, Maharshi Dayanand University, RohtakIndia
- *Correspondence: Sarvajeet S. Gill, Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Lab, Centre for Biotechnology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124 001, India
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19
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Rodríguez-Hernández MDC, Moreno DA, Carvajal M, Martínez-Ballesta MDC. Genotype influences sulfur metabolism in broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) under elevated CO2 and NaCl stress. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 55:2047-2059. [PMID: 25246493 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcu130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Climatic change predicts elevated salinity in soils as well as increased carbon dioxide dioxide [CO2] in the atmosphere. The present study aims to determine the effect of combined salinity and elevated [CO2] on sulfur (S) metabolism and S-derived phytochemicals in green and purple broccoli (cv. Naxos and cv. Viola, respectively). Elevated [CO2] involved the amelioration of salt stress, especially in cv. Viola, where a lower biomass reduction by salinity was accompanied by higher sodium (Na(+)) and chloride (Cl(-)) compartmentation in the vacuole. Moreover, salinity and elevated [CO2] affected the mineral and glucosinolate contents and the activity of biosynthetic enzymes of S-derived compounds and the degradative enzyme of glucosinolate metabolism, myrosinase, as well as the related amino acids and the antioxidant glutathione (GSH). In cv. Naxos, elevated [CO2] may trigger the antioxidant response to saline stress by means of increased GSH concentration. Also, in cv. Naxos, indolic glucosinolates were more influenced by the NaCl×CO2 interaction whereas in cv. Viola the aliphatic glucosinolates were significantly increased by these conditions. Salinity and elevated [CO2] enhanced the S cellular partitioning and metabolism affecting the myrosinase-glucosinolate system.
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Affiliation(s)
- María del Carmen Rodríguez-Hernández
- Department of Plant Nutrition, Centro de Edafologia y Biologia Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Campus de Espinardo, Edificio 25, E-Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Diego A Moreno
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Centro de Edafologia y Biologia Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Campus de Espinardo, Edificio 25, E-Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Micaela Carvajal
- Department of Plant Nutrition, Centro de Edafologia y Biologia Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Campus de Espinardo, Edificio 25, E-Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - María del Carmen Martínez-Ballesta
- Department of Plant Nutrition, Centro de Edafologia y Biologia Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Campus de Espinardo, Edificio 25, E-Murcia, 30100, Spain
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20
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Zechmann B. Compartment-specific importance of glutathione during abiotic and biotic stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:566. [PMID: 25368627 PMCID: PMC4202713 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The tripeptide thiol glutathione (γ-L-glutamyl-L-cysteinyl-glycine) is the most important sulfur containing antioxidant in plants and essential for plant defense against abiotic and biotic stress conditions. It is involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS), redox signaling, the modulation of defense gene expression, and the regulation of enzymatic activities. Even though changes in glutathione contents are well documented in plants and its roles in plant defense are well established, still too little is known about its compartment-specific importance during abiotic and biotic stress conditions. Due to technical advances in the visualization of glutathione and the redox state through microscopical methods some progress was made in the last few years in studying the importance of subcellular glutathione contents during stress conditions in plants. This review summarizes the data available on compartment-specific importance of glutathione in the protection against abiotic and biotic stress conditions such as high light stress, exposure to cadmium, drought, and pathogen attack (Pseudomonas, Botrytis, tobacco mosaic virus). The data will be discussed in connection with the subcellular accumulation of ROS during these conditions and glutathione synthesis which are both highly compartment specific (e.g., glutathione synthesis takes place in chloroplasts and the cytosol). Thus this review will reveal the compartment-specific importance of glutathione during abiotic and biotic stress conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Zechmann
- Center for Microscopy and Imaging, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
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Han Y, Chaouch S, Mhamdi A, Queval G, Zechmann B, Noctor G. Functional analysis of Arabidopsis mutants points to novel roles for glutathione in coupling H(2)O(2) to activation of salicylic acid accumulation and signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 18:2106-21. [PMID: 23148658 PMCID: PMC3629853 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.5052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Through its interaction with H(2)O(2), glutathione is a candidate for transmission of signals in plant responses to pathogens, but identification of signaling roles is complicated by its antioxidant function. Using a genetic approach based on a conditional catalase-deficient Arabidopsis mutant, cat2, this study aimed at establishing whether GSH plays an important functional role in the transmission of signals downstream of H(2)O(2). RESULTS Introducing the cad2 or allelic mutations in the glutathione synthesis pathway into cat2 blocked H(2)O(2)-triggered GSH oxidation and accumulation. While no effects on NADP(H) or ascorbate were observed, and H(2)O(2)-induced decreases in growth were maintained, blocking GSH modulation antagonized salicylic acid (SA) accumulation and SA-dependent responses. Other novel double and triple mutants were produced and compared with cat2 cad2 at the levels of phenotype, expression of marker genes, nontargeted metabolite profiling, accumulation of SA, and bacterial resistance. Most of the effects of the cad2 mutation on H(2)O(2)-triggered responses were distinct from those produced by mutations for GLUTATHIONE REDUCTASE1 (GR1) or NONEXPRESSOR OF PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 1 (NPR1), and were linked to compromised induction of ISOCHORISMATE SYNTHASE1 (ICS1) and ICS1-dependent SA accumulation. INNOVATION A novel genetic approach was used in which GSH content or antioxidative capacity was independently modified in an H(2)O(2) signaling background. Analysis of new double and triple mutants allowed us to infer previously undescribed regulatory roles for GSH. CONCLUSION In parallel to its antioxidant role, GSH acts independently of NPR1 to allow increased intracellular H(2)O(2) to activate SA signaling, a key defense response in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Han
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Sejir Chaouch
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Amna Mhamdi
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Guillaume Queval
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Bernd Zechmann
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Graham Noctor
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
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Clemente-Moreno MJ, Díaz-Vivancos P, Rubio M, Fernández-García N, Hernández JA. Chloroplast protection in plum pox virus-infected peach plants by L-2-oxo-4-thiazolidine-carboxylic acid treatments: effect in the proteome. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2013; 36:640-54. [PMID: 22913613 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Sharka, a disease caused by plum pox virus (PPV), has a significant economic impact on fruit tree production. In this work, we analysed the effect of (2,1,3)-benzothiadiazole (BTH) and L-2-oxo-4-thiazolidine-carboxylic acid (OTC) on plant growth and virus content. OTC reduced sharka symptom, stimulated plant growth and alleviated PPV-induced oxidative stress, indicated by a lack of changes in some oxidative stress parameters. PPV infection reduced chloroplast electron transport efficiency. However, in the presence of BTH or OTC, no changes in the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were observed. PPV produced an alteration in chloroplast ultrastructure, giving rise to a decrease in starch contents that was less dramatic in OTC-treated plants. Furthermore, PPV reduced the abundance of proteins associated with photosynthesis, carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism and photorespiration. These changes did not take place in OTC-treated plants, and increases in the expression of proteins related with the aforementioned processes, including ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, were produced, which correlated with the lower decrease in starch contents observed in PPV-infected plants treated with OTC. The results suggested that OTC treatment provides protection to the photosynthetic machinery and/or the chloroplast metabolism in PPV-infected peaches. Thus, OTC could have practical implications in agriculture in improving the vigour of different plant species as well as in immunizing plants against pathogens.
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Barba-Espin G, Nicolas E, Almansa MS, Cantero-Navarro E, Albacete A, Hernández JA, Díaz-Vivancos P. Role of thioproline on seed germination: interaction ROS-ABA and effects on antioxidative metabolism. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2012; 59:30-6. [PMID: 22244306 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2011.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In this work we investigate the effect of the imbibition of pea seeds with different thioproline (TP) concentrations on the germination percentage and the early growth of the seedlings. The interaction between TP and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) treatments is also analysed in order to test if any synergy in germination and growth occurs. Although the imbibition of pea seeds in the presence of TP did not significantly improve the germination percentage, TP and/or H₂O₂ pre-treatments increased seedlings growth. This increase in seedling growth was reduced by abscisic acid (ABA) addition. Imbibition of pea seeds in the presence of ABA also reduced the endogenous H₂O₂ contents of pea seedlings in control and TP-treated seeds. The incubation of pea seeds with TP and/or H₂O₂ in presence or absence of ABA decreased the activity of H₂O₂-scavenging enzymes. The increase of the endogenous H₂O₂ contents observed in TP and/or H₂O₂ treatments in absence of ABA could be correlated with the decrease in these activities. Finally, the hormone profile of pea seedlings was investigated. The results show that the increase in seedling growth is correlated with a decrease in ABA in samples pre-treated with H₂O₂ and TP + H₂O₂. Nevertheless, no significant differences in endogenous ABA concentration were observed with the TP pre-treatment. This paper suggests a relationship between endogenous H₂O₂ contents and plant growth, so reinforcing the intricate crosstalk between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and plant hormones in seed germination signalling and early seedling development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregorio Barba-Espin
- Grupo de Biotecnología de Frutales-Dept. Mejora Vegetal, CEBAS-CSIC, Campus Universitario Espinardo, Apartado de Correos P.O. Box 164, E-30100 Murcia, Spain
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24
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Király L, Künstler A, Höller K, Fattinger M, Juhász C, Müller M, Gullner G, Zechmann B. Sulfate supply influences compartment specific glutathione metabolism and confers enhanced resistance to Tobacco mosaic virus during a hypersensitive response. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2012; 59:44-54. [PMID: 22122784 PMCID: PMC3458214 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2011.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/28/2011] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Sufficient sulfate supply has been linked to the development of sulfur induced resistance or sulfur enhanced defense (SIR/SED) in plants. In this study we investigated the effects of sulfate (S) supply on the response of genetically resistant tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Samsun NN) to Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Plants grown with sufficient sulfate (+S plants) developed significantly less necrotic lesions during a hypersensitive response (HR) when compared to plants grown without sulfate (-S plants). In +S plants reduced TMV accumulation was evident on the level of viral RNA. Enhanced virus resistance correlated with elevated levels of cysteine and glutathione and early induction of a Tau class glutathione S-transferase and a salicylic acid-binding catalase gene. These data indicate that the elevated antioxidant capacity of +S plants was able to reduce the effects of HR, leading to enhanced virus resistance. Expression of pathogenesis-related genes was also markedly up-regulated in +S plants after TMV-inoculation. On the subcellular level, comparison of TMV-inoculated +S and -S plants revealed that +S plants contained 55-132 % higher glutathione levels in mitochondria, chloroplasts, nuclei, peroxisomes and the cytosol than -S plants. Interestingly, mitochondria were the only organelles where TMV-inoculation resulted in a decrease of glutathione levels when compared to mock-inoculated plants. This was particularly obvious in -S plants, where the development of necrotic lesions was more pronounced. In summary, the overall higher antioxidative capacity and elevated activation of defense genes in +S plants indicate that sufficient sulfate supply enhances a preexisting plant defense reaction resulting in reduced symptom development and virus accumulation.
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Key Words
- cysteine
- glutathione
- nicotiana tabacum
- salicylic acid
- sulfur induced resistance
- tobacco mosaic virus
- apr, adenosine 5′-phosphosulfate reductase
- bsa, bovine serum albumin
- catsab, salicylic acid-binding catalase
- cp, coat protein
- dpi, days post inoculation
- gsh1, γ-glutamyl cysteine synthetase
- gsh2, glutathione synthetase
- gsttau1, tau class glutathione s-transferase
- hr, hypersensitive response
- pbs, phosphate buffered saline
- pcd, programmed cell death
- ros, reactive oxygen species
- s, sulfate
- sir, sulfur induced resistance
- sed, sulfur enhanced defense
- tmv, tobacco mosaic virus
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Affiliation(s)
- Lóránt Király
- Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 102, 1525 Budapest, Hungary
| | - András Künstler
- Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 102, 1525 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Kerstin Höller
- University of Graz, Institute of Plant Sciences, Schubertstrasse 51, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Maria Fattinger
- University of Graz, Institute of Plant Sciences, Schubertstrasse 51, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Csilla Juhász
- Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 102, 1525 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Maria Müller
- University of Graz, Institute of Plant Sciences, Schubertstrasse 51, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Gábor Gullner
- Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 102, 1525 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Bernd Zechmann
- University of Graz, Institute of Plant Sciences, Schubertstrasse 51, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Clemente-Moreno MJ, Díaz-Vivancos P, Piqueras A, Hernández JA. Plant growth stimulation in Prunus species plantlets by BTH or OTC treatments under in vitro conditions. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 169:1074-83. [PMID: 22595304 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2012.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Revised: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The effects of benzothiadiazole (BTH) and L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OTC) on the growth and viral content of micropropagated, Plum pox virus (PPV)-infected peach [(Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] 'GF305' plantlets were analyzed. Low BTH and OTC concentrations resulted in a significant increase in the growth of GF305 peach and plum plants, with greater effects in PPV-infected than in healthy GF305 peach plantlets. Neither BTH nor OTC reduced the virus content. In fact, the highest growth and viral contents coincided, especially with the 10 μM BTH treatment. Differing effects on the antioxidative metabolism of PPV-infected GF305 peach plantlets were observed, depending on the compound and the concentration used: BTH decreased GSH, whereas OTC increased it. In PPV-infected plants, the 50 μM OTC treatment produced a decrease in ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, but an increase in superoxide dismutase. However, BTH produced a rise in peroxidase activity. Both 10 μM BTH and 50 μM OTC produced H₂O₂ accumulation that was correlated with the histochemical detection of H₂O₂ by 3,3'-diaminobenzidine staining. PPV infection induced NPR1 expression and a synergistic effect occurred in the presence of 50 μM OTC, since this compound produced an up-regulation of NPR1 in both healthy and PPV-infected GF305 peach plantlets. The results showed that GSH, as previously suggested, and/or H₂O₂ could be involved in the regulation of NPR1 expression. Globally, the results show that both OTC and BTH improved the vigor of Prunus species, including peach and plum, under in vitro conditions, producing positive effects on growth, antioxidative metabolism and NPR1 expression. All of these improvements could be critical for more successful ex vitro acclimatization as well as for improved responses to different stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- María José Clemente-Moreno
- Group of Fruit Biotechnology (Dept. Fruit Breeding), CEBAS-CSIC, Campus Espinardo, P.O. Box 164, E-30100 Murcia, Spain
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26
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Großkinsky DK, Koffler BE, Roitsch T, Maier R, Zechmann B. Compartment-specific antioxidative defense in Arabidopsis against virulent and avirulent Pseudomonas syringae. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2012; 102:662-73. [PMID: 22571419 PMCID: PMC3822284 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-02-12-0022-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during biotic stress is either part of a hypersensitive response of the plant or induced directly by the pathogen. Antioxidants such as ascorbate and glutathione counteract the accumulation of ROS and are part of the defense reaction. The aim of the present study was to investigate the compartment-specific importance of ascorbate and glutathione during a virulent and avirulent Pseudomonas syringae infection in Arabidopsis thaliana. Peroxisomes were found to be the hotspot for glutathione accumulation reaching 452% and 258% of control levels 24 h postinoculation during the virulent and avirulent infection, respectively. An accumulation of ascorbate could also be observed in vacuoles during Pseudomonas syringae infection, whereas glutathione remained absent in this cell compartment. Neither glutathione nor ascorbate accumulated in the apoplast during pathogen infection demonstrating an only negligible role of these antioxidants in the apoplast during pathogen infection. Compartment-specific changes followed a recently proposed stress model with an increase of ascorbate and glutathione in most cell compartments at the early stages of infection and a strong drop at the later stage of infection when a strong accumulation of ROS and symptoms occurred in the leaves. This study highlights the importance of certain cell compartments and antioxidants in general for the protection of pathogen-induced ROS accumulation.
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27
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Noctor G, Mhamdi A, Chaouch S, Han Y, Neukermans J, Marquez-Garcia B, Queval G, Foyer CH. Glutathione in plants: an integrated overview. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2012; 35:454-84. [PMID: 21777251 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02400.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 811] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plants cannot survive without glutathione (γ-glutamylcysteinylglycine) or γ-glutamylcysteine-containing homologues. The reasons why this small molecule is indispensable are not fully understood, but it can be inferred that glutathione has functions in plant development that cannot be performed by other thiols or antioxidants. The known functions of glutathione include roles in biosynthetic pathways, detoxification, antioxidant biochemistry and redox homeostasis. Glutathione can interact in multiple ways with proteins through thiol-disulphide exchange and related processes. Its strategic position between oxidants such as reactive oxygen species and cellular reductants makes the glutathione system perfectly configured for signalling functions. Recent years have witnessed considerable progress in understanding glutathione synthesis, degradation and transport, particularly in relation to cellular redox homeostasis and related signalling under optimal and stress conditions. Here we outline the key recent advances and discuss how alterations in glutathione status, such as those observed during stress, may participate in signal transduction cascades. The discussion highlights some of the issues surrounding the regulation of glutathione contents, the control of glutathione redox potential, and how the functions of glutathione and other thiols are integrated to fine-tune photorespiratory and respiratory metabolism and to modulate phytohormone signalling pathways through appropriate modification of sensitive protein cysteine residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Noctor
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris sud 11, Orsay cedex, France.
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28
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Kangasjärvi S, Neukermans J, Li S, Aro EM, Noctor G. Photosynthesis, photorespiration, and light signalling in defence responses. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:1619-36. [PMID: 22282535 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Visible light is the basic energetic driver of plant biomass production through photosynthesis. The constantly fluctuating availability of light and other environmental factors means that the photosynthetic apparatus must be able to operate in a dynamic fashion appropriate to the prevailing conditions. Dynamic regulation is achieved through an array of homeostatic control mechanisms that both respond to and influence cellular energy and reductant status. In addition, light availability and quality are continuously monitored by plants through photoreceptors. Outside the laboratory growth room, it is within the context of complex changes in energy and signalling status that plants must regulate pathways to deal with biotic challenges, and this can be influenced by changes in the highly energetic photosynthetic pathways and in the turnover of the photosynthetic machinery. Because of this, defence responses are neither simple nor easily predictable, but rather conditioned by the nutritional and signalling status of the plant cell. This review discusses recent data and emerging concepts of how recognized defence pathways interact with and are influenced by light-dependent processes. Particular emphasis is placed on the potential roles of the chloroplast, photorespiration, and photoreceptor-associated pathways in regulating the outcome of interactions between plants and pathogenic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saijaliisa Kangasjärvi
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland.
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29
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Koffler BE, Maier R, Zechmann B. Subcellular distribution of glutathione precursors in Arabidopsis thaliana. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 53:930-41. [PMID: 22050910 PMCID: PMC3588602 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2011.01085.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione is an important antioxidant and has many important functions in plant development, growth and defense. Glutathione synthesis and degradation is highly compartment-specific and relies on the subcellular availability of its precursors, cysteine, glutamate, glycine and γ-glutamylcysteine especially in plastids and the cytosol which are considered as the main centers for glutathione synthesis. The availability of glutathione precursors within these cell compartments is therefore of great importance for successful plant development and defense. The aim of this study was to investigate the compartment-specific importance of glutathione precursors in Arabidopsis thaliana. The subcellular distribution was compared between wild type plants (Col-0), plants with impaired glutathione synthesis (glutathione deficient pad2-1 mutant, wild type plants treated with buthionine sulfoximine), and one complemented line (OE3) with restored glutathione synthesis. Immunocytohistochemistry revealed that the inhibition of glutathione synthesis induced the accumulation of the glutathione precursors cysteine, glutamate and glycine in most cell compartments including plastids and the cytosol. A strong decrease could be observed in γ-glutamylcysteine (γ-EC) contents in these cell compartments. These experiments demonstrated that the inhibition of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (GSH1) - the first enzyme of glutathione synthesis - causes a reduction of γ-EC levels and an accumulation of all other glutathione precursors within the cells.
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30
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Wang SD, Zhu F, Yuan S, Yang H, Xu F, Shang J, Xu MY, Jia SD, Zhang ZW, Wang JH, Xi DH, Lin HH. The roles of ascorbic acid and glutathione in symptom alleviation to SA-deficient plants infected with RNA viruses. PLANTA 2011; 234:171-81. [PMID: 21394469 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-011-1391-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is required for plant systemic acquired resistance (SAR) to viruses. However, SA-deficient plants adapt to RNA virus infections better, which show a lighter symptom and have less reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. The virus replication levels are higher in the SA-deficient plants during the first 10 days, but lower than the wild-type seedlings after 20 dpi. The higher level of glutathione and ascorbic acid (AsA) in SA-deficient plants may contribute to their alleviated symptoms. Solo virus-control method for mortal viruses results in necrosis and chlorosis, no matter what level of virus RNAs would accumulate. Contrastingly, early and high-dose AsA treatment alleviates the symptom, and eventually inhibits virus replication after 20 days. ROS eliminators could not imitate the effect of AsA, and could neither alleviate symptom nor inhibit virus replication. It suggests that both symptom alleviation and virus replication control should be considered for plant virus cures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Dong Wang
- Plant Pathology Laboratory, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
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31
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Noctor G, Queval G, Mhamdi A, Chaouch S, Foyer CH. Glutathione. THE ARABIDOPSIS BOOK 2011; 9:e0142. [PMID: 22303267 PMCID: PMC3267239 DOI: 10.1199/tab.0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione is a simple sulfur compound composed of three amino acids and the major non-protein thiol in many organisms, including plants. The functions of glutathione are manifold but notably include redox-homeostatic buffering. Glutathione status is modulated by oxidants as well as by nutritional and other factors, and can influence protein structure and activity through changes in thiol-disulfide balance. For these reasons, glutathione is a transducer that integrates environmental information into the cellular network. While the mechanistic details of this function remain to be fully elucidated, accumulating evidence points to important roles for glutathione and glutathione-dependent proteins in phytohormone signaling and in defense against biotic stress. Work in Arabidopsis is beginning to identify the processes that govern glutathione status and that link it to signaling pathways. As well as providing an overview of the components that regulate glutathione homeostasis (synthesis, degradation, transport, and redox turnover), the present discussion considers the roles of this metabolite in physiological processes such as light signaling, cell death, and defense against microbial pathogen and herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Noctor
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris sud 11, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
| | - Guillaume Queval
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris sud 11, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
- Present address: Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology and Department of Plant Biotechnologyand Genetics, Gent University, 9052 Gent, Belgium
| | - Amna Mhamdi
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris sud 11, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
| | - Sejir Chaouch
- Institut de Biologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris sud 11, 91405 Orsay cedex, France
| | - Christine H. Foyer
- Centre for Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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32
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Höller K, Király L, Künstler A, Müller M, Gullner G, Fattinger M, Zechmann B. Enhanced glutathione metabolism is correlated with sulfur-induced resistance in Tobacco mosaic virus-infected genetically susceptible Nicotiana tabacum plants. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2010; 23:1448-59. [PMID: 20923352 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-05-10-0117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Sulfur-induced resistance, also known as sulfur-enhanced defense (SIR/SED) was investigated in Nicotiana tabacum cv. Samsun nn during compatible interaction with Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in correlation with glutathione metabolism. To evaluate the influence of sulfur nutritional status on virus infection, tobacco plants were treated with nutrient solutions containing either sufficient sulfate (+S) or no sulfate (-S). Sufficient sulfate supply resulted in a suppressed and delayed symptom development and diminished virus accumulation over a period of 14 days after inoculation as compared with -S conditions. Expression of the defense marker gene PR-1a was markedly upregulated in sulfate-treated plants during the first day after TMV inoculation. The occurrence of SIR/SED correlated with a higher level of activity of sulfate assimilation, cysteine, and glutathione metabolism in plants treated with sulfate. Additionally, two key genes involved in cysteine and glutathione biosynthesis (encoding adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate reductase and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, respectively) were upregulated within the first day after TMV inoculation under +S conditions. Sulfate withdrawal from the soil was accelerated at the beginning of the infection, whereas it declined in the long term, leading to an accumulation of sulfur in the soil of plants grown with sulfate. This observation could be correlated with a decrease in sulfur contents in TMV-infected leaves in the long term. In summary, this is the first study that demonstrates a link between the activation of cysteine and glutathione metabolism and the induction of SIR/SED during a compatible plant-virus interaction in tobacco plants, indicating a general mechanism behind SIR/SED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Höller
- University of Graz, Institute of Plant Sciences, Schubertstrasse 51, 8010 Graz, Austria
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33
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Zechmann B, Müller M. Subcellular compartmentation of glutathione in dicotyledonous plants. PROTOPLASMA 2010; 246:15-24. [PMID: 20186447 PMCID: PMC2947009 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-010-0111-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
This study describes the subcellular distribution of glutathione in roots and leaves of different plant species (Arabidopsis, Cucurbita, and Nicotiana). Glutathione is an important antioxidant and redox buffer which is involved in many metabolic processes including plant defense. Thus information on the subcellular distribution in these model plants especially during stress situations provides a deeper insight into compartment specific defense reactions and reflects the occurrence of compartment specific oxidative stress. With immunogold cytochemistry and computer-supported transmission electron microscopy glutathione could be localized in highest contents in mitochondria, followed by nuclei, peroxisomes, the cytosol, and plastids. Within chloroplasts and mitochondria, glutathione was restricted to the stroma and matrix, respectively, and did not occur in the lumen of cristae and thylakoids. Glutathione was also found at the membrane and in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. It was also associated with the trans and cis side of dictyosomes. None or only very little glutathione was detected in vacuoles and the apoplast of mesophyll and root cells. Additionally, glutathione was found in all cell compartments of phloem vessels, vascular parenchyma cells (including vacuoles) but was absent in xylem vessels. The specificity of this method was supported by the reduction of glutathione labeling in all cell compartments (up to 98%) of the glutathione-deficient Arabidopsis thaliana rml1 mutant. Additionally, we found a similar distribution of glutathione in samples after conventional fixation and rapid microwave-supported fixation. Thus, indicating that a redistribution of glutathione does not occur during sample preparation. Summing up, this study gives a detailed insight into the subcellular distribution of glutathione in plants and presents solid evidence for the accuracy and specificity of the applied method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Zechmann
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Graz, Schubertstrasse 51, 8010, Graz, Austria.
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34
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Clemente-Moreno MJ, Díaz-Vivancos P, Barba-Espín G, Hernández JA. Benzothiadiazole and l-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid reduce the severity of Sharka symptoms in pea leaves: effect on antioxidative metabolism at the subcellular level. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2010; 12:88-97. [PMID: 20653891 DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2009.00204.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The effect of treatment with benzothiadiazole (BTH) or l-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OTC), and their interaction with Plum pox virus (PPV) infection, on antioxidative metabolism of pea plants was studied at the subcellular level. PPV infection produced a 20% reduction in plant growth. Pre-treatment of pea plants with OTC or BTH afforded partial protection against PPV infection, measured as the percentage of leaves showing symptoms, but neither BTH nor OTC significantly reduced the virus content. PPV infection caused oxidative stress, as monitored by increases in lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation in soluble and chloroplastic fractions. In leaves of non-infected plants, OTC increased the content of reduced glutathione (GSH) and total glutathione; accordingly, an increase in the redox state of glutathione was observed. An increase in oxidized glutathione (GSSG) was found in symptomatic leaves from infected plants. A similar increase in GSSG was also observed in asymptomatic leaves from infected, untreated plants. However, no changes in GSSG occurred in asymptomatic leaves from infected plants treated with BTH and OTC and, accordingly, a higher redox state of GSH was recorded in those leaves, which could have had a role in the reduction of symptoms, as observed in asymptomatic leaves from infected plants treated with BTH or OTC. Treatment with BTH or OTC had some effect on antioxidant enzymes in soluble and chloroplastic fractions from infected pea leaves. An increase in antioxidative mechanisms, such as GSH-related enzymes (DHAR, GR and G6PDH), as well as APX and POX, at the subcellular level was observed, which could play a role in reducing the severity of cellular damage induced by Sharka in pea leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Clemente-Moreno
- Grupo de Biotecnología de Frutales, Departamento de Mejora Vegetal, CEBAS-CSIC, Espinardo-Murcia, Spain
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35
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Urbanek Krajnc A. A temporal analysis of antioxidative defense responses in the phloem of Picea abies after attack by Ips typographus. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 29:1059-1068. [PMID: 19541661 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpp041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The temporal gradation of antioxidants was investigated on the phloem tissue of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] in response to weather conditions and colonization levels of Ips typographus L. (Col., Scolytidae). Two weeks after pheromone dispensers were placed on trees, the initial reaction of Norway spruce to bark beetle attack resulted in moderately lowered levels of total glutathione (tGSH) and total cysteine. Likewise, the total ascorbic acid dropped slightly below the control levels, whereas the concentration of dehydroascorbic acid increased in comparison to the first sampling date. This transient degradation and oxidation of the glutathione and ascorbate system was accompanied by moderately increased concentrations of total phenolics. One month later, the shift in antioxidant balance after moderate attack differed quantitatively from the reaction after massive attack. An intensification of antioxidant defense occurred within moderately affected bark. Total cysteine and tGSH contents were markedly raised, whereas the concentrations of total ascorbic acid and total phenolics were slightly increased by moderate attack. On the other hand, massive bark beetle colonization caused a strong decrease in tGSH and total phenolics, whereas total cysteine and total ascorbic acid values remained at control level. Dependent upon the intensity and the success of the attack, a progressive degradation of antioxidants was determined at later sampling dates, which was accompanied by an obvious oxidation of the ascorbate and glutathione pools. With an unsuccessful defense upon massive attack, the thiols and total phenolics did not reach a new steady state, but deteriorated until the end of the brood beetles' development. In contrast, the dynamic antioxidative response within the moderately affected trees indicated an acclimation stage in the middle of July. It was characterized by a higher accumulation of tGSH, total ascorbic acid and total phenolics as well as a more reduced redox state of glutathione. A sequence of changes in the endogenous levels of antioxidant defense molecules in the bark beetle-affected Norway spruce showed consistency with the general ecophysiological stress-response concept, and provided important avenues for evaluating the role and effectiveness of antioxidants in systemic acquired resistance against the complex interactive effects of bark beetle attack and environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreja Urbanek Krajnc
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Maribor, Pivola 10, SI-2311 Hoce, Slovenia.
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Zechmann B, Mauch F, Sticher L, Müller M. Subcellular immunocytochemical analysis detects the highest concentrations of glutathione in mitochondria and not in plastids. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2008; 59:4017-27. [PMID: 18977750 PMCID: PMC2576643 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2008] [Revised: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 09/05/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The tripeptide glutathione is a major antioxidant and redox buffer with multiple roles in plant metabolism. Glutathione biosynthesis is restricted to the cytosol and the plastids and the product is distributed to the various organelles by unknown mechanisms. In the present study immunogold cytochemistry based on anti-glutathione antisera and transmission electron microscopy was used to determine the relative concentration of glutathione in different organelles of Arabidopsis thaliana leaf and root cells. Glutathione-specific labelling was detected in all cellular compartments except the apoplast and the vacuole. The highest glutathione content was surprisingly not found in plastids, which have been described before as a major site of glutathione accumulation, but in mitochondria which lack the capacity for glutathione biosynthesis. Mitochondria of both leaf and root cells contained 7-fold and 4-fold, respectively, higher glutathione levels than plastids while the density of glutathione labelling in the cytosol, nuclei, and peroxisomes was intermediate. The accuracy of the glutathione labelling is supported by two observations. First, pre-adsorption of the anti-glutathione antisera with glutathione reduced the density of the gold particles in all organelles to background levels. Second, the overall glutathione-labelling density was reduced by about 90% in leaves of the glutathione-deficient Arabidopsis mutant pad2-1 and increased in transgenic plants with enhanced glutathione accumulation. Hence, there was a strong correlation between immunocytochemical and biochemical data of glutathione accumulation. Interestingly, the glutathione labelling of mitochondria in pad2-1 remained very similar to wild-type plants thus suggesting that the high mitochondrial glutathione content is maintained in a situation of permanent glutathione-deficiency at the expense of other glutathione pools. High and constant levels of glutathione in mitochondria appear to be particularly important in cell survival strategies and it is predicted that mitochondria must have highly competitive mitochondrial glutathione uptake systems. The present results underline the suggestion that subcellular glutathione concentrations are not controlled by a global mechanism but are controlled on an individual basis and it is therefore not possible to conclude from global biochemical glutathione analysis on the status of the various organellar pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Zechmann
- University of Graz, Institute of Plant Sciences, Schubertstrasse 51, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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