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Witard OC, Hearris M, Morgan PT. Protein Nutrition for Endurance Athletes: A Metabolic Focus on Promoting Recovery and Training Adaptation. Sports Med 2025; 55:1361-1376. [PMID: 40117058 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-025-02203-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/28/2025] [Indexed: 03/23/2025]
Abstract
The purpose of this narrative review is to provide an evidence-based update on the protein needs of endurance athletes with a focus on high-quality metabolic studies conducted on the topics of recovery and training adaptation over the past decade. We use the term 'protein needs' to delineate between the concepts of a daily protein requirement and per meal protein recommendations when devising scientific evidence-based protein guidelines for the endurance athlete to promote post-exercise recovery, enhance the adaptive response to endurance training and improve endurance performance. A habitual protein intake of 1.5 g/kg of body mass (BM)-1·day-1 is typical in male and female endurance athletes. Based on findings from a series of contemporary protein requirement studies, the evidence suggests a daily protein intake of ~ 1.8 g·kgBM-1·day-1 should be advocated for endurance athletes, with the caveat that the protein requirement may be further elevated in excess of 2.0 g·kgBM-1·day-1 during periods of carbohydrate-restricted training and on rest days. Regarding protein recommendations, the current lack of metabolic studies that determine the dose response of muscle protein synthesis to protein ingestion in relation to endurance exercise makes it difficult to present definitive guidelines on optimal per meal protein intakes for endurance athletes. Moreover, there remains no compelling evidence that co-ingesting protein with carbohydrate before or during endurance exercise confers any performance advantage, nor facilitates the resynthesis of liver or muscle glycogen stores during recovery, at least when carbohydrate recommendations are met. However, recent evidence suggests a role for protein nutrition in optimising the adaptive metabolic response to endurance training under conditions of low carbohydrate and/or energy availability that represent increasingly popular periodised strategies for endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver C Witard
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, Strand Campus, Strand, London, WC2R 2LS, UK.
| | - Mark Hearris
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Paul T Morgan
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
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Slater T, Mode WJA, Bonnard LC, Sweeney C, Funnell MP, Smith HA, Hough J, James RM, Varley I, Sale C, Betts JA, James LJ, Clayton DJ. Substituting Carbohydrate at Lunch for Added Protein Increases Fat Oxidation During Subsequent Exercise in Healthy Males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2025; 110:e728-e740. [PMID: 38609167 PMCID: PMC11834723 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgae237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
CONTEXT How pre-exercise meal composition influences metabolic and health responses to exercise later in the day is currently unclear. OBJECTIVE Examine the effects of substituting carbohydrate for protein at lunch on subsequent exercise metabolism, appetite, and energy intake. METHODS Twelve healthy males completed 3 trials in randomized, counterbalanced order. Following a standardized breakfast (779 ± 66 kcal; ∼08:15), participants consumed a lunch (1186 ± 140 kcal; ∼13:15) containing either 0.2 g·kg-1 carbohydrate and ∼2 g·kg-1 protein (LO-CARB), or 2 g·kg-1 carbohydrate and ∼0.4 g·kg-1 protein (HI-CARB), or they fasted (FAST). Participants later cycled at ∼60% V̇O2peak for 1 hour (∼16:15) and post-exercise ad libitum energy intake was measured (∼18:30). Substrate oxidation, subjective appetite, and plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin, nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), peptide YY (PYY), glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), and acylated ghrelin were measured for 5 hours post-lunch. RESULTS Fat oxidation was greater during FAST (+11.66 ± 6.63 g) and LO-CARB (+8.00 ± 3.83 g) than HI-CARB (P < .001), with FAST greater than LO-CARB (+3.67 ± 5.07 g; P < .05). NEFA were lowest in HI-CARB and highest in FAST, with insulin demonstrating the inverse response (all P < .01). PYY and GLP-1 demonstrated a stepwise pattern, with LO-CARB greatest and FAST lowest (all P < .01). Acylated ghrelin was lower during HI-CARB and LO-CARB vs FAST (P < .01). Energy intake in LO-CARB was lower than FAST (-383 ± 233 kcal; P < .001) and HI-CARB (-313 ± 284 kcal; P < .001). CONCLUSION Substituting carbohydrate for protein in a pre-exercise lunch increased fat oxidation, suppressed subjective and hormonal appetite, and reduced post-exercise energy intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommy Slater
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
- National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, Leicester, LE5 4PW, UK
| | - William J A Mode
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Louise C Bonnard
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Cian Sweeney
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Mark P Funnell
- National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Harry A Smith
- Department for Health, Centre for Nutrition Exercise and Metabolism, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - John Hough
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Ruth M James
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Ian Varley
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Craig Sale
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University Institute of Sport, Manchester, M1 7EL, UK
| | - James A Betts
- Department for Health, Centre for Nutrition Exercise and Metabolism, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Lewis J James
- National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
| | - David J Clayton
- Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group, Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, NG11 8NS, UK
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Kusy K, Matysiak J, Kokot ZJ, Ciekot-Sołtysiak M, Klupczyńska-Gabryszak A, Zarębska EA, Plewa S, Dereziński P, Zieliński J. Exercise-induced response of proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic plasma free amino acids is sport-specific: A comparison of sprint and endurance athletes. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0309529. [PMID: 39213376 PMCID: PMC11364291 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0309529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Circulating blood is an important plasma free amino acids (PFAAs) reservoir and a pivotal link between metabolic pathways. No comparisons are available between athletes with opposite training adaptations that include a broader spectrum of both proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids, and that take into account skeletal muscle mass. We hypothesized that the levels of the exercise-induced PFAAs concentration are related to the type of training-related metabolic adaptation. We compared highly trained endurance athletes (n = 11) and sprinters (n = 10) aged 20‒35 years who performed incremental exercise until exhaustion. Venous blood was collected before and during the test and 30-min recovery (12 samples). Forty-two PFAAs were assayed using LC-ESI-MS/MS technique. Skeletal muscle mass was estimated using dual X-ray absorptiometry method. Glutamine and alanine were dominant PFAAs throughout the whole exercise and recovery period (~350‒650 μmol∙L-1). Total, combined proteinogenic, non-essential, and non-proteinogenic PFAAs levels were significantly higher in endurance athletes than sprinters (ANOVA group effects: p = 0.007, η2 = 0.321; p = 0.011, η2 = 0.294; p = 0.003, η2 = 0.376; p = 0.001, η2 = 0.471, respectively). The exercise response was more pronounced in endurance athletes, especially for non-proteinogenic PFAAs (ANOVA interaction effect: p = 0.038, η2 = 0.123). Significant between-group differences were observed for 19 of 33 PFAAs detected, including 4 essential, 7 non-essential, and 8 non-proteinogenic ones. We demonstrated that the PFAAs response to incremental aerobic exercise is associated with the type of training-related metabolic adaptation. A greater turnover and availability of circulating PFAAs for skeletal muscles and other body tissues is observed in endurance- than in sprint-trained individuals. Non-proteinogenic PFAAs, despite low concentrations, also respond to exercise loads, indicating their important, though less understood role in exercise metabolism. Our study provides additional insight into the exercise-induced physiological response of PFAAs, and may also provide a rationale in discussions regarding dietary amino acid requirements in high-performance athletes with respect to sports specialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kusy
- Department of Athletics Strength and Conditioning, Poznan University of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland
| | - Jan Matysiak
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Zenon J. Kokot
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Calisia University, Kalisz, Poland
| | - Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak
- Department of Athletics Strength and Conditioning, Poznan University of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland
| | | | - Ewa Anna Zarębska
- Department of Athletics Strength and Conditioning, Poznan University of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland
| | - Szymon Plewa
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Paweł Dereziński
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Jacek Zieliński
- Department of Athletics Strength and Conditioning, Poznan University of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland
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Prieto-Bellver G, Diaz-Lara J, Bishop DJ, Fernández-Sáez J, Abián-Vicén J, San-Millan I, Santos-Concejero J. A Five-Week Periodized Carbohydrate Diet Does Not Improve Maximal Lactate Steady-State Exercise Capacity and Substrate Oxidation in Well-Trained Cyclists compared to a High-Carbohydrate Diet. Nutrients 2024; 16:318. [PMID: 38276556 PMCID: PMC10820927 DOI: 10.3390/nu16020318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
There is a growing interest in studies involving carbohydrate (CHO) manipulation and subsequent adaptations to endurance training. This study aimed to analyze whether a periodized carbohydrate feeding strategy based on a daily training session has any advantages compared to a high-carbohydrate diet in well-trained cyclists. Seventeen trained cyclists (VO2peak = 70.8 ± 6.5 mL·kg-1·min-1) were divided into two groups, a periodized (PCHO) group and a high-carbohydrate (HCHO) group. Both groups performed the same training sessions for five weeks. In the PCHO group, 13 training sessions were performed with low carbohydrate availability. In the HCHO group, all sessions were completed following previous carbohydrate intake to ensure high pre-exercise glycogen levels. In both groups, there was an increase in the maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) (PCHO: 244.1 ± 29.9 W to 253.2 ± 28.4 W; p = 0.008; HCHO: 235.8 ± 21.4 W to 246.9 ± 16.7 W; p = 0.012) but not in the time to exhaustion at MLSS intensity. Both groups increased the percentage of muscle mass (PCHO: p = 0.021; HCHO: p = 0.042) and decreased the percent body fat (PCHO: p = 0.021; HCHO: p = 0.012). We found no differences in carbohydrate or lipid oxidation, heart rate, and post-exercise lactate concentration. Periodizing the CHO intake in well-trained cyclists during a 5-week intervention did not elicit superior results to an energy intake-matched high-carbohydrate diet in any of the measured outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gorka Prieto-Bellver
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 45071 Toledo, Spain; (G.P.-B.); (J.A.-V.)
| | - Javier Diaz-Lara
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 45071 Toledo, Spain; (G.P.-B.); (J.A.-V.)
| | - David J. Bishop
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHeS), Victoria University, Footscray VIC 3011, Australia;
| | - José Fernández-Sáez
- Unitat de Suport a la Recerca Terres de l’Ebre, Fundació Institut Universitari per a la Recerca a l’Atenció Primària de Salut Jordi Gol i Gurina (IDIAPJGol), 43500 Tortosa, Spain;
| | - Javier Abián-Vicén
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 45071 Toledo, Spain; (G.P.-B.); (J.A.-V.)
| | - Iñigo San-Millan
- Department of Human Physiology and Nutrition, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, CO 80918, USA;
| | - Jordan Santos-Concejero
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain;
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Peeters WM, Cook LE, Page O. The effect of pre-exercise protein intake on substrate metabolism, energy expenditure, and energy intake: a dose-response study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2023; 20:2275006. [PMID: 37886841 PMCID: PMC11018317 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2023.2275006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pre-exercise protein consumption does not seem to influence substrate metabolism during exercise compared to fasted exercise, however it is unclear if the protein dose impacts on this effect. METHODS In a randomized, double-blinded within-subject design trial, healthy, active males and females (n = 15, 25 ± 5 yrs, O2peak: 47.5 ± 8.8 ml/kg/min) completed 1 h of cycling exercise at 60% peak power output 30 min after having consumed either 0, 20, or 40 g of whey protein. Indirect calorimetry was used to measure substrate oxidation during exercise and baseline and post-exercise resting energy expenditure. Blood samples were taken throughout the trials to measure metabolic responses. Free-living food intake post-trial was collected using food diaries. RESULTS Fat oxidation rates during exercise did not differ between the three conditions (p = 0.19) with small effect sizes between conditions (Cohen's dz: 0 vs. 20 g = 0.22, 0 vs. 40 g = 0.47, 20 vs. 40 g = 0.27). Serum insulin was higher in the protein groups vs. 0 g (p < 0.05), whereas non-esterified fatty acids were higher in the 0 g compared to 20 and 40 g (p < 0.05). Glucose was significantly lower after 15 min of exercise in 20 and 40 g vs. 0 g (p = 0.01). Resting energy expenditure was elevated post-exercise (p < 0.001), without an interaction for protein dose (p = 0.90). Post-trial free-living energy intake was not different between conditions (p = 0.31), but 24-h energy intake was significantly higher in 40 vs. 0 g (p = 0.04). CONCLUSION Protein doses up to 40 g do not seem to impair fat oxidation rates during exercise compared to fasted exercise and could be considered as a nutritional strategy for exercising individuals who struggle to include fasted exercise in their training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Michiel Peeters
- Newcastle University, School of Biomedical, Nutrition and Sport Sciences, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Lauren Elizabetha Cook
- Newcastle University, School of Biomedical, Nutrition and Sport Sciences, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Oliver Page
- Newcastle University, Population Health Science Institute, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
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Bennett S, Brocherie F, Phelan MM, Tiollier E, Guibert E, Morales‐Artacho AJ, Lalire P, Morton JP, Louis JB, Owens DJ. Acute heat stress amplifies exercise-induced metabolomic perturbations and reveals variation in circulating amino acids in endurance-trained males. Exp Physiol 2023; 108:838-851. [PMID: 36691850 PMCID: PMC10988456 DOI: 10.1113/ep090911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the central question of this study? Whole-body substrate utilisation is altered during exercise in hot environments, characterised by increased glycolytic metabolism: does heat stress alter the serum metabolome in response to high intensity exercise? What are the main finding and its importance? Alongside increases in glycolytic metabolite abundance, circulating amino acid concentrations are reduced following exercise under heat stress. Prior research has overlooked the impact of heat stress on protein metabolism during exercise, raising important practical implications for protein intake recommendations in the heat. ABSTRACT Using untargeted metabolomics, we aimed to characterise the systemic impact of environmental heat stress during exercise. Twenty-three trained male triathletes (V ̇ O 2 peak ${\dot V_{{{\rm{O}}_2}{\rm{peak}}}}$ = 64.8 ± 9.2 ml kg min-1 ) completed a 30-min exercise test in hot (35°C) and temperate (21°C) conditions. Venous blood samples were collected immediately pre- and post-exercise, and the serum fraction was assessed via untargeted 1 H-NMR metabolomics. Data were analysed via uni- and multivariate analyses to identify differences between conditions. Mean power output was higher in temperate (231 ± 36 W) versus hot (223 ± 31 W) conditions (P < 0.001). Mean heart rate (temperate, 162 ± 10 beats min-1 , hot, 167 ± 9 beats min-1 , P < 0.001), peak core temperature (Trec ), core temperature change (ΔTrec ) (P < 0.001) and peak rating of perceived exertion (P = 0.005) were higher in hot versus temperate conditions. Change in metabolite abundance following exercise revealed distinct clustering following multivariate analysis. Six metabolites increased (2-hydroxyvaleric acid, acetate, alanine, glucarate, glucose, lactate) in hot relative to temperate (P < 0.05) conditions. Leucine and lysine decreased in both conditions but to a greater extent in temperate conditions (P < 0.05). Citrate (P = 0.04) was greater in temperate conditions whilst creatinine decreased in hot conditions only (P > 0.05). Environmental heat stress increased glycolytic metabolite abundance and led to distinct alterations in the circulating amino acid availability, including increased alanine, glutamine, leucine and isoleucine. The data highlight the need for additional exercise nutrition and metabolism research, specifically focusing on protein requirements for exercise under heat stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Bennett
- Research Institute of Sport and Exercise Science (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
- Laboratory SportExpertise and Performance (EA 7370)French Institute of SportParisFrance
| | - Franck Brocherie
- Laboratory SportExpertise and Performance (EA 7370)French Institute of SportParisFrance
| | - Marie M. Phelan
- NMR Metabolomics Shared Research FacilityTechnology DirectorateUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Eve Tiollier
- Laboratory SportExpertise and Performance (EA 7370)French Institute of SportParisFrance
| | - Elodie Guibert
- Laboratory SportExpertise and Performance (EA 7370)French Institute of SportParisFrance
| | | | - Paul Lalire
- French Triathlon Federation (FFTri)Saint Denis La PlaineFrance
| | - James P. Morton
- Research Institute of Sport and Exercise Science (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
| | - Julien B. Louis
- Research Institute of Sport and Exercise Science (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
| | - Daniel J. Owens
- Research Institute of Sport and Exercise Science (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
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Rothschild JA, Kilding AE, Stewart T, Plews DJ. Factors Influencing Substrate Oxidation During Submaximal Cycling: A Modelling Analysis. Sports Med 2022; 52:2775-2795. [PMID: 35829994 PMCID: PMC9585001 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01727-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple factors influence substrate oxidation during exercise including exercise duration and intensity, sex, and dietary intake before and during exercise. However, the relative influence and interaction between these factors is unclear. OBJECTIVES Our aim was to investigate factors influencing the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) during continuous exercise and formulate multivariable regression models to determine which factors best explain RER during exercise, as well as their relative influence. METHODS Data were extracted from 434 studies reporting RER during continuous cycling exercise. General linear mixed-effect models were used to determine relationships between RER and factors purported to influence RER (e.g., exercise duration and intensity, muscle glycogen, dietary intake, age, and sex), and to examine which factors influenced RER, with standardized coefficients used to assess their relative influence. RESULTS The RER decreases with exercise duration, dietary fat intake, age, VO2max, and percentage of type I muscle fibers, and increases with dietary carbohydrate intake, exercise intensity, male sex, and carbohydrate intake before and during exercise. The modelling could explain up to 59% of the variation in RER, and a model using exclusively easily modified factors (exercise duration and intensity, and dietary intake before and during exercise) could only explain 36% of the variation in RER. Variables with the largest effect on RER were sex, dietary intake, and exercise duration. Among the diet-related factors, daily fat and carbohydrate intake have a larger influence than carbohydrate ingestion during exercise. CONCLUSION Variability in RER during exercise cannot be fully accounted for by models incorporating a range of participant, diet, exercise, and physiological characteristics. To better understand what influences substrate oxidation during exercise further research is required on older subjects and females, and on other factors that could explain additional variability in RER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Tom Stewart
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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Thampy A, Palani Kumar MK, Serva Peddha M, Reddy M. The effectiveness of whey proteins in prevention and treatment of cancer: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:2088-2104. [PMID: 36111369 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2121256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Cancer prevalence is rising rapidly around the globe, contributing immensely to the burden on health systems, hence the search for more effective and selective treatments still remains enticing. Whey, as a natural source, has received extensive focus in recent years because of its intriguing applications to health benefits. Growing consumer appreciation of the nutraceutical effects of whey components makes them an attractive field within cancer research. Whey is a valuable source of superior-quality proteins, lactose, vitamins, and minerals that contribute to proper nutrition as well as help hamper illness and even complement certain disease-related therapy prognosis. As a result, industry leaders and dairy producers are devising new ways to valorize it. Great emphasis on cancer prevention and treatment has been given to whey protein (WP) by the scientific community. WP intake has been proven to induce anti-cancer effects in various in vitro and in vivo studies. Nutritionists and dietitians are now enormously endorsing the role of WP in the therapeutic field, notably for cancer cachexia management. However, human intervention studies with WP are in their infancy and remain to be established with different tumor entities to provide valid proof of its ability to act as a coadjuvant in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjana Thampy
- Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education and Research, Kolar, Karnataka, India
| | - Meena Kumari Palani Kumar
- Department of Biochemistry, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, Karnataka, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Muthukumar Serva Peddha
- Department of Biochemistry, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, Karnataka, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Madhavi Reddy
- Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education and Research, Kolar, Karnataka, India
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Aird TP, Farquharson AJ, Bermingham KM, O'Sulllivan A, Drew JE, Carson BP. Divergent serum metabolomic, skeletal muscle signaling, transcriptomic, and performance adaptations to fasted versus whey protein-fed sprint interval training. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2021; 321:E802-E820. [PMID: 34747202 PMCID: PMC8906818 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00265.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Sprint interval training (SIT) is a time-efficient alternative to endurance exercise, conferring beneficial skeletal muscle metabolic adaptations. Current literature has investigated the nutritional regulation of acute and chronic exercise-induced metabolic adaptations in muscle following endurance exercise, principally comparing the impact of training in fasted and carbohydrate-fed (CHO) conditions. Alternative strategies such as exercising in low CHO, protein-fed conditions remain poorly characterized, specifically pertaining to adaptations associated with SIT. Thus, this study aimed to compare the metabolic and performance adaptations to acute and short-term SIT in the fasted state with preexercise hydrolyzed (WPH) or concentrated (WPC) whey protein supplementation. In healthy males, preexercise protein ingestion did not alter exercise-induced increases in PGC-1α, PDK4, SIRT1, and PPAR-δ mRNA expression following acute SIT. However, supplementation of WPH beneficially altered acute exercise-induced CD36 mRNA expression. Preexercise protein ingestion attenuated acute exercise-induced increases in muscle pan-acetylation and PARP1 protein content compared with fasted SIT. Acute serum metabolomic differences confirmed greater preexercise amino acid delivery in protein-fed compared with fasted conditions. Following 3 wk of SIT, training-induced increases in mitochondrial enzymatic activity and exercise performance were similar across nutritional groups. Interestingly, resting muscle acetylation status was downregulated in WPH conditions following training. Such findings suggest preexercise WPC and WPH ingestion positively influences metabolic adaptations to SIT compared with fasted training, resulting in either similar or enhanced performance adaptations. Future studies investigating nutritional modulation of metabolic adaptations to exercise are warranted to build upon these novel findings.NEW & NOTEWORTHY These are the first data to show the influence of preexercise protein on serum and skeletal muscle metabolic adaptations to acute and short-term sprint interval training (SIT). Preexercise whey protein concentrate (WPC) or hydrolysate (WPH) feeding acutely affected the serum metabolome, which differentially influenced acute and chronic changes in mitochondrial gene expression, intracellular signaling (acetylation and PARylation) resulting in either similar or enhanced performance outcomes when compared with fasted training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom P Aird
- Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
- Physical Activity for Health, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | | | - Kate M Bermingham
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aifric O'Sulllivan
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Janice E Drew
- The Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Brian P Carson
- Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
- Physical Activity for Health, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
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Oosthuyse T, Florence GE, Correia A, Smyth C, Bosch AN. Carbohydrate-Restricted Exercise With Protein Increases Self-Selected Training Intensity in Female Cyclists but Not Male Runners and Cyclists. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:1547-1558. [PMID: 33927115 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Oosthuyse, T, Florence, GE, Correia, A, Smyth, C, and Bosch, AN. Carbohydrate-restricted exercise with protein increases self-selected training intensity in female cyclists but not male runners and cyclists. J Strength Cond Res 35(6): 1547-1558, 2021-Carbohydrate-restricted training challenges preservation of euglycemia and exercise intensity that precludes ergogenic gains, necessitating countering strategies. We investigated the efficacy of ingesting casein protein hydrolysate in overnight-fasted male runners, male cyclists, and female cyclists. Twenty-four overnight-fasted athletes ingested 15.8 g·h-1 casein hydrolysate or placebo-water during exercise (60-80 minutes) comprising an incremental test to exhaustion, steady-state exercise (70% Vmax or 60% peak power output, 87 ± 4% HRmax), and 20-minute time trial (TT) in a double-blind randomized crossover design, with p < 0.05 accepted as significant. Ingesting protein vs. placebo increased metabolic demand {oxygen consumption, +4.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] ± 4%), p = 0.0297; +3.2% (95% CI ± 3.4%), p = 0.061}, heart rate (p = 0.0083; p = 0.007) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (p = 0.0266; p = 0.0163) in male cyclists and runners, respectively, but not female cyclists. Protein vs. placebo increased carbohydrate oxidation (+0.26 [95% CI ± 0.13] g·min-1, p = 0.0007) in female cyclists alone. Cyclists reported +2 ± 1 higher RPE than runners (p = 0.0062). Glycemia was maintained only in runners and increased with protein vs. placebo after 20 minutes of steady-state exercise (+0.63 [95% CI ± 0.56] mmol·L-1, p = 0.0285). TT performance with protein vs. placebo ingestion was modestly compromised in runners (-2.8% [95% CI ± 2.2%], p = 0.0018), unchanged in male cyclists (+1.9% [95% CI ± 5.6%], p = 0.5794), and modestly improved in female cyclists (+2.5% [95% CI ± 1.8%], p = 0.0164). Casein hydrolysate ingestion during moderate to hard carbohydrate-restricted exercise increases glycemia in runners, but not cyclists. Casein hydrolysate increases metabolic demand in male athletes and carbohydrate oxidation in female cyclists and is suitable for improving carbohydrate-restricted training intensity in female but not male endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Oosthuyse
- School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Medical School, Johannesburg, South Africa ; and
| | - Gabriella E Florence
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Arron Correia
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Camilla Smyth
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Andrew N Bosch
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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11
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Rothschild JA, Kilding AE, Broome SC, Stewart T, Cronin JB, Plews DJ. Pre-Exercise Carbohydrate or Protein Ingestion Influences Substrate Oxidation but Not Performance or Hunger Compared with Cycling in the Fasted State. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13041291. [PMID: 33919779 PMCID: PMC8070691 DOI: 10.3390/nu13041291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutritional intake can influence exercise metabolism and performance, but there is a lack of research comparing protein-rich pre-exercise meals with endurance exercise performed both in the fasted state and following a carbohydrate-rich breakfast. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of three pre-exercise nutrition strategies on metabolism and exercise capacity during cycling. On three occasions, seventeen trained male cyclists (VO2peak 62.2 ± 5.8 mL·kg−1·min−1, 31.2 ± 12.4 years, 74.8 ± 9.6 kg) performed twenty minutes of submaximal cycling (4 × 5 min stages at 60%, 80%, and 100% of ventilatory threshold (VT), and 20% of the difference between power at the VT and peak power), followed by 3 × 3 min intervals at 80% peak aerobic power and 3 × 3 min intervals at maximal effort, 30 min after consuming a carbohydrate-rich meal (CARB; 1 g/kg CHO), a protein-rich meal (PROTEIN; 0.45 g/kg protein + 0.24 g/kg fat), or water (FASTED), in a randomized and counter-balanced order. Fat oxidation was lower for CARB compared with FASTED at and below the VT, and compared with PROTEIN at 60% VT. There were no differences between trials for average power during high-intensity intervals (367 ± 51 W, p = 0.516). Oxidative stress (F2-Isoprostanes), perceived exertion, and hunger were not different between trials. Overall, exercising in the overnight-fasted state increased fat oxidation during submaximal exercise compared with exercise following a CHO-rich breakfast, and pre-exercise protein ingestion allowed similarly high levels of fat oxidation. There were no differences in perceived exertion, hunger, or performance, and we provide novel data showing no influence of pre-exercise nutrition ingestion on exercise-induced oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A. Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Andrew E. Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
| | - Sophie C. Broome
- Discipline of Nutrition, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand;
| | - Tom Stewart
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
- Human Potential Centre, School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - John B. Cronin
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
| | - Daniel J. Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
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12
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Rothschild JA, Kilding AE, Plews DJ. What Should I Eat before Exercise? Pre-Exercise Nutrition and the Response to Endurance Exercise: Current Prospective and Future Directions. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12113473. [PMID: 33198277 PMCID: PMC7696145 DOI: 10.3390/nu12113473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary variables influencing the adaptive response to a bout of endurance training are exercise duration and exercise intensity. However, altering the availability of nutrients before and during exercise can also impact the training response by modulating the exercise stimulus and/or the physiological and molecular responses to the exercise-induced perturbations. The purpose of this review is to highlight the current knowledge of the influence of pre-exercise nutrition ingestion on the metabolic, physiological, and performance responses to endurance training and suggest directions for future research. Acutely, carbohydrate ingestion reduces fat oxidation, but there is little evidence showing enhanced fat burning capacity following long-term fasted-state training. Performance is improved following pre-exercise carbohydrate ingestion for longer but not shorter duration exercise, while training-induced performance improvements following nutrition strategies that modulate carbohydrate availability vary based on the type of nutrition protocol used. Contrasting findings related to the influence of acute carbohydrate ingestion on mitochondrial signaling may be related to the amount of carbohydrate consumed and the intensity of exercise. This review can help to guide athletes, coaches, and nutritionists in personalizing pre-exercise nutrition strategies, and for designing research studies to further elucidate the role of nutrition in endurance training adaptations.
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13
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Godbole RC, Pable AA, Barvkar VT. Transcriptome-wide identification, characterization, and phylogenomic analysis of cytochrome P450s from Nothapodytes nimmoniana reveal candidate genes involved in the camptothecin biosynthetic pathway. Genome 2020; 64:1-14. [PMID: 32976723 DOI: 10.1139/gen-2020-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The plant Nothapodytes nimmoniana is an important source of camptothecin (CPT), an anticancer compound widely used in the treatment of colorectal, lung, and ovarian cancers. CPT is biosynthesized by the combination of the seco-iridoid and indole pathways in plants. The majority of the biosynthetic steps and associated genes still remain unknown. Certain reactions in the seco-iridoid pathway are catalyzed by cytochrome P450 enzymes. Hence, identifying transcriptionally active cytochrome P450 genes becomes essential in the elucidation of the CPT biosynthetic pathway. Here, we report the identification of 94 cytochrome P450s from the assembled transcriptomic data from leaf and root tissues of N. nimmoniana. The identified cytochrome P450 genes were full length and possessed all four conserved characteristic signature motifs of cytochrome P450 genes. Phylogenetic analysis of the protein sequences revealed their evolution and diversification and further categorized them into A-type (52.12%) and non-A-type (47.87%) cytochrome P450s. These 94 sequences represent 38 families and 63 subfamilies of cytochrome P450s. We also compared the transcriptional activity of identified cytochrome P450s with the expression of their homologs in the CPT-producing plant Ophiorrhiza pumila. Based on expression profiles and quantitative PCR validation, we propose NnCYP81CB1 and NnCYP89R1 as candidate cytochrome P450 genes involved in camptothecin biosynthesis in N. nimmoniana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rucha C Godbole
- Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune-411007, India
| | - Anupama A Pable
- Department of Microbiology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune-411007, India
| | - Vitthal T Barvkar
- Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune-411007, India
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14
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Rothschild JA, Kilding AE, Plews DJ. Pre-Exercise Nutrition Habits and Beliefs of Endurance Athletes Vary by Sex, Competitive Level, and Diet. J Am Coll Nutr 2020; 40:517-528. [PMID: 32926647 DOI: 10.1080/07315724.2020.1795950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to determine the self-reported beliefs and practices relating to pre-exercise nutrition intake among endurance athletes of varying ages and competitive levels and examine differences based on sex, competitive level, and habitual dietary pattern. METHOD An anonymous online survey was circulated internationally in English and completed by 1950 athletes of varying competitive levels (51.0% female, mean age 40.9 years [range 18:78]). Survey questions included training background, determinants of pre-exercise nutrition intake and composition, and timing relative to exercise. RESULTS Prior to morning exercise, 36.4%, 36.0%, and 27.6% of athletes consumed carbohydrate-containing food/drinks before almost every workout, some of the time, and never/rarely, respectively, with significant effects of sex (p < 0.001, Cramer's V (ϕc) = 0.15) and competitive level (p < 0.001, ϕc = 0.09). Nutritional intake before exercise varied based on workout duration for 47.6% of athletes, with significant effects of sex (ϕc = 0.15) and habitual diet (ϕc = 0.19), and based on workout intensity for 39.1% of athletes, with significant effects of sex (ϕc = 0.13) and habitual diet (ϕc = 0.17, all p < 0.001). Additionally, 89.0% of athletes reported using at least some type of dietary supplement (including caffeine from coffee/tea) within 1 hour before exercise. CONCLUSIONS Overall, nearly all factors measured relating to pre-exercise nutrition intake varied by sex, competitive level, habitual dietary pattern, and/or intensity/duration of the training session and suggest a large number of athletes may not be following current recommendations for optimizing endurance training adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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15
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Hansen M, Oxfeldt M, Larsen AE, Thomsen LS, Rokkedal-Lausch T, Christensen B, Rittig N, De Paoli FV, Bangsbo J, Ørtenblad N, Madsen K. Supplement with whey protein hydrolysate in contrast to carbohydrate supports mitochondrial adaptations in trained runners. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2020; 17:46. [PMID: 32894140 PMCID: PMC7487963 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-020-00376-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Protein supplementation has been suggested to augment endurance training adaptations by increasing mixed muscle and myofibrillar protein synthesis and lean body mass. However, a potential beneficial effect on mitochondrial adaptations is yet to be clarified. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of consuming whey protein hydrolysate before and whey protein hydrolysate plus carbohydrate (PRO-CHO) after each exercise session during a six-week training period compared to similarly timed intake of isocaloric CHO supplements on biomarkers of mitochondrial biogenesis, VO2max and performance in trained runners. Methods Twenty-four trained runners (VO2max 60.7 ± 3.7 ml O2 kg− 1 min1) completed a six-week block randomized controlled intervention period, consisting of progressive running training. Subjects were randomly assigned to either PRO-CHO or CHO and matched in pairs for gender, age, VO2max, training and performance status. The PRO-CHO group ingested a protein beverage (0.3 g kg− 1) before and protein-carbohydrate beverage (0.3 g protein kg− 1 and 1 g carbohydrate kg− 1) after each exercise session. The CHO group ingested an energy matched carbohydrate beverage. Resting muscle biopsies obtained pre and post intervention were analyzed for mitochondrial specific enzyme activity and mitochondrial protein content. Subjects completed a 6 K time trial (6 K TT) and a VO2max test pre, midway (only 6 K TT) and post intervention. Results Following six weeks of endurance training Cytochrome C (Cyt C) protein content was significantly higher in the PRO-CHO group compared to the CHO group (p < 0.05), with several other mitochondrial proteins (Succinate dehydrogenase (SDHA), Cytochrome C oxidase (COX-IV), Voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), Heat shock protein 60 (HSP60), and Prohibitin (PHB1)) following a similar, but non-significant pattern (p = 0.07–0.14). β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (HAD) activity was significantly lower after training in the CHO group (p < 0.01), but not in the PRO-CHO group (p = 0.24). VO2max and 6 K TT was significantly improved after training with no significant difference between groups. Conclusion Intake of whey PRO hydrolysate before and whey PRO hydrolysate plus CHO after each exercise session during a six-week endurance training period may augment training effects on specific mitochondrial proteins compared to intake of iso-caloric CHO but does not alter VO2max or 6 K TT performance. Trial registration clinicaltrials.gov, NCT03561337. Registered 6 June 2018 – Retrospectively registered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mette Hansen
- Section for Sport Sciences, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Dalgas Avenue 4, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Mikkel Oxfeldt
- Section for Sport Sciences, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Dalgas Avenue 4, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Anne E Larsen
- Section for Sport Sciences, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Dalgas Avenue 4, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Lise S Thomsen
- Department of Sport Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | | | - Britt Christensen
- Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Nikolaj Rittig
- Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department for Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Jens Bangsbo
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels Ørtenblad
- Department of Sport Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Klavs Madsen
- Section for Sport Sciences, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Dalgas Avenue 4, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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16
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Podlogar T, Free B, Wallis GA. High rates of fat oxidation are maintained after the sleep low approach despite delayed carbohydrate feeding during exercise. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:213-223. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1730447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Podlogar
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Bonnie Free
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Gareth A. Wallis
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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17
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Saghebjoo M, Kargar-Akbariyeh N, Mohammadnia-Ahmadi M, Saffari I. How to exercise to increase lipolysis and insulin sensitivity: Fasting or following a single high-protein breakfast. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 60:625-633. [PMID: 32043347 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.20.10403-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to investigate the lipolysis response and insulin sensitivity to high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) upon fasting (HIIEFAST) and following the intake of a high-protein breakfast (HIIEHPFED). METHODS Overweight men participated in two sessions of HIIE after an overnight fast and post-HPFED with an interval of one week. Metabolic biomarkers were assessed before, immediately after, and 3h postexercise. To evaluate the metabolic effects of HIIE, two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was used. RESULTS Glycerol levels increased immediately after HIIEFAST and HIIEHPFED (P=0.0001) and decreased 3h after exercise in both states (P=0.001). There were no significant changes in free fatty acid (FFA) levels immediately after exercise, but a significant increase was observed 3h after exercise compared to the baseline and immediately after exercise in HIIEFAST and HIIEHPFED (P=0.0001). Insulin sensitivity was increased for 3h after HIIEHPFED compared to the baseline and immediately after exercise (P=0.04). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that fasting during exercise is not necessary for the greater stimulation of lipolysis and an increase in insulin sensitivity and that exercise following a high-protein breakfast can have a similar effect in overweight young men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marziyeh Saghebjoo
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran -
| | - Nasrin Kargar-Akbariyeh
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran
| | | | - Iman Saffari
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran
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18
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Larsen MS, Holm L, Svart MV, Hjelholt AJ, Bengtsen MB, Dollerup OL, Dalgaard LB, Vendelbo MH, van Hall G, Møller N, Mikkelsen UR, Hansen M. Effects of protein intake prior to carbohydrate-restricted endurance exercise: a randomized crossover trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2020; 17:7. [PMID: 31992300 PMCID: PMC6986159 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-020-0338-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Deliberately training with reduced carbohydrate availability, a paradigm coined training low, has shown to promote adaptations associated with improved aerobic capacity. In this context researchers have proposed that protein may be ingested prior to training as a means to enhance the protein balance during exercise without spoiling the effect of the low carbohydrate availability. Accordingly, this is being practiced by world class athletes. However, the effect of protein intake on muscle protein metabolism during training low has not been studied. This study aimed to examine if protein intake prior to exercise with reduced carbohydrate stores benefits muscle protein metabolism in exercising and non-exercising muscles. Methods Nine well-trained subjects completed two trials in random order both of which included a high-intensity interval ergometer bike ride (day 1), a morning (day 2) steady state ride (90 min at 65% VO2peak, 90ss), and a 4-h recovery period. An experimental beverage was consumed before 90ss and contained either 0.5 g whey protein hydrolysate [WPH]/ kg lean body mass or flavored water [PLA]. A stable isotope infusion (L-[ring-13C6]-phenylalanine) combined with arterial-venous blood sampling, and plasma flow rate measurements were used to determine forearm protein turnover. Myofibrillar protein synthesis was determined from stable isotope incorporation into the vastus lateralis. Results Forearm protein net balance was not different from zero during 90ss exercise (nmol/100 ml/min, PLA: 0.5 ± 2.6; WPH: 1.8, ± 3.3) but negative during the 4 h recovery (nmol/100 ml/min, PLA: − 9.7 ± 4.6; WPH: − 8.7 ± 6.5); no interaction (P = 0.5) or main effect of beverage (P = 0.11) was observed. Vastus lateralis myofibrillar protein synthesis rates were increased during 90ss exercise (+ 0.02 ± 0.02%/h) and recovery (+ 0.02 ± 0.02%/h); no interaction (P = 0.3) or main effect of beverage (P = 0.3) was observed. Conclusion We conclude that protein ingestion prior to endurance exercise in the energy- and carbohydrate-restricted state does not increase myofibrillar protein synthesis or improve net protein balance in the exercising and non-exercising muscles, respectively, during and in the hours after exercise compared to ingestion of a non-caloric control. Trial registration clinicaltrials.gov, NCT01320449. Registered 10 May 2017 – Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03147001
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Affiliation(s)
- Mads S Larsen
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Dalgas Ave. 4, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark. .,Arla Foods Ingredients Group P/S, Viby J, 8260, Denmark.
| | - Lars Holm
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Mads V Svart
- Medical Research Laboratory, Institute for Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Endocrinology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Astrid J Hjelholt
- Medical Research Laboratory, Institute for Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Mads B Bengtsen
- Medical Research Laboratory, Institute for Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Ole L Dollerup
- Medical Research Laboratory, Institute for Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Line B Dalgaard
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Dalgas Ave. 4, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Mikkel H Vendelbo
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET-Centre, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Gerrit van Hall
- Clinical Metabolomics Core Facility, Clinical Biochemistry, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels Møller
- Medical Research Laboratory, Institute for Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Endocrinology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | | | - Mette Hansen
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Dalgas Ave. 4, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
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19
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Lam FC, Khan TM, Faidah H, Haseeb A, Khan AH. Effectiveness of whey protein supplements on the serum levels of amino acid, creatinine kinase and myoglobin of athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev 2019; 8:130. [PMID: 31151484 PMCID: PMC6544960 DOI: 10.1186/s13643-019-1039-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Consuming whey protein supplements, along with physiotherapy and psychotherapy, have been recognised in sports performance. Whey protein supplements (WPS) is one of the commonly used supplements as ergogenic aids for athletes to enhance their muscle performance and recovery during sport-related injuries. The purpose of this systematic review is to investigate the effectiveness of WPS over the blood biochemistry mainly amino acids, creatinine kinase and myoglobin which influence performance and recovery among athletes. METHOD A comprehensive literature search was conducted to identify randomised control trials (RCTs) and non-RCTs that investigated the effectiveness of WPS on amino acids, creatinine kinase and myoglobin among athletes. Risk of Bias in Non-Randomised Studies of Interventions tool (ROBINS-I) and Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment tool were used to rule out the quality of studies. Meta-analysis was performed using a random effect model with STATA version 14.2. The weighted mean difference was used to estimate the effectiveness of WPS against other supplements. RESULTS A total of 333,257 research articles were identified; of these, 15 records were included to proceed with the analysis. Meta-analysis has shown that WPS has significantly overall increased the level of essential amino acids level by 624.03 nmol/L (CI = 169.27, 1078.8; I2 = 100%; p = 0.00) and branched-chain amino acids level by 458.57 nmol/L (CI = 179.96, 737.18; I2 = 100%; p = 0.00) compared to the control group (without WPS). Moreover, was observed to decrease myoglobin level by 11.74 ng/ml (CI = - 30.24, 6.76; I2 = 79.6%; p = 0.007) and creatine kinase level by 47.05 U/L (CI = - 129.47, 35.37; I2 = 98.4%; p = 0.000) compared to the control group. CONCLUSION The findings revealed that the clinical evidence supports the effectiveness of WPS as a positive ergogenic aid on athletes' amino acids, creatinine kinase and myoglobin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fui-Ching Lam
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 47500, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Tahir Mehmood Khan
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 47500, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. .,The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (IPS), University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences (UVAS), Outfall Road, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Hani Faidah
- College of Medicine, Umul Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdul Haseeb
- College of Pharmacy, Umul Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.,School of Pharmaceutical Science, University Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Amer Hayat Khan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, University Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
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20
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GILLEN JENNAB, WEST DANIELWD, WILLIAMSON ERICP, FUNG HUGOJW, MOORE DANIELR. Low-Carbohydrate Training Increases Protein Requirements of Endurance Athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2019; 51:2294-2301. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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21
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Lam FC, Bukhsh A, Rehman H, Waqas MK, Shahid N, Khaliel AM, Elhanish A, Karoud M, Telb A, Khan TM. Efficacy and Safety of Whey Protein Supplements on Vital Sign and Physical Performance Among Athletes: A Network Meta-Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:317. [PMID: 31068804 PMCID: PMC6491698 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Athletes train physically to reach beyond their potential maximum aerobic threshold. Whey protein supplements (WPS) are often used in conjunction with physiotherapy and psychotherapy to regain better vital sign and physical performances. This review aimed to explore the clinical evidence on the efficacy and safety of WPS in sports performance and recovery among athletes. Methodology: A comprehensive literature search was performed to identify relevant randomized control trials (RCTs) that investigated the efficacy and safety of WPS on the vital sign and physical performance among athletes. The Cochrane Risk of Bias (ROB) Assessment tools were used to assess the quality of the studies. Meta-analysis was conducted using the frequentist model with STATA version 14.2®. Results: A total of 333,257 research articles were identified out of which 20 RCTs were included for qualitative synthesis and network meta-analysis with 351 participants. Among the studies, 7 had low ROB and 3 RCTs had high ROB. Of these 20 trials, 16 trials were randomized clinical trials which compared whey protein supplements (WPS) with various comparators i.e., L-alanine, bovine colostrum, carbohydrate, casein, leucine, maltodextrin, rice, protein + caffeine were compared with placebo. Analysis from the pairwise meta-analysis revealed that for respiratory exchange ratio (RER) WPS was found to be significantly improving compared to maltodextrin (WMD = 0.012; 95%CI = 0.001, 0.023). Similarity to RPE (Rate Perceived Exertion), slight difference between WPS and the comparators, however, when the estimation was favorable to the comparators, there was moderate-high heterogeneity. For VO2max, high heterogeneity appeared when WPS compared to maltodextrin with the I2 = 97.8% (WMD = 4.064; 95% CI = −4.230, 12.359), meanwhile bovine colostrum (WMD = −2.658; 95%CI = −6.180, 0.865) only comparator that was better than WPS. According to the estimated effect of the supplements on physical performance outcome results, maximum power (8 studies, 185 athletes), highest ranked was bovine colostrum (SUCRA = 70.7%) and the lowest ranked was placebo (SUCRA = 17.9%), yet all insignificant. Then again, on average power (nine studies, 187 athletes), WPS was the highest ranked (SUCRA = 75.4 %) about −112.00 watt (−187.91, −36.08) and most of the estimations were significant. Body mass was reported in 10 studies (171 athletes), carbohydrate may be at the highest ranked (SUCRA = 66.9%) but it is insignificant. Thought the second highest ranked was WPS (SUCRA = 64.7%) and it is significant (WMD = −6.89 kg; CI = −8.24, −5.54). Conclusion: The findings of this review support the efficacy and safety of WPS as an ergogenic aid on athletes' sports performance and recovery. The overall quality of clinical evidence was found to be valid and reliable from the comprehensive search strategy and ROB assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fui-Ching Lam
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
| | - Allah Bukhsh
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia.,Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Habib Rehman
- Faculty of Biosciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Khurram Waqas
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Nabeel Shahid
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Adil Mohammed Khaliel
- Department of Urology, Bourn Hall Fertility Clinic Dubai, Jumeriah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ahlam Elhanish
- Department of Urology, Bourn Hall Fertility Clinic Dubai, Jumeriah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mustfa Karoud
- Department of Orthopedics, Canadian Specialist Hospital, Abuhail, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ahmed Telb
- Department of Radiology, Emirates Hospital, Jumeriah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Tahir Mehmood Khan
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia.,Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
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22
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Impey SG, Hearris MA, Hammond KM, Bartlett JD, Louis J, Close GL, Morton JP. Fuel for the Work Required: A Theoretical Framework for Carbohydrate Periodization and the Glycogen Threshold Hypothesis. Sports Med 2018; 48:1031-1048. [PMID: 29453741 PMCID: PMC5889771 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0867-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Deliberately training with reduced carbohydrate (CHO) availability to enhance endurance-training-induced metabolic adaptations of skeletal muscle (i.e. the 'train low, compete high' paradigm) is a hot topic within sport nutrition. Train-low studies involve periodically training (e.g., 30-50% of training sessions) with reduced CHO availability, where train-low models include twice per day training, fasted training, post-exercise CHO restriction and 'sleep low, train low'. When compared with high CHO availability, data suggest that augmented cell signalling (73% of 11 studies), gene expression (75% of 12 studies) and training-induced increases in oxidative enzyme activity/protein content (78% of 9 studies) associated with 'train low' are especially apparent when training sessions are commenced within a specific range of muscle glycogen concentrations. Nonetheless, such muscle adaptations do not always translate to improved exercise performance (e.g. 37 and 63% of 11 studies show improvements or no change, respectively). Herein, we present our rationale for the glycogen threshold hypothesis, a window of muscle glycogen concentrations that simultaneously permits completion of required training workloads and activation of the molecular machinery regulating training adaptations. We also present the 'fuel for the work required' paradigm (representative of an amalgamation of train-low models) whereby CHO availability is adjusted in accordance with the demands of the upcoming training session(s). In order to strategically implement train-low sessions, our challenge now is to quantify the glycogen cost of habitual training sessions (so as to inform the attainment of any potential threshold) and ensure absolute training intensity is not compromised, while also creating a metabolic milieu conducive to facilitating the endurance phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel G Impey
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom St Campus, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Mark A Hearris
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom St Campus, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Kelly M Hammond
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom St Campus, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Jonathan D Bartlett
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University, Footscray Park, Ballarat Road, Melbourne, VIC, 8001, Australia
| | - Julien Louis
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom St Campus, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Graeme L Close
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom St Campus, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - James P Morton
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom St Campus, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK.
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23
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Earnest CP, Rothschild J, Harnish CR, Naderi A. Metabolic adaptations to endurance training and nutrition strategies influencing performance. Res Sports Med 2018; 27:134-146. [PMID: 30411978 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1544134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Endurance performance is the result of optimal training targeting cardiovascular, metabolic, and peripheral muscular adaptations and is coupled to effective nutrition strategies via the use of macronutrient manipulations surrounding training and potential supplementation with ergogenic aids. It is important to note that training and nutrition may differ according to the individual needs of the athlete and can markedly impact the physiological response to training. Herein, we discuss various aspects of endurance training adaptations, nutritional strategies and their contributions to towards performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrad P Earnest
- a Health and Kinesiology, College Station , Texas A&M University , College Station , TX , USA
| | | | | | - Alireza Naderi
- d Department of Sport Physiology , Islamic Azad University , Boroujerd , Iran (the Islamic Republic of)
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24
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Whey Protein Augments Leucinemia and Postexercise p70S6K1 Activity Compared With a Hydrolyzed Collagen Blend When in Recovery From Training With Low Carbohydrate Availability. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2018; 28:651-659. [DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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25
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Rothschild J, Earnest CP. Dietary Manipulations Concurrent to Endurance Training. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2018; 3:jfmk3030041. [PMID: 33466970 PMCID: PMC7739303 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk3030041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of an athlete's dietary intake (both timing and food type) goes beyond simply providing fuel to support the body's vital processes. Nutritional choices also have an impact on the metabolic adaptations to training. Over the past 20 years, research has suggested that strategically reducing carbohydrate (CHO) availability during an athlete's training can modify the metabolic responses in lieu of simply maintaining a high CHO diet. Several methods have been explored to manipulate CHO availability and include: Low-carb, high-fat (LCHF) diets, performing two-a-day training without glycogen restoration between sessions, and a "sleep-low" approach entailing a glycogen-depleting session in the evening without consuming CHO until after a morning training session performed in an overnight fasted state. Each of these methods can confer beneficial metabolic adaptations for the endurance athlete including increases in mitochondrial enzyme activity, mitochondrial content, and rates of fat oxidation, yet data showing a direct performance benefit is still unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Conrad P. Earnest
- Exercise and Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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26
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Metabolism and Whole-Body Fat Oxidation Following Postexercise Carbohydrate or Protein Intake. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2018; 28:37-45. [DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: This study investigated how postexercise intake of placebo (PLA), protein (PRO), or carbohydrate (CHO) affected fat oxidation (FO) and metabolic parameters during recovery and subsequent exercise. Methods: In a cross-over design, 12 moderately trained women (VO2max 45 ± 6 ml·min−1·kg−1) performed three days of testing. A 23-min control (CON) incremental FO bike test (30–80% VO2max) was followed by 60 min exercise at 75% VO2max. Immediately postexercise, subjects ingested PLA, 20 g PRO, or 40 g CHO followed by a second FO bike test 2 h later. Results: Maximal fat oxidation (MFO) and the intensity at which MFO occurs (Fatmax) increased at the second FO test compared to the first following all three postexercise drinks (MFO for CON = 0.28 ± 0.08, PLA = 0.57 ± 0.13, PRO = 0.52 ± 0.08, CHO = 0.44 ± 0.12 g fat·min−1; Fatmax for CON = 41 ± 7, PLA = 54 ± 4, PRO = 55 ± 6, CHO = 50 ± 8 %VO2max, p < 0.01 for all values compared to CON). Resting FO, MFO, and Fatmax were not significantly different between PLA and PRO, but lower for CHO. PRO and CHO increased insulin levels at 1 h postexercise, though both glucose and insulin were equal with PLA at 2 h postexercise. Increased postexercise ketone levels only occurred with PLA. Conclusion: Protein supplementation immediately postexercise did not affect the doubling in whole body fat oxidation seen during a subsequent exercise trial 2 h later. Neither did it affect resting fat oxidation during the postexercise period despite increased insulin levels and attenuated ketosis. Carbohydrate intake dampened the increase in fat oxidation during the second test, though a significant increase was still observed compared to the first test.
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27
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Impey SG, Hammond KM, Shepherd SO, Sharples AP, Stewart C, Limb M, Smith K, Philp A, Jeromson S, Hamilton DL, Close GL, Morton JP. Fuel for the work required: a practical approach to amalgamating train-low paradigms for endurance athletes. Physiol Rep 2016; 4:4/10/e12803. [PMID: 27225627 PMCID: PMC4886170 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Using an amalgamation of previously studied "train-low" paradigms, we tested the effects of reduced carbohydrate (CHO) but high leucine availability on cell-signaling responses associated with exercise-induced regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle protein synthesis (MPS). In a repeated-measures crossover design, 11 males completed an exhaustive cycling protocol with high CHO availability before, during, and after exercise (HIGH) or alternatively, low CHO but high protein (leucine enriched) availability (LOW + LEU). Muscle glycogen was different (P < 0.05) pre-exercise (HIGH: 583 ± 158, LOW + LEU: 271 ± 85 mmol kg(-1) dw) but decreased (P < 0.05) to comparable levels at exhaustion (≈100 mmol kg(-1) dw). Despite differences (P < 0.05) in exercise capacity (HIGH: 158 ± 29, LOW + LEU: 100 ± 17 min), exercise induced (P < 0.05) comparable AMPKα2 (3-4-fold) activity, PGC-1α (13-fold), p53 (2-fold), Tfam (1.5-fold), SIRT1 (1.5-fold), Atrogin 1 (2-fold), and MuRF1 (5-fold) gene expression at 3 h post-exercise. Exhaustive exercise suppressed p70S6K activity to comparable levels immediately post-exercise (≈20 fmol min(-1) mg(-1)). Despite elevated leucine availability post-exercise, p70S6K activity remained suppressed (P < 0.05) 3 h post-exercise in LOW + LEU (28 ± 14 fmol min(-1) mg(-1)), whereas muscle glycogen resynthesis (40 mmol kg(-1) dw h(-1)) was associated with elevated (P < 0.05) p70S6K activity in HIGH (53 ± 30 fmol min(-1) mg(-1)). We conclude: (1) CHO restriction before and during exercise induces "work-efficient" mitochondrial-related cell signaling but; (2) post-exercise CHO and energy restriction maintains p70S6K activity at basal levels despite feeding leucine-enriched protein. Our data support the practical concept of "fuelling for the work required" as a potential strategy for which to amalgamate train-low paradigms into periodized training programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel G Impey
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kelly M Hammond
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sam O Shepherd
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Adam P Sharples
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Claire Stewart
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Marie Limb
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Aging, Research Division of Medical Sciences and Graduate Entry Medicine, School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby, UK
| | - Kenneth Smith
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Aging, Research Division of Medical Sciences and Graduate Entry Medicine, School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby, UK
| | - Andrew Philp
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Aging Research, School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Stewart Jeromson
- Health and Exercise Sciences Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - D Lee Hamilton
- Health and Exercise Sciences Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Graeme L Close
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - James P Morton
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
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28
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Close GL, Hamilton DL, Philp A, Burke LM, Morton JP. New strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 98:144-158. [PMID: 26855422 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Despite over 50 years of research, the field of sports nutrition continues to grow at a rapid rate. Whilst the traditional research focus was one that centred on strategies to maximise competition performance, emerging data in the last decade has demonstrated how both macronutrient and micronutrient availability can play a prominent role in regulating those cell signalling pathways that modulate skeletal muscle adaptations to endurance and resistance training. Nonetheless, in the context of exercise performance, it is clear that carbohydrate (but not fat) still remains king and that carefully chosen ergogenic aids (e.g. caffeine, creatine, sodium bicarbonate, beta-alanine, nitrates) can all promote performance in the correct exercise setting. In relation to exercise training, however, it is now thought that strategic periods of reduced carbohydrate and elevated dietary protein intake may enhance training adaptations whereas high carbohydrate availability and antioxidant supplementation may actually attenuate training adaptation. Emerging evidence also suggests that vitamin D may play a regulatory role in muscle regeneration and subsequent hypertrophy following damaging forms of exercise. Finally, novel compounds (albeit largely examined in rodent models) such as epicatechins, nicotinamide riboside, resveratrol, β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate, phosphatidic acid and ursolic acid may also promote or attenuate skeletal muscle adaptations to endurance and strength training. When taken together, it is clear that sports nutrition is very much at the heart of the Olympic motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius (faster, higher, stronger).
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Affiliation(s)
- G L Close
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Science (RISES), Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom.
| | - D L Hamilton
- Health and Exercise Sciences Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
| | - A Philp
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - L M Burke
- Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, ACT, Australia; Mary Mackillop Institute for Health Research, Melbourne, Australia
| | - J P Morton
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Science (RISES), Liverpool John Moores University, Tom Reilly Building, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom
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Kato H, Suzuki H, Inoue Y, Takimoto T, Suzuki K, Kobayashi H. Co-ingestion of carbohydrate with leucine-enriched essential amino acids does not augment acute postexercise muscle protein synthesis in a strenuous exercise-induced hypoinsulinemic state. SPRINGERPLUS 2016; 5:1299. [PMID: 27547673 PMCID: PMC4978655 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2736-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Strenuous exercise following overnight fasting increases fat oxidation during exercise, which can modulate training adaptation. However, such exercise induces muscle protein catabolism by decreasing blood insulin concentrations and increasing amino acid oxidation during the exercise. Leucine-enriched essential amino acids (LEAAs) enhance muscle protein synthesis (MPS) at rest and after exercise. However, it remains to be clarified if the co-ingestion of carbohydrate with LEAAs induces an additional increase in MPS, particularly in a hypoinsulinemic state induced by strenuous exercise. Eight-week-old male Sprague–Dawley rats were made to perform strenuous jump exercise (height 35 cm, 200 jumps, 3-s intervals), after which they ingested distilled water and 1 g/kg LEAAs with or without 1 g/kg of glucose. The fractional synthesis rate was determined by measuring the incorporation of l-[ring-2H5]-phenylalanine into skeletal muscle protein. Immediately after the exercise, plasma insulin concentration was significantly lower than that at the basal level. Co-ingestion of glucose with LEAAs alleviated the reduction in plasma insulin concentration, while LEAA ingestion alone did not. LEAA administration with or without glucose led to a higher MPS compared with water administration (P < 0.05). However, the co-ingestion of glucose with LEAAs did not induce further increases in MPS compared with LEAA ingestion alone. Thus, the co-ingestion of glucose with LEAAs does not additionally increase MPS under a strenuous exercise–induced hypoinsulinemic state when glucose is co-ingested with a dose of LEAAs that maximally stimulates MPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Kato
- Frontier Research Laboratories, Institute for Innovation, Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Hiromi Suzuki
- Frontier Research Laboratories, Institute for Innovation, Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Yoshiko Inoue
- Frontier Research Laboratories, Institute for Innovation, Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Tetsuya Takimoto
- Frontier Research Laboratories, Institute for Innovation, Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Katsuya Suzuki
- Frontier Research Laboratories, Institute for Innovation, Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Hisamine Kobayashi
- Frontier Research Laboratories, Institute for Innovation, Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
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30
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Kizzi J, Sum A, Houston FE, Hayes LD. Influence of a caffeine mouth rinse on sprint cycling following glycogen depletion. Eur J Sport Sci 2016; 16:1087-94. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1165739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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