Rosmarinic acid induces apoptosis of activated T cells from rheumatoid arthritis patients via mitochondrial pathway

Nanodrug delivery systems targeting ferroptosis as an innovative therapeutic approach for Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by joint inflammation, progressive cartilage degradation, and bone erosion. Recent research has implicated ferroptosis not only in autoimmune hepatitis but also in the pathogenesis and progression of autoimmune disorders like RA. Consequently, numerous therapeutic strategies have begun to target the ferroptosis pathway, particularly in the design and development of nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs). While previous reviews have comprehensively discussed the mechanisms of ferroptosis, related signaling pathways, and NDDS materials, recent studies have further elucidated the interplay between ferroptosis and various metabolic pathways, providing a robust theoretical basis for the design of NDDS-based ferroptosis strategies. This review focuses on investigating the role of ferroptosis in the development of RA, aiming to elucidate how targeting ferroptosis can offer novel therapeutic concepts and potential treatments for RA patients. Specifically, it summarizes the design strategies of ferroptosis-based NDDSs via different pathways and highlights the feasibility of RA treatment regimens based on the ferroptosis mechanism. Furthermore, the review critically discusses the current limitations of NDDSs and offers perspectives on future research directions in this field.

Therapeutic potential of phytocompounds in rheumatoid arthritis: Molecular insights and clinical applications

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by systemic involvement, inflammation, and the destruction of synovial joints. RA can be categorized as anti-citrullinated protein antibodies-positive or negative based on genetic risk factors and autoantibodies. This review systematically sourced articles related to RA, phytocompounds, signaling pathways, and clinical insights from primary medical databases, including Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science. This review explores the therapeutic potential of phytocompounds in treating RA by targeting key inflammation and immunological response signaling pathways. Phytocompounds such as curcumin, resveratrol, and flavonoids alter essential molecular pathways in RA pathophysiology, including nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, mitogen-activated protein kinases, janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription, and the inflammasome. These substances possess pro-resolving, anti-apoptotic, and antioxidant properties, which enhance their therapeutic efficacy. Alternative medicine, including dietary, herbal, and nutritional supplements, may help reduce RA symptoms. In vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of these treatments. Phytocompounds have potential as a treatment for RA by altering signaling pathways, reducing oxidative stress, and protecting cartilage and bone. However, few clinical trials confirm its long-term safety, bioavailability, and effectiveness. Further clinical trials and translational research are needed to validate the effectiveness, safety, and pharmacokinetics of phytocompounds, while identifying novel plant-derived bioactive chemicals could improve patient outcomes.

Rosmarinus officinalis L. as Fascinating Source of Potential Anticancer Agents Targeting Aromatase and COX-2: An Overview

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the world, with scientific evidence indicating that the enzymes aromatase and cyclooxygenase 2 are upregulated in several types of cancer. Over the past 30 years, natural compounds have played a crucial role in cancer chemotherapy, and to date, many phytocompounds have been reported to interact with these enzymes, inhibiting their activity. Notably, several phytocompounds found in Rosmarinus officinalis L., a medicinal plant native to the Mediterranean region and cultivated around the world, have shown the ability to interact with these enzymes. This review examines the role of the main compounds contained in Rosmarinus officinalis L. as potential anticancer agents acting on aromatase and cyclooxygenase-2.

Potential of rosmarinic acid from Orthosiphon aristatus extract for inflammatory induced diseases and its mechanisms of action

Orthosiphon aristatus has been traditionally used as a medicinal herb for various illnesses in Southeast Asia and Europe. The most dominant bioactive compound of the herb is rosmarinic acid (RosA) which has been demonstrated for its remarkable anti-inflammatory properties. This review describes the recent progress of studies on multi-target molecular pathways of RosA in relation to targeted inflammatory-associated diseases. An inclusive literature search was conducted using electronic databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus, Springer Link, PubMed, Medline, Wiley and Science Direct for studies reporting on the anti-inflammatory actions of RosA from 2008 until 2023. The keywords of the search were RosA and anti-inflammatory in relation to hepatoprotective, chondroprotective, cardioprotective, neuroprotective and toxicity. Only publications that are written in English are included in this review. The inhibition and deactivation of pro-inflammatory biomolecules by RosA were explained based on the initial inflammation stimuli and their location in the body. The activation of Nrf2/HO-1 expression to inhibit NF-κB pathway is the key mechanism for hepatoprotection. Besides NF-κB inhibition, RosA activates PPARγ to alleviate ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced myocardial injury for cardioprotection. The regulation of MAPK and T-cell activation is important for chondroprotection, whereas the anti-oxidant property of RosA is the main contributor of neuroprotection. Even though less studies on the anti-inflammation of RosA extracts from O. aristatus, but the effective pharmacological properties of RosA has promoted it as a natural potent lead for further investigation.

Rosmarinic acid and its derivatives: Current insights on anticancer potential and other biomedical applications

Cancer is still the leading cause of death worldwide, burdening the global medical system. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is among the first secondary metabolites discovered and it is a bioactive compound identified in plants such as Boraginaceae and Nepetoideae subfamilies of the Lamiaceae family, including Thymus masticmasti chinaythia koreana, Ocimum sanctum, and Hyptis pectinate. This updated review is to highlight the chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects of RA and its derivatives, thus providing valuable clues for the potential development of some complementary drugs in the treatment of cancers. Relevant information about RA's chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects and its derivatives were collected from electronic scientific databases, such as PubMed/Medline, Scopus, TRIP database, Web of Science, and Science Direct. The results of the studies showed numerous significant biological effects such as antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, antioxidant and antiangiogenic effects. Most of the studies on the anticancer potential with the corresponding mechanisms are still in the experimental preclinical stage and are missing evidence from clinical trials to support the research. To open new anticancer therapeutic perspectives of RA and its derivatives, future clinical studies must elucidate the molecular mechanisms and targets of action in more detail, the human toxic potential and adverse effects.

Role of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial damage in rheumatoid arthritis and targeted drugs

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by synovial inflammation, pannus formation, and bone and cartilage damage. It has a high disability rate. The hypoxic microenvironment of RA joints can cause reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and mitochondrial damage, which not only affect the metabolic processes of immune cells and pathological changes in fibroblastic synovial cells but also upregulate the expression of several inflammatory pathways, ultimately promoting inflammation. Additionally, ROS and mitochondrial damage are involved in angiogenesis and bone destruction, thereby accelerating RA progression. In this review, we highlighted the effects of ROS accumulation and mitochondrial damage on inflammatory response, angiogenesis, bone and cartilage damage in RA. Additionally, we summarized therapies that target ROS or mitochondria to relieve RA symptoms and discuss the gaps in research and existing controversies, hoping to provide new ideas for research in this area and insights for targeted drug development in RA.

Biomedical features and therapeutic potential of rosmarinic acid

For decades, the use of secondary metabolites of various herbs has been an attractive strategy in combating human diseases. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a bioactive phenolic compound commonly found in plants of Lamiaceae and Boraginaceae families. RA is biosynthesized using amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine via enzyme-catalyzed reactions. However, the chemical synthesis of RA involves an esterification reaction between caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxy phenyl lactic acid contributing two phenolic rings to the structure of RA. Several studies have ascertained multiple therapeutic benefits of RA in various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, inflammatory disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and liver diseases. Many previous scientific papers indicate that RA can be used as an anti-plasmodic, anti-viral and anti-bacterial drug. In addition, due to its high anti-oxidant capacity, this natural polyphenol has recently gained attention for its possible application as a nutraceutical compound in the food industry. Here we provide state-of-the-art, flexible therapeutic potential and biomedical features of RA, its implications and multiple uses. Along with various valuable applications in safeguarding human health, this review further summarizes the therapeutic advantages of RA in various human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, the challenges associated with the clinical applicability of RA have also been discussed.

DNA Methylation of T Lymphocytes as a Therapeutic Target: Implications for Rheumatoid Arthritis Etiology

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that can cause joint damage and disability. Epigenetic variation, especially DNA methylation, has been shown to be involved in almost all the stages of the pathology of RA, from autoantibody production to various self-effector T cells and the defects of protective T cells that can lead to chronic inflammation and erosion of bones and joints. Given the critical role of T cells in the pathology of RA, the regulatory functions of DNA methylation in T cell biology remain unclear. In this review, we elaborate on the relationship between RA pathogenesis and DNA methylation in the context of different T cell populations. We summarize the relevant methylation events in T cell development, differentiation, and T cell-related genes in disease prediction and drug efficacy. Understanding the epigenetic regulation of T cells has the potential to profoundly translate preclinical results into clinical practice and provide a framework for the development of novel, individualized RA therapeutics.

Role of natural products in alleviation of rheumatoid arthritis-A review

Rheumatoid arthritis (RHA) is one of the most prevalent complex, chronic, inflammatory diseases, manifested by elevated oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers. Prolonged administration of NSAIDs, steroids, and DMARDs, used in the treatment of RHA, is associated with deleterious side effects. This necessitates the urge of new and safe approaches for RHA management, based on the complementary and alternative system of medicine. Documented evidences have suggested that supplementation with nutritional, dietary, and herbal components; can play a crucial role as an adjuvant, in the alleviation of the RHA symptoms, through their influence on the pathological inflammatory processes. Dietary phenolic compounds, flavonoids, carotenoids, and alkaloids with their ability to modulate prooxidant and pro-inflammatory pathways, have been effective in delaying the arthritic disease progression. Moreover, in scientific explorations, herbs containing phenolic compounds, alkaloids, carotenoids flavonoids, spices such as ginger, turmeric, Ayurvedic formulations, different diets such as Mediterranean diet, vegan diet, beverages, and oils such as sesame oil, rice bran oil, vitamins, and probiotics are proven to modulate the action of inflammatory molecules, involved in RHA pathology. Subsequently, the purpose of this review article is to summarize various in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies in RHA, which have documented remarkable insights into the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, and immunomodulatory, bone erosion preventing properties of dietary, nutritional, and herbal components with the focus on their molecular level mechanisms involved in RHA. Even though major findings were derived from in vitro studies, several in vivo and clinical studies have established the use of diet, herbal, and nutritional management in RHA treatment. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Thickening of the synovial membrane, bone erosion, and cartilage destruction is known to trigger rheumatoid arthritis causing inflammation and pain in bone joints. Continuous intake of NSAIDs, steroids, and DMARD therapy are associated with detrimental side effects. These side effects can be overcome by the use of dietary, nutritional, and herbal interventions based on the complementary and alternative therapy. This concept portrays the food components and other natural components having the potential to promote health, improve general well-being, and reduce the risk of RHA.

Powerful Plant Antioxidants: A New Biosustainable Approach to the Production of Rosmarinic Acid

Modern lifestyle factors, such as physical inactivity, obesity, smoking, and exposure to environmental pollution, induce excessive generation of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the body. These by-products of oxygen metabolism play a key role in the development of various human diseases such as cancer, diabetes, heart failure, brain damage, muscle problems, premature aging, eye injuries, and a weakened immune system. Synthetic and natural antioxidants, which act as free radical scavengers, are widely used in the food and beverage industries. The toxicity and carcinogenic effects of some synthetic antioxidants have generated interest in natural alternatives, especially plant-derived polyphenols (e.g., phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, tannins, coumarins, lignins, lignans, quinines, curcuminoids, chalcones, and essential oil terpenoids). This review focuses on the well-known phenolic antioxidant rosmarinic acid (RA), an ester of caffeic acid and (R)-(+)-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) lactic acid, describing its wide distribution in thirty-nine plant families and the potential productivity of plant sources. A botanical and phytochemical description is provided of a new rich source of RA, Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad (Lamiaceae). Recently reported approaches to the biotechnological production of RA are summarized, highlighting the establishment of cell suspension cultures of S. khuzistanica as an RA chemical biofactory.

Rosmarinic acid prevents gastric ulcers via sulfhydryl groups reinforcement, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a secondary metabolite present in several plant species that has already demonstrated antioxidant, antiallergic, anticancer, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and hepatoprotective effects experimentally. Due to the promising pharmacological properties found previously, this study aimed to assess the oral acute toxicity and the gastroprotective effect of RA using animal models. Acute toxicity was assessed according to OECD guide 423. Ethanol, stress, NSAIDs, and pylorus ligature-induced gastric ulcer models were used to investigate antiulcer properties. The related mechanisms of action were also evaluated from ethanol-induced gastric lesions protocol. RA (300 and 2000 mg/kg) showed no changes in behavioral, water and food intake, body and organs weight parameters with LD50 set around 2500 mg/kg. RA presented gastroprotective activity in all assessed doses (25, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) using different animal models. Besides, it was observed that this effect is not related to the modulation of gastric juice parameters (pH, volume, and [H+]), the participation of nitric oxide, mucus, and prostaglandins. However, increased sulfhydryl groups, GSH and IL-10 levels as well as reduced of proinflammatory cytokine (TNF-α and IL-1β) levels were found for RA-treated groups. RA presents low acute toxicity and gastroprotective activity, preventing ulcer formation via cytoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Graphical abstract.

A Review of the Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Rosmarinic Acid on Inflammatory Diseases

Inflammatory diseases are caused by abnormal immune responses and are characterized by an imbalance of inflammatory mediators and cells. In recent years, the anti-inflammatory activity of natural products has attracted wide attention. Rosmarinic acid (RosA) is a water-soluble phenolic compound that is an ester of caffeic acid and 3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl lactic acid. It is discovered in many plants, like those of the Boraginaceae and Lamiaceae families. RosA has a wide range of pharmacological effects, including anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic, anti-tumorigenic, and anti-inflammatory effects. The anti-inflammatory effects of RosA have been revealed through in vitro and in vivo studies of various inflammatory diseases like arthritis, colitis, and atopic dermatitis. This article mainly describes the preclinical research of RosA on inflammatory diseases and depicts a small amount of clinical research data. The purpose of this review is to discuss the anti-inflammatory effects of RosA in inflammatory diseases and its underlying mechanism.

Development, physico-chemical characterization and in-vitro studies of hydrogels containing rosmarinic acid-loaded nanoemulsion for topical application

OBJECTIVES

Natural sources with antioxidant activity, such as rosmarinic acid (RA), have been considered as an interesting approach for the development of new anti-ageing skin products. In this context, this study aimed to develop hydrogels containing RA-loaded nanoemulsions and evaluate the effect of the addition of Tween® 80 (a nonionic cosurfactant) in formulations intended to be used for topical application.

METHODS

Physico-chemical characterization, in-vitro release and skin retention/permeation from hydrogels of RA-loaded nanoemulsions (containing or not Tween® 80) were evaluated. The RA-loaded nanoemulsion safety profiles were also investigated in keratinocytes (HaCaT cells).

KEY FINDINGS

It was observed that all formulations presented adequate physico-chemical characterization for topical application. Furthermore, the results also demonstrated that the presence of Tween® 80 decreased the droplet size and polydispersity index of nanoemulsions and hydrogels. An extended RA release was noted for the hydrogels. However, when comparing the hydrogels, a positive effect of the presence of Tween® 80 on RA retention/permeation in total skin was seen. The RA-loaded nanoemulsion safety profiles demonstrated a good tolerability (3.125-100 μm) in HaCaT cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall results demonstrated that the formulations developed in this study can be considered as a suitable carrier for RA in a topical application targeting new anti-ageing skin care products.

Cytotoxic, genotoxic and antimicrobial activity of caffeic and rosmarinic acids and their lithium, sodium and potassium salts as potential anticancer compounds

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to examine the cytotoxic, genotoxic, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of caffeic and rosmarinic acids and their salts with Li, Na and K with use of Escherichia coli K-12 recA:gfp strain as a model organism.

METHODS

Cytotoxic potency of tested chemicals were calculated on the basis on the dose that confers inhibition percentage such as 20% for each concentrations of analysed chemicals. Genotoxic properties were calculated on the basis of the fold increase (FI) of SFI values normalized with control. Antioxidant potencies were established on the base of DPPH assay. Antimicrobial activity of chemicals were established on the value of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC).

RESULTS

Obtained results indicated that lower concentrations of tested compounds exhibited stronger GFP fluorescence response after rosmarinic acids and their salts treatment. Genotoxic effects seemed to be independent of the salt ions. The caffeic acid salts with Li, Na and K showed reduced genotoxic effect in comparison to the caffeic acid while increased cytotoxic effect than that of caffeic acid. Moreover, caffeinate salts exhibited better antimicrobial activity against E. coli (MIC=250μg/mL) than K caffeinate salt (MIC>500μg/mL). The MIC values of Li, Na and K rosmarinate salts were above 500μg/mL against all tested microorganisms.

CONCLUSION

The results of the experiment show that there is no clear positive correlation between the antioxidant potency of caffeic and rosmarinic acids and their Li, Na and K salts and their cytotoxic effect. Used salts ions Li, Na and K do not significantly affect the antioxidant effect of natural phenolic compounds and they do not have a significant impact on the biological parameters such as cyto- and genotoxicity. Perhaps it is connected with the reaction environment including polarity of the solvent (water).

Rosmarinic acid down-regulates NO and PGE2 expression via MAPK pathway in rat chondrocytes

Rosmarinic acid (RosA) is a water-soluble polyphenol, which can be isolated from many herbs such as orthosiphon diffuses and rosmarinus officinalis. Previous studies have shown that RosA possesses various biological properties. In this study, we investigate the anti-osteoarthritic effects of RosA in rat articular chondrocytes. Chondrocytes were pre-treated with RosA, followed by the stimulation of IL-1β. Real-time PCR and Western blot were performed to detect the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, MMP-3 and MMP-13. Nitric oxide and PGE2 production were measured by Griess reagent and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) was also investigated by Western blot analysis. We found that RosA down-regulated the MMPs expression as well as nitric oxide and PGE2 production in IL-1β-induced chondrocytes. In addition, RosA inhibited p38 and JNK phosphorylation as well as p65 translocation. The results suggest that RosA may be considered a possible agent in the treatment of OA.

Rosmarinic acid induces rabbit articular chondrocyte differentiation by decreases matrix metalloproteinase-13 and inflammation by upregulating cyclooxygenase-2 expression

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are known to play an important role in the degradation of the extracellular matrix and the pathological progression of osteoarthritis (OA). The natural polyphenolic compound rosmarinic acid (Ros. A) has been shown to suppress the inhibitory activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). However, the effects of Ros. A on OA have not been investigated.

METHODS

In the current study, primary articular chondrocytes were cultured from rabbit articular cartilage and treated with Ros. A. Phenotypic characterization was performed by western blotting to assess specific markers, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) assays, and alcian blue staining to measure sulfated-proteoglycan production.

RESULTS

We report that in rabbit articular chondrocytes, Ros. A increased type II collagen, sulfated-proteoglycan, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and PGE2 production in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, Ros. A suppressed the expression of MMP-13. In addition, treatment with Ros A activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-1/2 and p38 kinase signaling pathways. Inhibition of MMP-13 enhanced Ros. A-induced type II collagen expression and sulfated-proteoglycan synthesis but COX-2 and PGE2 production were unchanged. Ros. A-mediated up-regulation of ERK phosphorylation was abolished by the MEK inhibitor, PD98059, which prevented induction of the associated inflammatory response. Inhibition of p38 kinase with SB203580 enhanced the increase in type II collagen expression via Ros. A-mediated down-regulation of MMP-13.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that ERK-1/2 regulates Ros. A-induced inflammation and that p38 regulates differentiation by inhibiting MMP-13 in rabbit articular chondrocytes.

Anti-inflammatory effects of ursolic acid-3-acetate on human synovial fibroblasts and a murine model of rheumatoid arthritis

Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid, is a common natural substance known to be effective in the treatment of inflammation, oxidative stress, and ulcers in arthritis. This study examined the effects of ursolic acid-3-acetate (UAA), a derivative of UA, on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and verified the underlying mechanism of action by using a type-II collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice model and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-stimulated RA synovial fibroblasts. The oral administration of UAA showed a decrease in clinical arthritis symptoms, paw thickness, histologic and radiologic changes, and serum IgG1 and IgG2a levels. UAA administration reduced Th1/Th17 phenotype CD4+ T lymphocyte expansion and inflammatory cytokine production in draining lymph nodes. In addition, UAA effectively reduced the expression and production of inflammatory mediators, including cytokines and matrix metalloproteinase-1/3 in the knee joint tissue and RA synovial fibroblasts, through the downregulation of IKKα/β, ΙκBα, and nuclear factor-κB. Our findings showed that UAA modulated helper T cell immune responses and matrix-degrading enzymes. The effects of UAA were comparable with those of the positive control drug, dexamethasone. In summary, all the evidence presented in this paper suggest that UAA could be a therapeutic candidate for the treatment of RA.

An update on dietary phenolic compounds in the prevention and management of rheumatoid arthritis

Certain nutritional components influence the cellular metabolism and interfere in the pathological inflammatory process, so that they may act as a coadjuvant in the treatment of many chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Molecular mechanisms of rosmarinic acid from Salvia miltiorrhiza in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rosmarinic acid (RA), a major hydrosoluble bioactive compound found in the Chinese medicinal herb, Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat various diseases, including cancer. However, the mechanisms have not been fully elucidated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Guided by microarray hybridization and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis, we identified modes of action of rosmarinic acid (RA) isolated from S. miltiorrhiza on acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Microarray data were verified by independent methods: Real-time RT-PCR (mRNA expression), resazurin assay (cytotoxicity of RA towards parental CCRF-CEM, multidrug-resistant CEM/ADR5000 cells and normal lymphocytes), flow cytometry (cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, necroptosis, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP)), single cell gel electrophoresis (DNA damage), molecular docking and gene promoter binding motif analysis (NFκB), Western blotting (nuclear NFκB translocation, PARP cleavage, caspase 3/7/9 expression), and fibronectin-based cell adhesion assay.

RESULTS

RA dose-dependently inhibited CCRF-CEM and CEM/ADR5000 cells, but caused less cytotoxicity towards normal lymphocytes. RA simultaneously induced apoptosis and necrosis, as shown by cell morphology and annexin V-PI assay. DNA damage was dose-dependently induced without ROS generation, which subsequently led to cell cycle arrest. RA-stimulated MMP dysfunction activated PARP-cleavage and caspase-independent apoptosis. In accordance with molecular docking and gene promoter binding motif analyses, p65 translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus was blocked by RA, indicating a mechanistic role of the NFκB pathway to explain RA's action. RA affected cellular movement as evaluated by ameliorating cell adhesion to fibronectin.

CONCLUSIONS

RA induced apoptosis and necrosis in a ROS-independent DNA damage and caspase-independent manner. These results may contribute to the rationale use of S. miltiorrhiza and RA in traditional medicine of leukemia.

Rosmarinic acid potentiates ATRA-induced macrophage differentiation in acute promyelocytic leukemia NB4 cells

Rosmarinic acid (RA, an ester of caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid) has a number of biological activities, but little is known about anti-leukemic activities of RA combined with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) against acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) cells. We examined the differentiation marker, CD11b, in bone marrow cells (BMC) of an APL patient, in NB4 cells (APL cell line), and in normal BMC and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of healthy subjects by flow cytometric analysis. ATRA/RA induced expression of CD11b in the BMC of the APL patient and in NB4 cells, but not in normal BMC or PBMC. Therefore, we realized that RA potentiated ATRA-induced macrophage differentiation in APL cells. Further characterization of the induced macrophages showed that they exhibited morphological changes and were able to phagocytose and generate reactive oxygen species. Th also had typical expression of C-C chemokine receptor type 1 (CCR1), CCR2, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). Moreover, the expression of CD11b(+) and CD14(+) cells depended on ERK-NF-κB axis activation. Together, these results indicate that RA potentiates ATRA-induced macrophage differentiation in APL cells. Thus, RA may play an important role as an appurtenant differentiation agent for functional macrophage differentiation in APL. Additionally, the differentiated macrophages might have a normal life span and, they could die. These data indicate that co-treatment with RA and ATRA has potential as an anti-leukemic therapy in APL.

New trends in biotechnological production of rosmarinic acid

Rosmarinic acid (RA), an ester of caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl lactic acid, is widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Interest in it is growing due to its promising biological activities, including cognitive-enhancing effects and slowing the development of Alzheimer's disease, cancer chemoprotection or anti-inflammatory activity, among others. In order to meet the increasing demand for this compound, several biotechnological approaches to its production based on plant cell and hairy root cultures have been developed. Empirical strategies are currently being combined with metabolic engineering tools to increase RA production in plant cell platforms in a more rational way. Discussed here are the latest advances in the field, together with recent trends in plant biotechnology, such as the application of single use technology and the use of biosensors in downstream processes.

The effect of rosmarinic acid on 1,2-dimethylhydrazine induced colon carcinogenesis

This study was carried out to investigate the chemopreventive potential of rosmarinic acid (RA) against 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH) induced rat colon carcinogenesis by evaluating the effect of RA on tumour formation, antioxidant enzymes, cytochrome P450 content, p-nitrophenol hydroxylase and GST activities. Rats were divided into six groups and fed modified pellet diet for the entire experimental period. Group 1 served as control, group 2 received RA (10 mg/kgb.w.). Groups 3-6 were induced colon cancer by injecting DMH (20 mg/kgb.w.) subcutaneously once a week for the first four weeks (groups 3-6). In addition, RA was administered at the doses of 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kgb.w. to groups 4-6 respectively. DMH treated rats showed large number of colonic tumours; decreased lipid peroxidation; decreased antioxidant status; elevated CYP450 content and PNPH activities; and decreased GST activity in the liver and colon. Supplementation with RA (5 mgkg/b.w.) to DMH treated rats significantly decreased the number of polyps (50%); reversed the markers of oxidative stress (21.0%); antioxidant status (38.55%); CYP450 content (29.41%); and PNPH activities (21.9%). RA at the dose of 5 mg/kgb.w. showed a most pronounced effect and could be used as a possible chemopreventive agent against colon cancer.

Rosmarinic acid and its derivatives: biotechnology and applications

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is one of the first secondary metabolites produced in plant cell cultures in extremely high yields, up to 19% of the cell dry weight. More complex derivatives of RA, such as rabdosiin and lithospermic acid B, later were also obtained in cell cultures at high yields. RA and its derivatives possess promising biological activities, such as improvement of cognitive performance, prevention of the development of Alzheimer's disease, cardioprotective effects, reduction of the severity of kidney diseases and cancer chemoprevention. The TNF-α-induced NF-κB signaling pathway has emerged as a central target for RA. Despite these impressive activities and high yields, the biotechnological production of these metabolites on an industrial scale has not progressed. We summarized data suggesting that external stimuli, the Ca(2+)-dependent NADPH oxidase pathway and processes of protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation are involved in the regulation of biosynthesis of these substances in cultured plant cells. In spite of growing information about pathways regulating biosynthesis of RA and its derivatives in cultured plant cells, the exact mechanism of regulation remains unknown. We suggest that further progress in the biotechnology of RA and its derivatives can be achieved by using new high-throughput techniques.

Pharmacological actions and therapeutic applications of Salvia miltiorrhiza depside salt and its active components

Salvia miltiorrhiza, a traditional medical herb known as danshen, has been widely used in China to improve blood circulation, relieve blood stasis, and treat coronary heart disease. S miltiorrhiza depside salt is a novel drug recently developed at the Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica; it contains magnesium lithospermate B (MLB) and its analogs, rosmarinic acid (RA) and lithospermic acid (LA), as active components. The drug has been used in the clinic to improve blood circulation and treat coronary heart disease. The pharmacological effects of the depside salt from S miltiorrhiza and its components have been extensively investigated. Experimental studies have demonstrated that magnesium lithospermate B possesses a variety of biological activities, especially protective effects in the cardiovascular system such as attenuation of atherosclerosis and protection against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. Rosmarinic acid and lithospermic acid also show beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system. This paper reviews the recent findings regarding the mechanisms underlying the pharmacological actions of the active components of S miltiorrhiza depside salt, based on published works and our own observations.

A rapid LC/MS/MS method for the analysis of nonvolatile antiinflammatory agents from Mentha spp

Mints (Mentha spp.), aromatic crops grown largely for their essential oils, also are rich sources of nonvolatile antiinflammatory agents. Identification and quantitation of the constituents responsible for their antiinflammatory activity is challenging owing to the lack of suitable chromatographic methodology. In the present research, the simultaneous quantitation of antiinflammatory constituents rosmarinic acid, oleanolic acid, and ursolic acid in mints was attained by using a unique tandem HPLC column system coupled with an electrospray ionization mass detection (MRM mode). The ion mode optimization for rosmarinic acid under negative and triterpenoid acids under positive was achieved by setting 2 time segments in a single run where the polarity mode was switched from negative (0 to 10 min) to positive (10 to 40 min). For the investigated concentration ranges of antiinflammatory agents in mints, good linearities (r² ≥ 0.998) were obtained for each calibration curve. Validation of precision and accuracy for this method showed that intra- and inter-day repeatabilities for all analytes were less than 5.51%, and the recoveries varied from 97.8% to 99.3%. The developed LC/MS/MS assay provides a suitable quality control method for the determination of antiinflammatory constituents in Mentha spp. There is a wide range of diversity in the natural product composition for these acids across the Mentha germplasm collection evaluated. The presence of these antiinflammatory acids in post-distilled mints shows that value-added nutraceutical enriched products can be developed with proper processing and recovery systems in addition to the distillation and capture of the valuable volatile essential oils.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Results from this research would benefit both commercial farmers growing mint for essential oil and those in the food industry where value-added phytopharmaceutical enriched products can be developed with proper processing, quality control, and recovery systems during mint essential oil distillation.

Rosmarinic acid inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of hepatic stellate cells

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), activated during liver injury, are defined as the most important target in the therapy of hepatic fibrosis. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of Rosmarinic acid (RosA) on the proliferation and apoptosis in activated hepatic stellate cells (HSC-T6), which is useful to decrease this cell population. The proliferation of HSC-T6 was significantly inhibited after treated with various concentrations of RosA for different times. Flow cytometric analyses and transmission electron microscope (TEM) observations revealed that HSC-T6 treated with RosA underwent apoptosis in a time dependent manner and displayed typical apoptotic features in the cells. The phosphorylation in signal transducer and activator of transcription protein-3 (STAT3), which regulates cell survival, proliferation and differentiation in a variety of tissues, was markedly decreased as the result of Western blot assay and correlated with downregulation of CyclinD1 and B cell lymphoma/leukemia-2 (Bcl-2). In conclusion, these results suggested that RosA was able to inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis in HSC-T6, partly due to the inhibition of phosphorylation in STAT3, which contributed to the reversal of hepatic fibrosis.

Synthesis and evaluation of the platelet antiaggregant properties of phenolic antioxidants structurally related to rosmarinic acid

Polyphenols, such as rosmarinic acid, are widely distributed natural products with relevant antioxidant activity. Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of a number of disorders. Here, we report on the synthesis and biological effects of the polyphenolic esters hydroxytyrosyl gallate (1), hydroxytyrosyl protocatechuate (2) and hydroxytyrosyl caffeate (3), structurally related to rosmarinic acid. The three compounds showed a greater free radical scavenging activity than their precursors and also than rosmarinic acid. Esters 1 and 3 significantly reduced thrombin-evoked platelet aggregation, which is likely mediated to the attenuation of thrombin-stimulated Ca(2+) release and entry. The three compounds reduced the ability of platelets to accumulate Ca(2+) in the intracellular stores, probably by enhancing the Ca(2+) leakage rate and reduced store-operated Ca(2+) entry in these cells. These observations suggest that the structurally-simplified analogs to rosmarinic acid, compounds 1 and 3, might be the base of therapeutic strategies to prevent thrombotic complications associated to platelet hyperaggregability due to oxidative stress.

Rosmarinic acid sensitizes cell death through suppression of TNF-alpha-induced NF-kappaB activation and ROS generation in human leukemia U937 cells

Because tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is well-known to induce inflammatory responses, thus its clinical use is limited in cancer treatment. Rosmarinic acid (RA), a naturally occurring polyphenol flavonoid, has been reported to inhibit TNF-alpha-induced NF-kappaB activation in human dermal fibroblasts. However, the precise mechanisms of RA have not been well elucidated in TNF-alpha-mediated anti-cancer therapy. In this study, we found that RA treatment significantly sensitizes TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells through the suppression of nuclear transcription factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Activation of caspases in response to TNF-alpha was markedly increased by RA treatment. However, pretreatment with the caspase-3 inhibitor, z-DEVD-fmk, was capable of significantly restoring cell viability in response to combined treatment. RA also suppressed NF-kappaB activation through inhibition of phosphorylation and degradation of IkappaBalpha, and nuclear translocation of p50 and p65. This inhibition was correlated with suppression of NF-kappaB-dependent anti-apoptotic proteins (IAP-1, IAP-2, and XIAP). RA treatment also normalized TNF-alpha-induced ROS generation. Additionally, ectopic Bcl-2 expressing U937 reversed combined treatment-induced cell death, cytochrome c release into cytosol, and collapse of mitochondrial potential. These results demonstrated that RA inhibits TNF-alpha-induced ROS generation and NF-kappaB activation, and enhances TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis.

Origanum vulgare induces apoptosis in human colon cancer caco2 cells

Oregano spice is widely used in the Mediterranean diet, which is associated with a low risk for colon cancer. Although the medicinal benefits of oregano, such as the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities, are well known; nonetheless, only few data are available on its effect in cancer prevention, especially concerning the mechanism of action. Here, we investigated the effect of Origanum vulgare ethanolic extracts on redox balance, cell proliferation, and cell death in colon adenocarcinoma Caco2 cells. Oregano extract leads to growth arrest and cell death in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Changes in glutathione content, as well as the increase in its oxidized form, may be involved in oregano-triggered death. Both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways appear to be activated by spice extract. Our findings suggest that oregano amounts found in the Mediterranean diet can exert proapoptotic effects, which are selective for cancer cells. Moreover, whole extract, instead of a specific component, can be responsible for the observed cytotoxic effects.

Resveratrol addiction: to die or not to die

Resveratrol, a polyphenol derived from red grapes, berries, and peanuts, has been shown to mediate death of a wide variety of cells. The mechanisms by which resveratrol mediates cell death include necrosis, apoptosis, autophagy, and others. While most studies suggest that resveratrol kills tumor cells selectively, evidence is emerging that certain normal cells such as endothelial cells, lymphocytes, and chondrocytes are vulnerable to resveratrol. Cell killing by this stilbene may be mediated through any of numerous mechanisms that involve activation of mitochondria and of death caspases; upregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, tumor suppressor gene products, or death-inducing cytokines and cytokine receptors; or downregulation of cell survival proteins (survivin, cFLIP, cIAPs, X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), bcl-2, bcl-XL) or inhibition of cell survival kinases (e.g., mitogen-activiated protein kinases (MAPKs), AKT/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), PKC, EGFR kinase) and survival transcription factors (nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), activating protein 1 (AP-1), HIF-1alpha, signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT3)). Induction of any of these pathways by resveratrol leads to cell death. While cell death is a hallmark of resveratrol, this polyphenol also has been linked with suppression of inflammation, arthritis, and cardiovascular diseases and delaying of aging. These attributes of resveratrol are discussed in detail in this review.

Medicinal herbs for the treatment of rheumatic disorders--a survey of European herbals from the 16th and 17th century

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

From the 16th up into the 18th century botanical and medicinal knowledge in Europe was documented and spread in magnificently illustrated herbals. For the most part modern science has neglected this source of knowledge and old remedies have not been systematically evaluated pharmacologically.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Rheumatic disorders and chronic inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the musculoskeletal system were chosen in an attempt to discuss remedies described in the old herbals in the viewpoint of modern science.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five of the most important European herbals of the 16th and 17th century were searched for terms related to rheumatic diseases, and plants and recipes described for their treatment. An extensive search of the scientific data banks Medline and SciFinder scholar was done to find recent results concerning the phytochemistry and possible antiphlogistic activities of the plants.

RESULTS

Sixty-three plants were identified in the herbals for this indication. More than half of them have shown in vitro or in vivo antiphlogistic activities.

CONCLUSIONS

European herbals may be a valuable source of information for the selection of plants for focussed screening programmes. Information contained in these herbals should be explored in a systematic manner.

Salvia fruticosa, Salvia officinalis, and rosmarinic acid induce apoptosis and inhibit proliferation of human colorectal cell lines: the role in MAPK/ERK pathway

Epidemiological studies have shown that nutrition is a key factor in modulating sporadic colorectal carcinoma (CRC) risk. Aromatic plants of the genus Salvia (sage) have been attributed many medicinal properties, which include anticancer activity. In the present study, the antiproliferative and proapoptotic effects of water extracts of Salvia fruticosa (SF) and Salvia officinalis (SO) and of their main phenolic compound rosmarinic acid (RA) were evaluated in two human colon carcinoma-derived cell lines, HCT15 and CO115, which have different mutations in the MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt signalling pathways. These pathways are commonly altered in CRC, leading to increased proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis. Our results show that SF, SO, and RA induce apoptosis in both cell lines, whereas cell proliferation was inhibited by the two sage extracts only in HCT15. SO, SF, and RA inhibited ERK phosphorylation in HCT15 and had no effects on Akt phosphorylation in CO115 cells. The activity of sage extracts seems to be due, at least in part, to the inhibition of MAPK/ERK pathway.

Oxidative DNA damage protection and repair by polyphenolic compounds in PC12 cells

Biological systems are frequently exposed to excessive reactive oxygen species, causing a disturbance in the cells natural antioxidant defence systems and resulting in damage to all biomolecules, including nucleic acids. In fact, oxidative DNA damage is described as the type of damage most likely to occur in neuronal cells. In this study, three polyphenolic compounds, luteolin, quercetin and rosmarinic acid, were investigated for their protective effects against oxidative DNA damage induced in PC12 cells, a neuronal cell model. Although luteolin and quercetin prevented the formation of strand breaks to a greater extent than rosmarinic acid, this last one presented the highest capacity to repair strand breaks formation. In addition, rosmarinic acid was the only compound tested that increased the repair of oxidized nucleotidic bases induced with the photosensitizer compound [R]-1-[(10-chloro-4-oxo-3-phenyl-4H-benzo[a]quinolizin-1-yl) carbonyl]-2-pyrrolidine-methanol (Ro 19-8022). The activity of repair enzymes was indicated by the in vitro base excision repair assay, using a cell-free extract obtained from cells previously treated with the compounds to incise DNA. The protective effect of rosmarinic acid was further confirmed by the increased expression of OGG1 repair gene, observed through real time RT-PCR. The data obtained is indicative that rosmarinic acid seems to act on the intracellular mechanisms responsible for DNA repair, rather than by a direct effect on reactive oxygen species scavenging, as deducted from the effects observed for luteolin and quercetin. Therefore, these results suggest the importance of these polyphenols, and in particular rosmarinic acid, as protectors of oxidative stress-induced DNA damage that commonly occurs in several pathological conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases.

Prolonged survival of islet allografts in mice treated with rosmarinic acid and anti-CD154 antibody

Pancreatic islet transplantation can correct the abnormal glucose metabolism of Type 1 diabetes. Although immunosuppressants greatly reduce the acute rejection rate in transplant patients, the long-term side effects can be debilitating. Therefore, researchers are seeking to develop new immunosuppressive regimens that induce maximal levels of immunosuppression with minor side effects. Rosmarinic acid (Ros A) is a secondary metabolite of certain herbs and has multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory effects. Here, we have investigated whether treatment of mice with a combination of Ros A and anti-CD154 monoclonal antibody (MR1) improves islet allograft survival in a murine model. After transplantation, the mice were treated with either Ros A, MR1, or both (the "double" treatment). Allograft survival was prolonged in the double-treated animals compared to animals that received only Ros A or MR1. As is the case with the single-treated animals at 15 days after transplantation, the double-treated recipients did not display a significant decrease in the expression of cytokines or the population of activated T cells. Infiltrating CD3(+) T cells were reduced in the MR1- or double therapy relative to control or RosA group. However, at the same time point, double-treated graft showed fewer apoptotic cells and increased expression of insulin and glucagons, compared to the single-treatment groups. Furthermore, long-term (>150 days) allografts that were received with double therapy exhibited larger islet clusters and contained more insulin- and glucagon-positive cells, relative to the MR1-treated grafts. In conclusion, treatment with both Ros A and MR1 has a synergistic effect in murine islet allotransplantation.

Growth inhibitory and apoptosis inducing effect of Perilla frutescens extract on human hepatoma HepG2 cells

Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. (Lamiaceae) has traditionally been used to treat diseases, including tumors, but the antitumorigenesis mechanism is unclear. We evaluated the effects of Perilla frutescens leaf extract (PLE) on proliferation and apoptosis inducing in human hepatoma HepG2 cells using a cell proliferation assay, flow cytometry, and cDNA microarrays. Gene expression and apoptosis were also assessed in HepG2 cells treated with a major constituent of PLE, rosmarinic acid (RosA). In the PLE-treated HepG2 cells, antiproliferative activity (105 microg/mL) were observed, flow cytometry revealed significant apoptosis, and microarray data indicated that the expression of a lot apoptosis-related genes were regulated in a time-dependent manner. Compared with PLE, RosA (10 microg/mL; a dose equivalent to 105 microg/mL of PLE) was less effective in increasing the expression of apoptosis-related genes and apoptosis inducing in HepG2 cells. Thus, additional PLE constituents may influence apoptosis in HepG2 cells. The results of our study suggest that the PLE should be further investigated as a promising to treat hepatocellular carcinoma.