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Zhou J, Li L, Wu B, Feng Z, Lu Y, Wang Z. MST1/2: Important regulators of Hippo pathway in immune system associated diseases. Cancer Lett 2024; 587:216736. [PMID: 38369002 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
The Hippo signaling pathway is first found in Drosophila and is highly conserved in evolution. Previous studies on this pathway in mammals have revealed its key role in cell proliferation and differentiation, organ size control, and carcinogenesis. Apart from these, recent findings indicate that mammalian Ste20-like kinases 1 and 2 (MST1/2) have significant effects on immune regulation. In this review, we summarize the updated understanding of how MST1/2 affect the regulation of the immune system and the specific mechanism. The effect of MST1/2 on immune cells and its role in the tumor immune microenvironment can alter the body's response to tumor cells. The relationship between MST1/2 and the immune system suggests new directions in the manipulation of immune responses for clinical immunotherapy, especially for tumor treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Zhou
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Xuhui Central Hospital and Department of Anatomy and Histoembrvology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Lanfang Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Xuhui Central Hospital and Department of Anatomy and Histoembrvology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Baojin Wu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, No.12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Jing'an District, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Zhen Feng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Xuhui Central Hospital and Department of Anatomy and Histoembrvology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Ying Lu
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Zuoyun Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Xuhui Central Hospital and Department of Anatomy and Histoembrvology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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2
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Kong H, Han JJ, Gorbachev D, Zhang XA. Role of the Hippo pathway in autoimmune diseases. Exp Gerontol 2024; 185:112336. [PMID: 38042379 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2023.112336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
The immune system is an important defense against diseases, and it is essential to maintain the homeostasis of the body's internal environment. Under normal physiological conditions, the steady state of the immune system should be sustained to play normal immune response and immune function. Exploring the molecular mechanism of maintaining immune homeostasis under physiological and pathological conditions will provides understanding of the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, infections, metabolic disorders, and tumors, as well as new ideas and molecular targets for the prevention and treatment of these diseases. Hippo signaling pathway can not only regulate immune cells such as macrophages, T cells and dendritic cells, but also interact with immune-related signaling pathways such as NF-kB signaling pathway, TGF-β signaling pathway and Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, so as to resist the internal environment disorder caused by the invasion of exogenous pathogenic microorganisms and maintain the internal environment stability and physiological balance of the body. Hippo signaling pathway is also involved in the pathological process of immune system-related diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and psoriasis. Hippo pathway is closely related to organ development, stem cell biology, regeneration, and tumor biology. It affects cell differentiation by participating in extracellular and intracellular physiological signal reactions, sensing cell environment, and coordinating cell reactions. This pathway is crucial in maintaining immune homeostasis. This review summarizes the mechanism of Hippo pathway in different immune cells and some autoimmune diseases and the interaction between different immune signaling pathways and Hippo signaling pathway. It aims to explore the role of Hippo in autoimmune diseases and provide theoretical and practical basis for the treatment of autoimmune diseases through Hippo signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Kong
- College of Exercise and Health, Shenyang Sport University, Shenyang, China
| | - Juan-Juan Han
- College of Exercise and Health, Shenyang Sport University, Shenyang, China
| | | | - Xin-An Zhang
- College of Exercise and Health, Shenyang Sport University, Shenyang, China.
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3
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Li T, Wen Y, Lu Q, Hua S, Hou Y, Du X, Zheng Y, Sun S. MST1/2 in inflammation and immunity. Cell Adh Migr 2023; 17:1-15. [PMID: 37909712 PMCID: PMC10761064 DOI: 10.1080/19336918.2023.2276616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian Sterile 20-like kinase 1/2 (MST1/2) belongs to the serine/threonine (GC) protein kinase superfamily. Collective studies confirm the vital role MST1/2 in inflammation and immunity. MST1/2 is closely related to the progress of inflammation. Generally, MST1/2 aggravates the inflammatory injury through MST1-JNK, MST1-mROS, MST1-Foxo3, and NF-κB pathways, as well as several regulatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), mitochondrial extension factor 1 (MIEF1), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Moreover, MST1/2 is also involved in the regulation of immunity to balance immune activation and tolerance by regulating MST1/2-Rac, MST1-Akt1/c-myc, MST1-Foxos, MST1-STAT, Btk pathways, and lymphocyte function-related antigen 1 (LFA-1), which subsequently prevents immunodeficiency syndrome and autoimmune diseases. This article reviews the effects of MST1/2 on inflammation and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongfen Li
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Yiqiong Wen
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Qiongfen Lu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Shu Hua
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Yunjiao Hou
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Xiaohua Du
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zheng
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Shibo Sun
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
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4
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Pan-Hammarström Q, Casanova JL. Human genetic and immunological determinants of SARS-CoV-2 and Epstein-Barr virus diseases in childhood: Insightful contrasts. J Intern Med 2023; 294:127-144. [PMID: 36906905 DOI: 10.1111/joim.13628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
There is growing evidence to suggest that severe disease in children infected with common viruses that are typically benign in other children can result from inborn errors of immunity or their phenocopies. Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a cytolytic respiratory RNA virus, can lead to acute hypoxemic COVID-19 pneumonia in children with inborn errors of type I interferon (IFN) immunity or autoantibodies against IFNs. These patients do not appear to be prone to severe disease during infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a leukocyte-tropic DNA virus that can establish latency. By contrast, various forms of severe EBV disease, ranging from acute hemophagocytosis to chronic or long-term illnesses, such as agammaglobulinemia and lymphoma, can manifest in children with inborn errors disrupting specific molecular bridges involved in the control of EBV-infected B cells by cytotoxic T cells. The patients with these disorders do not seem to be prone to severe COVID-19 pneumonia. These experiments of nature reveal surprising levels of redundancy of two different arms of immunity, with type I IFN being essential for host defense against SARS-CoV-2 in respiratory epithelial cells, and certain surface molecules on cytotoxic T cells essential for host defense against EBV in B lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- St Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York, New York, USA
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Inserm, Paris, France
- Imagine Institute, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- Department of Pediatrics, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France
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5
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Yin Y, Tan M, Han L, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Zhang J, Pan W, Bai J, Jiang T, Li H. The hippo kinases MST1/2 in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases: A promising therapeutic target option for pharmacotherapy. Acta Pharm Sin B 2023; 13:1956-1975. [PMID: 37250161 PMCID: PMC10213817 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2023.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and metabolic disorders are major components of noncommunicable diseases, causing an enormous health and economic burden worldwide. There are common risk factors and developmental mechanisms among them, indicating the far-reaching significance in exploring the corresponding therapeutic targets. MST1/2 kinases are well-established proapoptotic effectors that also bidirectionally regulate autophagic activity. Recent studies have demonstrated that MST1/2 influence the outcome of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases by regulating immune inflammation. In addition, drug development against them is in full swing. In this review, we mainly describe the roles and mechanisms of MST1/2 in apoptosis and autophagy in cardiovascular and metabolic events as well as emphasis on the existing evidence for their involvement in immune inflammation. Moreover, we summarize the latest progress of pharmacotherapy targeting MST1/2 and propose a new mode of drug combination therapy, which may be beneficial to seek more effective strategies to prevent and treat CVDs and metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfei Yin
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Mingyue Tan
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Lianhua Han
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Wanqian Pan
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Jiaxiang Bai
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
- Department of Orthopedics, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
- Department of Orthopedics, the First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230001, China
| | - Tingbo Jiang
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Hongxia Li
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
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6
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Uygun V, Keleş S, Daloğlu H, Öztürkmen S, Yalçın K, Karasu G, Yeşilipek A. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in serine/threonine kinase 4 (STK4) deficiency: Report of two cases and literature review. Pediatr Transplant 2023; 27:e14439. [PMID: 36394186 DOI: 10.1111/petr.14439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serine/threonine kinase 4 (STK4) deficiency is a combined immunodeficiency (CID) characterized by early onset recurrent bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is a curative therapy for CID; however, little is known about the necessity and benefits of HSCT in patients with STK4 deficiency. METHODS We report two siblings with STK4 deficiency transplanted from two unrelated donors with the same conditioning regimen. RESULTS In the conditioning regimen, rituximab was given on Day -11 (375 mg/m2 ), and sirolimus was added on the same day. Busulfan was administered at a myeloablative dose (3.2 mg/kg; Days -7 to -4) with 150 mg/m2 of fludarabine (Days -7 to -3). They were transplanted with peripheral blood stem cells, and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis was administered with 10 mg/m2 methotrexate on Days 1, 3, and 6. In addition, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) was started on Day 1 with ongoing use of sirolimus. We did not encounter veno-occlusive disease (VOD), high-grade acute GVHD, or significant organ toxicity in either patient. Both patients were well at the end of the first year after HSCT with complete donor chimerism. CONCLUSIONS Serine/threonine kinase 4 deficiency is a disease with high mortality post-HSCT; therefore, the conditioning regimen and GVHD prophylaxis strategies are important considerations in these patients. In our opinion, the conditioning regimen, which includes rituximab and busulfan and fludarabine (BU-FLU), GVHD prophylaxis with sirolimus and MMF, and short-term methotrexate, offers favorable outcomes and is well tolerated in our STK4-deficient patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vedat Uygun
- Faculty of Medicine, MedicalPark Antalya Hospital, Department Of Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, İstinye University, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Sevgi Keleş
- Meram Medical Faculty, Division of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Hayriye Daloğlu
- Faculty of Health Sciences, MedicalPark Antalya Hospital, Department Of Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, Antalya Bilim University, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Seda Öztürkmen
- Department Of Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, MedicalPark Antalya Hospital, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Koray Yalçın
- Faculty of Medicine, MedicalPark Göztepe Hospital, Department Of Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, Bahçeşehir University, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Gülsün Karasu
- Department Of Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, MedicalPark Göztepe Hospital, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Akif Yeşilipek
- Department Of Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, MedicalPark Antalya Hospital, Antalya, Turkey
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Kamnev A, Lacouture C, Fusaro M, Dupré L. Molecular Tuning of Actin Dynamics in Leukocyte Migration as Revealed by Immune-Related Actinopathies. Front Immunol 2021; 12:750537. [PMID: 34867982 PMCID: PMC8634686 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.750537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Motility is a crucial activity of immune cells allowing them to patrol tissues as they differentiate, sample or exchange information, and execute their effector functions. Although all immune cells are highly migratory, each subset is endowed with very distinct motility patterns in accordance with functional specification. Furthermore individual immune cell subsets adapt their motility behaviour to the surrounding tissue environment. This review focuses on how the generation and adaptation of diversified motility patterns in immune cells is sustained by actin cytoskeleton dynamics. In particular, we review the knowledge gained through the study of inborn errors of immunity (IEI) related to actin defects. Such pathologies are unique models that help us to uncover the contribution of individual actin regulators to the migration of immune cells in the context of their development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Kamnev
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Claire Lacouture
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), INSERM, CNRS, Toulouse III Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France.,Laboratoire De Physique Théorique, IRSAMC, Université De Toulouse (UPS), CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Mathieu Fusaro
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), INSERM, CNRS, Toulouse III Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France
| | - Loïc Dupré
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), INSERM, CNRS, Toulouse III Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France
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8
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Wong
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada (A.W., S.E.).,Ted Rogers Centre for Heart Research, Translational Biology and Engineering Program, Toronto, Canada (A.W., S.E.).,Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada (A.W., S.E.)
| | - Slava Epelman
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada (A.W., S.E.).,Ted Rogers Centre for Heart Research, Translational Biology and Engineering Program, Toronto, Canada (A.W., S.E.).,Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada (A.W., S.E.).,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada (S.E.).,Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada (S.E.)
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9
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Liu M, Yan M, He J, Lv H, Chen Z, Peng L, Cai W, Yao F, Chen C, Shi L, Zhang K, Zhang X, Wang DW, Wang L, Zhu Y, Ai D. Macrophage MST1/2 Disruption Impairs Post-Infarction Cardiac Repair via LTB4. Circ Res 2021; 129:909-926. [PMID: 34515499 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.121.319687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic/metabolism
- Chemokine CCL2/genetics
- Chemokine CCL2/metabolism
- Chemokine CCL4/genetics
- Chemokine CCL4/metabolism
- Chemokine CXCL2/metabolism
- Female
- Leukotriene B4/metabolism
- Lipoxygenase/metabolism
- Macrophages/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Myocardial Infarction/metabolism
- Myocardium/metabolism
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Receptors, Leukotriene B4/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Leukotriene B4/metabolism
- Serine-Threonine Kinase 3/genetics
- Serine-Threonine Kinase 3/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingming Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ion and Molecular Function of Cardiovascular Diseases, Tianjin Institute of Cardiology, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Diseases, Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), the Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics (M.L., M.Y., H.L., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
- Neurology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital (M.L.)
| | - Meng Yan
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ion and Molecular Function of Cardiovascular Diseases, Tianjin Institute of Cardiology, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Diseases, Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), the Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics (M.L., M.Y., H.L., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University Department of Pathology, Soochow University, Suzhou (M.Y.)
| | - Jinlong He
- Physiology and Pathophysiology (J.H., H.L., Z.C., W.C., X.Z., Y.Z., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Huizhen Lv
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ion and Molecular Function of Cardiovascular Diseases, Tianjin Institute of Cardiology, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Diseases, Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), the Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics (M.L., M.Y., H.L., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
- Physiology and Pathophysiology (J.H., H.L., Z.C., W.C., X.Z., Y.Z., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Zhipeng Chen
- Physiology and Pathophysiology (J.H., H.L., Z.C., W.C., X.Z., Y.Z., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Liyuan Peng
- Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan (L.P., C.C., D.-W.W.)
| | - Wenbin Cai
- Physiology and Pathophysiology (J.H., H.L., Z.C., W.C., X.Z., Y.Z., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Fang Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (F.Y., L.W.)
| | - Chen Chen
- Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan (L.P., C.C., D.-W.W.)
| | - Lei Shi
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences (L.S., K.Z.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Kai Zhang
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences (L.S., K.Z.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Xu Zhang
- Physiology and Pathophysiology (J.H., H.L., Z.C., W.C., X.Z., Y.Z., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Dao-Wen Wang
- Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan (L.P., C.C., D.-W.W.)
| | - Li Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (F.Y., L.W.)
| | - Yi Zhu
- Physiology and Pathophysiology (J.H., H.L., Z.C., W.C., X.Z., Y.Z., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
| | - Ding Ai
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ion and Molecular Function of Cardiovascular Diseases, Tianjin Institute of Cardiology, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Diseases, Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Disease (Ministry of Education), the Province and Ministry Co-sponsored Collaborative Innovation Center for Medical Epigenetics (M.L., M.Y., H.L., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
- Physiology and Pathophysiology (J.H., H.L., Z.C., W.C., X.Z., Y.Z., D.A.), Tianjin Medical University
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10
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Saglam A, Cagdas D, Aydin B, Keles S, Reisli I, Arslankoz S, Katipoglu K, Uner A. STK4 deficiency and EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disorders, emphasis on histomorphology, and review of literature. Virchows Arch 2021; 480:393-401. [PMID: 34604912 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-021-03147-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Aberrations of the STK4 gene in humans result in an autosomal recessively inherited primary immunodeficiency. We identified three patients with STK4 deficiency who had presented to our hospital and reviewed their biopsy samples with the goal of detailing the characteristics of STK4 deficiency from a pathology perspective. Case 1 was a 20-year-old male who presented with cervical and supraclavicular lymphadenopathy which showed plasmacytic hyperplasia and a concurrent bronchial mass, with AA amyloidosis and EBV-associated "polymorphic lymphoproliferative disorder (LPD) resembling polymorphic post-transplant LPD." The second case was an 8-year-old girl with abdominal lymphadenopathy; biopsy revealed a complex lymphoproliferation which consisted of EBV-associated "polymorphic LPD resembling polymorphic post-transplant LPD," plasmacytic hyperplasia, granulomatous reaction, and a CD4- and PD-1-positive clonal T cell proliferation. The third was a 15-year-old girl with a laryngeal mass, representing a high-grade B cell lymphoma with prominent plasmacytic differentiation. Our cases emphasize the complex and challenging histopathology of lymphoid proliferations in patients with STK4 deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arzu Saglam
- Department of Pathology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, 06100, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Deniz Cagdas
- Department of Pediatric Immunology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, 06100, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Burca Aydin
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, 06100, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sevgi Keles
- Department of Pediatric Immunology, Meram Faculty of Medicine, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Ismail Reisli
- Department of Pediatric Immunology, Meram Faculty of Medicine, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Sehbal Arslankoz
- Department of Pathology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, 06100, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Kubra Katipoglu
- Department of Pathology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, 06100, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Aysegul Uner
- Department of Pathology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, 06100, Ankara, Turkey.
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11
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Lino CNR, Ghosh S. Epstein-Barr Virus in Inborn Immunodeficiency-More Than Infection. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13194752. [PMID: 34638238 PMCID: PMC8507541 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13194752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) is a common virus that is readily controlled by a healthy immune system and rarely causes serious problems in infected people. However, patients with certain genetic defects of their immune system might have difficulties controlling EBV and often develop severe and life-threatening conditions, such as severe inflammation and malignancies. In this review, we provide a summary of inherited immune diseases that lead to a high susceptibility to EBV infection and discuss how this infection is associated with cancer development. Abstract Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous virus affecting more than 90% of the world’s population. Upon infection, it establishes latency in B cells. It is a rather benign virus for immune-competent individuals, in whom infections usually go unnoticed. Nevertheless, EBV has been extensively associated with tumorigenesis. Patients suffering from certain inborn errors of immunity are at high risk of developing malignancies, while infection in the majority of immune-competent individuals does not seem to lead to immune dysregulation. Herein, we discuss how inborn mutations in TNFRSF9, CD27, CD70, CORO1A, CTPS1, ITK, MAGT1, RASGRP1, STK4, CARMIL2, SH2D1A, and XIAP affect the development, differentiation, and function of key factors involved in the immunity against EBV, leading to increased susceptibility to lymphoproliferative disease and lymphoma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sujal Ghosh
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-211-811-6224; Fax: +49-211-811-6191
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12
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Guennoun A, Bougarn S, Khan T, Mackeh R, Rahman M, Al-Ali F, Ata M, Aamer W, Prosser D, Habib T, Chin-Smith E, Al-Darwish K, Zhang Q, Al-Shakaki A, Robay A, Crystal RG, Fakhro K, Al-Naimi A, Al Maslamani E, Tuffaha A, Janahi I, Janahi M, Love DR, Karim MY, Lo B, Hassan A, Adeli M, Marr N. A Novel STK4 Mutation Impairs T Cell Immunity Through Dysregulation of Cytokine-Induced Adhesion and Chemotaxis Genes. J Clin Immunol 2021; 41:1839-1852. [PMID: 34427831 PMCID: PMC8604862 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-021-01115-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Human serine/threonine kinase 4 (STK4) deficiency is a rare, autosomal recessive genetic disorder leading to combined immunodeficiency; however, the extent to which immune signaling and host defense are impaired is unclear. We assessed the functional consequences of a novel, homozygous nonsense STK4 mutation (NM_006282.2:c.871C > T, p.Arg291*) identified in a pediatric patient by comparing his innate and adaptive cell-mediated and humoral immune responses with those of three heterozygous relatives and unrelated controls. Methods The genetic etiology was verified by whole genome and Sanger sequencing. STK4 gene and protein expression was measured by quantitative RT-PCR and immunoblotting, respectively. Cellular abnormalities were assessed by high-throughput RT-RCR, RNA-Seq, ELISA, and flow cytometry. Antibody responses were assessed by ELISA and phage immunoprecipitation-sequencing. Results The patient exhibited partial loss of STK4 expression and complete loss of STK4 function combined with recurrent viral and bacterial infections, notably persistent Epstein–Barr virus viremia and pulmonary tuberculosis. Cellular and molecular analyses revealed abnormal fractions of T cell subsets, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, and NK cells. The transcriptional responses of the patient’s whole blood and PBMC samples indicated dysregulated interferon signaling, impaired T cell immunity, and increased T cell apoptosis as well as impaired regulation of cytokine-induced adhesion and leukocyte chemotaxis genes. Nonetheless, the patient had detectable vaccine-specific antibodies and IgG responses to various pathogens, consistent with a normal CD19 + B cell fraction, albeit with a distinctive antibody repertoire, largely driven by herpes virus antigens. Conclusion Patients with STK4 deficiency can exhibit broad impairment of immune function extending beyond lymphoid cells. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10875-021-01115-2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Salim Bougarn
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar
| | - Taushif Khan
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar
| | - Rafah Mackeh
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mahbuba Rahman
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar.,Translational Cancer and Immunity Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, Doha, Qatar
| | - Fatima Al-Ali
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar
| | - Manar Ata
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar
| | - Waleed Aamer
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar
| | - Debra Prosser
- Department of Pathology, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | - Tanwir Habib
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar.,Bioinformatics Core, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Doha, Qatar
| | | | | | - Qian Zhang
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Amal Robay
- Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Khalid Fakhro
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar.,Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Doha, Qatar.,College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Amal Al-Naimi
- Department of Pediatrics, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Amjad Tuffaha
- Department of Pediatrics, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | | | | | - Donald R Love
- Department of Pathology, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Bernice Lo
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar.,College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Amel Hassan
- Department of Pediatrics, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mehdi Adeli
- Department of Pediatrics, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | - Nico Marr
- Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, PO BOX 26999, Doha, Qatar. .,College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar.
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13
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Cagdas D, Halacli SO, Tan C, Esenboğa S, Karaatmaca B, Cetinkaya PG, Balcı-Hayta B, Ayhan A, Uner A, Orhan D, Boztug K, Özen S, Topaloğlu R, Sanal O, Tezcan İ. Diversity in STK4 Deficiency and Review of the Literature. THE JOURNAL OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY-IN PRACTICE 2021; 9:3752-3766.e4. [PMID: 34146746 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaip.2021.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serine-threonine kinase-4 (STK4) deficiency is an autosomal recessive (AR) combined immunodeficiency (CID). OBJECTIVE We aimed to define characteristic clinical and laboratory features to aid the differential diagnosis and determine the most suitable therapy. METHODS In addition to nine patients diagnosed, we reviewed 15 patients from medical literature. We compared B lymphocyte subgroups of our cohort with age-matched healthy controls. RESULTS In our cohort, the median age at symptom onset and age of diagnosis are 6years-8months (mo)(6-248mo) and 7years-5mo (6-260mo), respectively. The main clinical findings were infections (9/9), autoimmune/inflammatory diseases (7/9), and atopy (4/9). CD4 lymphopenia (9/9), lymphopenia (7/9), intermittent eosinophilia (4/9), transient neutropenia (3/9), low immunoglobulin (Ig) M (4/9), and high IgE (4/9) were common. Decreased recent thymic emigrants, naive and central memory T cells, albeit increased effector memory T cells were present. The increase in plasmablasts (p=0.003) and the decrease in switched memory B cells (p=0.022) were significant. Out of a total of 24 patients, cutaneous viral infections (n=20), recurrent pneumonia (n=18), Epstein Barr Virus (EBV)-associated lymphoproliferation (n=11), atopic dermatitis (n=10), autoimmune cytopenia (n=7), and lymphoma (n=6) were frequently seen. Lymphopenia, CD4 lymphopenia, high Ig G, A, and E were the most common laboratory characteristics. CONCLUSION The differential diagnosis with AR-hyperimmunoglobulin E syndrome is crucial as atopy and CD4 lymphopenia are prominent in both diseases. Immunoglobulins and antibacterial/antiviral prophylaxis are the mainstays of treatment. Clinicians may use immunomodulatory therapies during inflammatory/autoimmune complications. However, more data is needed to recommend hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) as a safe therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Cagdas
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Immunology; Hacettepe University Medical School, Institute of Child Health, Department of Pediatric Immunology.
| | - Sevil Oskay Halacli
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Institute of Child Health, Department of Pediatric Immunology
| | - Cagman Tan
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Institute of Child Health, Department of Pediatric Immunology
| | - Saliha Esenboğa
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Immunology
| | - Betül Karaatmaca
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Immunology
| | | | | | - Arzu Ayhan
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Pathology
| | - Aysegul Uner
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Pathology
| | - Diclehan Orhan
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Pathology
| | - Kaan Boztug
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
| | - Seza Özen
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Rheumatology
| | - Rezan Topaloğlu
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Nephrology
| | - Ozden Sanal
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Immunology; Hacettepe University Medical School, Institute of Child Health, Department of Pediatric Immunology
| | - İlhan Tezcan
- Hacettepe University Medical School, Department of Pediatric Immunology; Hacettepe University Medical School, Institute of Child Health, Department of Pediatric Immunology
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14
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Morgan NV, Yngvadottir B, O'Driscoll M, Clark GR, Walsh D, Martin E, Tee L, Reid E, Titheradge HL, Maher ER. Evidence that autosomal recessive spastic cerebral palsy-1 (CPSQ1) is caused by a missense variant in HPDL. Brain Commun 2021; 3:fcab002. [PMID: 33634263 PMCID: PMC7892364 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcab002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A subset of individuals diagnosed with cerebral palsy will have an underlying genetic diagnosis. Previously, a missense variant in GAD1 was described as a candidate mutation in a single family diagnosed with autosomal recessive spastic cerebral palsy-1 (CPSQ1; OMIM 603513). Following the ascertainment of a further branch of the CPSQ1 kindred, we found that the previously reported GAD1 variant did not segregate with the neurological disease phenotype in the recently ascertained branch of the kindred. Following genetic linkage studies to map autozygous regions and whole-exome sequencing, a missense variant (c.527 T > C; p. Leu176Pro, rs773333490) in the HPDL gene was detected and found to segregate with disease status in both branches of the kindred. HPDL encodes a 371-amino acid protein (4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate Dioxygenase Like) that localizes to mitochondria but whose function is uncertain. Recently, biallelic loss of function variants and missense substitution-causing variants in HPDL were reported to cause a childhood onset progressive spastic movement disorder with a variable presentation. These findings suggest that HPDL-related neurological disease may mimic spastic cerebral palsy and that GAD1 should not be included in diagnostic gene panels for inherited cerebral palsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil V Morgan
- Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Bryndis Yngvadottir
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge and NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Mary O'Driscoll
- West Midlands Regional Genetics Service and Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham Women's and Children's NHS Trust, Birmingham B15 2TG, UK
| | - Graeme R Clark
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge and NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Diana Walsh
- West Midlands Regional Genetics Laboratory, Birmingham Women's and Children's NHS Trust, Birmingham B15 2TG, UK
| | - Ezequiel Martin
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge and NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.,Oncology Department, Cancer Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XZ, UK
| | - Louise Tee
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Evan Reid
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge and NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK.,Cambridge Institute of Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Hannah L Titheradge
- West Midlands Regional Genetics Service and Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham Women's and Children's NHS Trust, Birmingham B15 2TG, UK
| | - Eamonn R Maher
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge and NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
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15
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Marx A, Yamada Y, Simon-Keller K, Schalke B, Willcox N, Ströbel P, Weis CA. Thymus and autoimmunity. Semin Immunopathol 2021; 43:45-64. [PMID: 33537838 PMCID: PMC7925479 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-021-00842-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The thymus prevents autoimmune diseases through mechanisms that operate in the cortex and medulla, comprising positive and negative selection and the generation of regulatory T-cells (Tregs). Egress from the thymus through the perivascular space (PVS) to the blood is another possible checkpoint, as shown by some autoimmune/immunodeficiency syndromes. In polygenic autoimmune diseases, subtle thymic dysfunctions may compound genetic, hormonal and environmental cues. Here, we cover (a) tolerance-inducing cell types, whether thymic epithelial or tuft cells, or dendritic, B- or thymic myoid cells; (b) tolerance-inducing mechanisms and their failure in relation to thymic anatomic compartments, and with special emphasis on human monogenic and polygenic autoimmune diseases and the related thymic pathologies, if known; (c) polymorphisms and mutations of tolerance-related genes with an impact on positive selection (e.g. the gene encoding the thymoproteasome-specific subunit, PSMB11), promiscuous gene expression (e.g. AIRE, PRKDC, FEZF2, CHD4), Treg development (e.g. SATB1, FOXP3), T-cell migration (e.g. TAGAP) and egress from the thymus (e.g. MTS1, CORO1A); (d) myasthenia gravis as the prototypic outcome of an inflamed or disordered neoplastic ‘sick thymus’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Marx
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany.
| | - Yosuke Yamada
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Katja Simon-Keller
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Berthold Schalke
- Department of Neurology, Bezirkskrankenhaus, University of Regensburg, 93042, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Nick Willcox
- Neurosciences Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Philipp Ströbel
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, University of Göttigen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Cleo-Aron Weis
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
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16
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Guo P, Wang Z, Zhou Z, Tai Y, Zhang A, Wei W, Wang Q. Immuno-hippo: Research progress of the hippo pathway in autoimmune disease. Immunol Lett 2020; 230:11-20. [PMID: 33345861 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2020.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Extensive research in Drosophila and mammals has identified the core components of Hippo signaling, which controls gene expression. Studies of Drosophila have demonstrated the highly conserved Hippo pathway controls tissue homeostasis and organ size by regulating the balance between cell proliferation and apoptosis. Recent work has indicated a potential role of the Hippo pathway in regulating the immune system, which is the key player in autoimmune disease (AID). Therefore, the Hippo pathway may become a novel target for curing AID. Although the pivotal role of both the Hippo pathway in tumorigenesis has been thoroughly investigated, the role of it in AID is still poorly understood. Elucidating the role of Hippo signaling pathways in the activation and expression of specific molecules involved in immune regulation is important for understanding the pathogenesis of AID and exploring novel therapeutic targets. To aid in further research, this review describes the relationship between the Hippo pathway and inflammatory signals such as NF-κB and JAK-STAT, the function of the Hippo pathway in the formation and differentiation of immune cells, and the regulatory role of the Hippo pathway in AID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paipai Guo
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicines, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicines, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China
| | - Zhengwei Zhou
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicines, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China
| | - Yu Tai
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicines, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China
| | - Aijun Zhang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicines, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicines, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China.
| | - Qingtong Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicines, Hefei, Anhui 230032, China.
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17
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Hills LB, Abdullah L, Lust HE, Degefu H, Huang YH. Foxo1 Serine 209 Is a Critical Regulatory Site of CD8 T Cell Differentiation and Survival. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 206:89-100. [PMID: 33229443 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Foxo1 is an essential transcription factor required for the survival and differentiation of memory CD8 T cells, yet it is unclear whether these Foxo1-dependent functions are inherently coupled. To address this question, we examined the effects of different Foxo1 posttranslational modifications. Phosphorylation of Foxo1 by Akt kinases at three distinct residues is well characterized to inhibit Foxo1 transcriptional activity. However, the effect of Foxo1 phosphorylation within its DNA-binding domain at serine 209 by Mst1 kinase is not fully understood. In this study, we show that an S209A phospho-null Foxo1 exhibited Akt-dependent nuclear trafficking in mouse CD8 T cells and augmented the expression of canonical Foxo1 target genes such as Il7r and Sell In contrast, an S209D phosphomimetic Foxo1 (SD-Foxo1) was largely excluded from the nucleus of CD8 T cells and failed to transactivate these genes. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that SD-Foxo1 was associated with a distinct Foxo1-dependent transcriptional profile, including genes mediating CD8 effector function and cell survival. Despite defective transactivation of canonical target genes, SD-Foxo1 promoted IL-15-mediated CD8 T cell survival in vitro and survival of short-lived effector cells in vivo in response to Listeria monocytogenes infection. However, SD-Foxo1 actively repressed CD127 expression and failed to generate memory precursors and long-lived memory T cells. Together, these data indicate that S209 is a critical residue for the regulation of Foxo1 subcellular localization and for balancing CD8 T cell differentiation and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Benjamin Hills
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756; and
| | - Leena Abdullah
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756; and
| | - Hannah E Lust
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756; and
| | - Hanna Degefu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756; and
| | - Yina H Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756; and .,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756
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18
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Mastio J, Saeed MB, Wurzer H, Krecke M, Westerberg LS, Thomas C. Higher Incidence of B Cell Malignancies in Primary Immunodeficiencies: A Combination of Intrinsic Genomic Instability and Exocytosis Defects at the Immunological Synapse. Front Immunol 2020; 11:581119. [PMID: 33240268 PMCID: PMC7680899 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.581119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital defects of the immune system called primary immunodeficiency disorders (PID) describe a group of diseases characterized by a decrease, an absence, or a malfunction of at least one part of the immune system. As a result, PID patients are more prone to develop life-threatening complications, including cancer. PID currently include over 400 different disorders, however, the variety of PID-related cancers is narrow. We discuss here reasons for this clinical phenotype. Namely, PID can lead to cell intrinsic failure to control cell transformation, failure to activate tumor surveillance by cytotoxic cells or both. As the most frequent tumors seen among PID patients stem from faulty lymphocyte development leading to leukemia and lymphoma, we focus on the extensive genomic alterations needed to create the vast diversity of B and T lymphocytes with potential to recognize any pathogen and why defects in these processes lead to malignancies in the immunodeficient environment of PID patients. In the second part of the review, we discuss PID affecting tumor surveillance and especially membrane trafficking defects caused by altered exocytosis and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. As an impairment of these membrane trafficking pathways often results in dysfunctional effector immune cells, tumor cell immune evasion is elevated in PID. By considering new anti-cancer treatment concepts, such as transfer of genetically engineered immune cells, restoration of anti-tumor immunity in PID patients could be an approach to complement standard therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Mastio
- Department of Oncology, Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| | - Mezida B Saeed
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hannah Wurzer
- Department of Oncology, Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| | - Max Krecke
- Department of Oncology, Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| | - Lisa S Westerberg
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Clément Thomas
- Department of Oncology, Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
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19
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Jørgensen SE, Al-Mousawi A, Assing K, Hartling U, Grosen D, Fisker N, Nielsen C, Jakobsen MA, Mogensen TH. STK4 Deficiency Impairs Innate Immunity and Interferon Production Through Negative Regulation of TBK1-IRF3 Signaling. J Clin Immunol 2020; 41:109-124. [PMID: 33078349 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-020-00891-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND STK4 deficiency due to homozygous mutations in the STK4 gene encoding the STK4/MST1 kinase was first described in 2012. STK4/MST1 kinase regulates cell proliferation, survival, differentiation, and immune responses through canonical and non-canonical Hippo signaling pathways. OBJECTIVE We describe an 11-year-old girl with a clinical presentation consisting of severe recurrent herpes zoster, chronic warts, and recurrent pneumonias, as well as a somatic phenotype with hypothyroidism and low stature. Whole exome sequencing revealed STK4 deficiency due to homozygosity for a novel frameshift variant in STK4, c.523dupA, p.(L174fsTer45), resulting in a premature stop codon within the kinase domain. METHODS We performed a thorough investigation of the genetics and innate and adaptive immunological abnormalities in STK4 deficiency. RESULTS We show significantly impaired type I, II, and III interferon (IFN) responses and partly reduced proinflammatory cytokine responses to ligands of Toll-like receptor (TLR)3, TLR9, and the cytosolic RNA and DNA sensors as well as to microorganisms. Impaired IFN responses could be attributed to reduced phosphorylation of TBK1 and IRF3. Moreover, virus infection induced enhanced cell death by apoptosis. Importantly, autophagy pathways were slightly disturbed, with enhanced LC3B-Ito LCB3-II conversion at the single cell level but normal overall formation of LCB3 punctae. Finally, the patient displayed some indicators of impaired adaptive immunity in the form of insufficient vaccination responses, T cell lymphopenia, and reduced Treg fractions, although with largely normal T cell proliferation and normal IFNg production. CONCLUSION Here, we demonstrate disturbances in various immune cell populations and pathways involved in innate immune responses, cell death, autophagy, and adaptive immunity in a patient homozygous for a novel STK4 frameshift mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie E Jørgensen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ali Al-Mousawi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Kristian Assing
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Ulla Hartling
- Department of Pediatrics, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Dorthe Grosen
- Department of Pediatrics, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Niels Fisker
- Department of Pediatrics, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Christian Nielsen
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Marianne A Jakobsen
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Trine H Mogensen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark. .,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. .,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
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20
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Bouchard A, Witalis M, Chang J, Panneton V, Li J, Bouklouch Y, Suh WK. Hippo Signal Transduction Mechanisms in T Cell Immunity. Immune Netw 2020; 20:e36. [PMID: 33163244 PMCID: PMC7609160 DOI: 10.4110/in.2020.20.e36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Hippo signaling pathways are evolutionarily conserved signal transduction mechanisms mainly involved in organ size control, tissue regeneration, and tumor suppression. However, in mammals, the primary role of Hippo signaling seems to be regulation of immunity. As such, humans with null mutations in STK4 (mammalian homologue of Drosophila Hippo; also known as MST1) suffer from recurrent infections and autoimmune symptoms. Although dysregulated T cell homeostasis and functions have been identified in MST1-deficient human patients and mouse models, detailed cellular and molecular bases of the immune dysfunction remain to be elucidated. Although the canonical Hippo signaling pathway involves transcriptional co-activator Yes-associated protein (YAP) or transcriptional coactivator with PDZ motif (TAZ), the major Hippo downstream signaling pathways in T cells are YAP/TAZ-independent and they widely differ between T cell subsets. Here we will review Hippo signaling mechanisms in T cell immunity and describe their implications for immune defects found in MST1-deficient patients and animals. Further, we propose that mutual inhibition of Mst and Akt kinases and their opposing roles on the stability and function of forkhead box O and β-catenin may explain various immune defects discovered in mutant mice lacking Hippo signaling components. Understanding these diverse Hippo signaling pathways and their interplay with other evolutionarily-conserved signaling components in T cells may uncover molecular targets relevant to vaccination, autoimmune diseases, and cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Bouchard
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada.,Molecular Biology Program, Department of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Mariko Witalis
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada.,Molecular Biology Program, Department of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Jinsam Chang
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada.,Molecular Biology Program, Department of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Vincent Panneton
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada.,Department of Microbiology, Infectiology, and Immunology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Joanna Li
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - Yasser Bouklouch
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Woong-Kyung Suh
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada.,Molecular Biology Program, Department of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada.,Department of Microbiology, Infectiology, and Immunology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
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21
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Ansari R, Rosen LB, Lisco A, Gilden D, Holland SM, Zerbe CS, Bonomo RA, Cohen JI. Primary and Acquired Immunodeficiencies Associated with Severe Varicella-Zoster Infections. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 73:e2705-e2712. [PMID: 32856043 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While most cases of varicella or zoster are self-limited, patients with certain immune deficiencies may develop severe or life-threatening disease. METHODS We studied a patient with varicella-zoster virus (VZV) CNS vasculopathy and as part of the evaluation, tested his plasma for antibodies to cytokines. We reviewed the literature for cases of varicella or zoster associated with primary and acquired immunodeficiencies. RESULTS We found that a patient with VZV CNS vasculopathy had antibody that neutralized interferon (IFN)-α, but not IFN-γ. The patient's plasma blocked phosphorylation in response to stimulation with IFN-α in healthy control peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In addition to acquired immunodeficiencies like HIV or autoantibodies to IFN, variants in specific genes have been associated with severe varicella and/or zoster. While these genes encode proteins with very different activities, many affect IFN signaling pathways, either those that sense double-stranded RNA or cytoplasmic DNA that trigger IFN production, or those involved in activation of IFN stimulated genes in response to binding of IFN with its receptor. CONCLUSIONS Immune deficiencies highlight the critical role of IFN in control of VZV infections and suggest new approaches for treatment of VZV infection in patients with certain immune deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahila Ansari
- Department of Neurology, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio.,Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Lindsey B Rosen
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Andrea Lisco
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Don Gilden
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Steven M Holland
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Christa S Zerbe
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Robert A Bonomo
- Research Service, Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Jeffrey I Cohen
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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22
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Sprenkeler EGG, Webbers SDS, Kuijpers TW. When Actin is Not Actin' Like It Should: A New Category of Distinct Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders. J Innate Immun 2020; 13:3-25. [PMID: 32846417 DOI: 10.1159/000509717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) have been identified over the last decade, which are caused by deleterious mutations in genes encoding for proteins involved in actin cytoskeleton regulation. These mutations primarily affect hematopoietic cells and lead to defective function of immune cells, such as impaired motility, signaling, proliferative capacity, and defective antimicrobial host defense. Here, we review several of these immunological "actinopathies" and cover both clinical aspects, as well as cellular mechanisms of these PIDs. We focus in particular on the effect of these mutations on human neutrophil function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelien G G Sprenkeler
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center (AUMC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, .,Department of Pediatric Immunology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital, AUMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
| | - Steven D S Webbers
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center (AUMC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Pediatric Immunology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital, AUMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Taco W Kuijpers
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center (AUMC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Pediatric Immunology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital, AUMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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23
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Targeting the Hippo pathway in cancer, fibrosis, wound healing and regenerative medicine. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2020; 19:480-494. [PMID: 32555376 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-020-0070-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 372] [Impact Index Per Article: 93.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Hippo pathway is an evolutionarily conserved signalling pathway with key roles in organ development, epithelial homeostasis, tissue regeneration, wound healing and immune modulation. Many of these roles are mediated by the transcriptional effectors YAP and TAZ, which direct gene expression via control of the TEAD family of transcription factors. Dysregulated Hippo pathway and YAP/TAZ-TEAD activity is associated with various diseases, most notably cancer, making this pathway an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. This Review highlights the key findings from studies of Hippo pathway signalling across biological processes and diseases, and discusses new strategies and therapeutic implications of targeting this pathway.
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24
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Human genetic dissection of papillomavirus-driven diseases: new insight into their pathogenesis. Hum Genet 2020; 139:919-939. [PMID: 32435828 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-020-02183-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect mucosal or cutaneous stratified epithelia. There are 5 genera and more than 200 types of HPV, each with a specific tropism and virulence. HPV infections are typically asymptomatic or result in benign tumors, which may be disseminated or persistent in rare cases, but a few oncogenic HPVs can cause cancers. This review deals with the human genetic and immunological basis of interindividual clinical variability in the course of HPV infections of the skin and mucosae. Typical epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) is characterized by β-HPV-driven flat wart-like and pityriasis-like cutaneous lesions and non-melanoma skin cancers in patients with inborn errors of EVER1-EVER2-CIB1-dependent skin-intrinsic immunity. Atypical EV is associated with other infectious diseases in patients with inborn errors of T cells. Severe cutaneous or anogenital warts, including anogenital cancers, are also driven by certain α-, γ-, μ or ν-HPVs in patients with inborn errors of T lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells. The genetic basis of HPV diseases at other mucosal sites, such as oral multifocal epithelial hyperplasia or juvenile recurrent respiratory papillomatosis (JRRP), remains poorly understood. The human genetic dissection of HPV-driven lesions will clarify the molecular and cellular basis of protective immunity to HPVs, and should lead to novel diagnostic, preventive, and curative approaches in patients.
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25
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Radwan N, El-Owaidy R, El-Sayed ZA, Abdel-Baky A, El-Haddad A, Rashad H, Khorshed EN, Platt CD, Wallace JG, Chou J, Hossny E, Reda SM. A Case of STK4 Deficiency with Complications Evoking Mycobacterial Infection. J Clin Immunol 2020; 40:665-669. [PMID: 32394035 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-020-00783-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nesrine Radwan
- Paediatric Allergy and Immunology Unit, Children's Hospital, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Rasha El-Owaidy
- Paediatric Allergy and Immunology Unit, Children's Hospital, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Zeinab A El-Sayed
- Paediatric Allergy and Immunology Unit, Children's Hospital, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ashraf Abdel-Baky
- Paediatric Allergy and Immunology Unit, Children's Hospital, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Alaa El-Haddad
- Children's Cancer Hospital, Egypt (CCHE-57357), Cairo, Egypt.,National Cancer Institute, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hanaa Rashad
- Children's Cancer Hospital, Egypt (CCHE-57357), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Eman Naguib Khorshed
- Children's Cancer Hospital, Egypt (CCHE-57357), Cairo, Egypt.,National Cancer Institute, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Craig D Platt
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jacqueline G Wallace
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Janet Chou
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Elham Hossny
- Paediatric Allergy and Immunology Unit, Children's Hospital, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Shereen Medhat Reda
- Paediatric Allergy and Immunology Unit, Children's Hospital, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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26
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Ueda Y, Kondo N, Kinashi T. MST1/2 Balance Immune Activation and Tolerance by Orchestrating Adhesion, Transcription, and Organelle Dynamics in Lymphocytes. Front Immunol 2020; 11:733. [PMID: 32435241 PMCID: PMC7218056 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The STE20-like serine/threonine kinases MST1 and MST2 (MST1/2) are mammalian homologs of Hippo in flies. MST1/2 regulate organ size by suppressing the transcription factor YAP, which promotes proliferation. MST1 is predominantly expressed in immune cells, where it plays distinct roles. Here, we review the functions of MST1/2 in immune cells, uncovered by a series of recent studies, and discuss the connection between MST1/2 function and immune responses. MST1/2 regulate lymphocyte development, trafficking, survival, and antigen recognition by naive T cells. MST1/2 also regulate the function of regulatory T cells and effector T cell differentiation, thus acting to balance immune activation and tolerance. Interestingly, MST1/2 elicit these functions not by the “canonical” Hippo pathway, but by the non-canonical Hippo pathway or alternative pathways. In these pathways, MST1/2 regulates cellular processes relating to immune response, such as chemotaxis, cell adhesion, immunological synapse, gene transcriptions. Recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of these processes have revealed important roles of MST1/2 in regulating cytoskeleton remodeling, integrin activation, and vesicular transport in lymphocytes. We discuss the significance of the MST1/2 signaling in lymphocytes in the regulation of organelle dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro Ueda
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biomedical Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
| | - Naoyuki Kondo
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biomedical Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Kinashi
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biomedical Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
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27
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Lee BJ, Mace EM. From stem cell to immune effector: how adhesion, migration, and polarity shape T-cell and natural killer cell lymphocyte development in vitro and in vivo. Mol Biol Cell 2020; 31:981-991. [PMID: 32352896 PMCID: PMC7346728 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e19-08-0424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphocyte development is a complex and coordinated pathway originating from pluripotent stem cells during embryogenesis and continuing even as matured lymphocytes are primed and educated in adult tissue. Hematopoietic stem cells develop in a specialized niche that includes extracellular matrix and supporting stromal and endothelial cells that both maintain stem cell pluripotency and enable the generation of differentiated cells. Cues for lymphocyte development include changes in integrin-dependent cell motility and adhesion which ultimately help to determine cell fate. The capacity of lymphocytes to adhere and migrate is important for modulating these developmental signals both by regulating the cues that the cell receives from the local microenvironment as well as facilitating the localization of precursors to tissue niches throughout the body. Here we consider how changing migratory and adhesive phenotypes contribute to human natural killer (NK)- and T-cell development as they undergo development from precursors to mature, circulating cells and how our understanding of this process is informed by in vitro models of T- and NK cell generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barclay J. Lee
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005
- Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
| | - Emily M. Mace
- Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
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28
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Tangye SG. Genetic susceptibility to EBV infection: insights from inborn errors of immunity. Hum Genet 2020; 139:885-901. [PMID: 32152698 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-020-02145-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen, infecting > 90% of the adult population. In the vast majority of healthy individuals, infection with EBV runs a relatively benign course. However, EBV is by no means a benign pathogen. Indeed, apart from being associated with at least seven different types of malignancies, EBV infection can cause severe and often fatal diseases-hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, lymphoproliferative disease, B-cell lymphoma-in rare individuals with specific monogenic inborn errors of immunity. The discovery and detailed investigation of inborn errors of immunity characterized by heightened susceptibility to, or increased frequency of, EBV-induced disease have elegantly revealed cell types and signaling pathways that play critical and non-redundant roles in host-defense against EBV. These analyses have revealed not only mechanisms underlying EBV-induced disease in rare genetic conditions, but also identified molecules and pathways that could be targeted to treat severe EBV infection and pathological consequences in immunodeficient hosts, or even potentially enhance the efficacy of an EBV-specific vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Tangye
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia. .,St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of NSW Sydney, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia. .,Clincial Immunogenomics Research Consortium Australasia (CIRCA), Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.
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29
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Human inborn errors of immunity to herpes viruses. Curr Opin Immunol 2020; 62:106-122. [PMID: 32014647 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2020.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Infections with any of the nine human herpes viruses (HHV) can be asymptomatic or life-threatening. The study of patients with severe diseases caused by HHVs, in the absence of overt acquired immunodeficiency, has led to the discovery or diagnosis of various inborn errors of immunity. The related inborn errors of adaptive immunity disrupt α/β T-cell rather than B-cell immunity. Affected patients typically develop HHV infections in the context of other infectious diseases. However, this is not always the case, as illustrated by inborn errors of SAP-dependent T-cell immunity to EBV-infected B cells. The related inborn errors of innate immunity disrupt leukocytes other than T and B cells, non-hematopoietic cells, or both. Patients typically develop only a single type of infection due to HHV, although, again, this is not always the case, as illustrated by inborn errors of TLR3 immunity resulting in HSV1 encephalitis in some patients and influenza pneumonitis in others. Most severe HHV infections in otherwise healthy patients remains unexplained. The forward human genetic dissection of isolated and syndromic HHV-driven illnesses will establish the molecular and cellular basis of protective immunity to HHVs, paving the way for novel diagnosis and management strategies.
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30
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Janssen E, Geha RS. Primary immunodeficiencies caused by mutations in actin regulatory proteins. Immunol Rev 2019; 287:121-134. [PMID: 30565251 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The identification of patients with monogenic gene defects have illuminated the function of different proteins in the immune system, including proteins that regulate the actin cytoskeleton. Many of these actin regulatory proteins are exclusively expressed in leukocytes and regulate the formation and branching of actin filaments. Their absence or abnormal function leads to defects in immune cell shape, cellular projections, migration, and signaling. Through the study of patients' mutations and generation of mouse models that recapitulate the patients' phenotypes, our laboratory and others have gained a better understanding of the role these proteins play in cell biology and the underlying pathogenesis of immunodeficiencies and immune dysregulatory syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Janssen
- Division of Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Raif S Geha
- Division of Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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31
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B cell–intrinsic requirement for STK4 in humoral immunity in mice and human subjects. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2019; 143:2302-2305. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2019.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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32
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Yamauchi T, Moroishi T. Hippo Pathway in Mammalian Adaptive Immune System. Cells 2019; 8:cells8050398. [PMID: 31052239 PMCID: PMC6563119 DOI: 10.3390/cells8050398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Hippo pathway was originally identified as an evolutionarily-conserved signaling mechanism that contributes to the control of organ size. It was then rapidly expanded as a key pathway in the regulation of tissue development, regeneration, and cancer pathogenesis. The increasing amount of evidence in recent years has also connected this pathway to the regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses. Notably, the Hippo pathway has been revealed to play a pivotal role in adaptive immune cell lineages, as represented by the patients with T- and B-cell lymphopenia exhibiting defective expressions of the pathway component. The complex regulatory mechanisms of and by the Hippo pathway have also been evident as alternative signal transductions are employed in some immune cell types. In this review article, we summarize the current understanding of the emerging roles of the Hippo pathway in adaptive immune cell development and differentiation. We also highlight the recent findings concerning the dual functions of the Hippo pathway in autoimmunity and anti-cancer immune responses and discuss the key open questions in the interplay between the Hippo pathway and the mammalian immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayoshi Yamauchi
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan.
| | - Toshiro Moroishi
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan.
- Center for Metabolic Regulation of Healthy Aging, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan.
- Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan.
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33
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Tangye SG, Bucciol G, Casas‐Martin J, Pillay B, Ma CS, Moens L, Meyts I. Human inborn errors of the actin cytoskeleton affecting immunity: way beyond WAS and WIP. Immunol Cell Biol 2019; 97:389-402. [DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Tangye
- Immunology Division Garvan Institute of Medical Research Sydney NSW Australia
- Faculty of Medicine St Vincent's Clinical School UNSW Sydney Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Giorgia Bucciol
- Laboratory for Inborn Errors of Immunity Department of Microbiology and Immunology KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
- Department of Pediatrics University Hospitals Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Jose Casas‐Martin
- Laboratory for Inborn Errors of Immunity Department of Microbiology and Immunology KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Bethany Pillay
- Immunology Division Garvan Institute of Medical Research Sydney NSW Australia
- Faculty of Medicine St Vincent's Clinical School UNSW Sydney Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Cindy S Ma
- Immunology Division Garvan Institute of Medical Research Sydney NSW Australia
- Faculty of Medicine St Vincent's Clinical School UNSW Sydney Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Leen Moens
- Laboratory for Inborn Errors of Immunity Department of Microbiology and Immunology KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Isabelle Meyts
- Laboratory for Inborn Errors of Immunity Department of Microbiology and Immunology KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
- Department of Pediatrics University Hospitals Leuven Leuven Belgium
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34
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A Novel STK4 Mutation Presenting with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis and Epidermodysplasia Verruciformis. J Clin Immunol 2019; 39:11-14. [PMID: 30612220 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-018-0586-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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35
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Bagherzadeh Yazdchi S, Witalis M, Meli AP, Leung J, Li X, Panneton V, Chang J, Li J, Nutt SL, Johnson RL, Lim DS, Gu H, King IL, Suh WK. Hippo Pathway Kinase Mst1 Is Required for Long-Lived Humoral Immunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 202:69-78. [PMID: 30478091 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The protein kinase Mst1 is a key component of the evolutionarily conserved Hippo pathway that regulates cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, and migration. In humans, Mst1 deficiency causes primary immunodeficiency. Patients with MST1-null mutations show progressive loss of naive T cells but, paradoxically, mildly elevated serum Ab titers. Nonetheless, the role of Mst1 in humoral immunity remains poorly understood. In this study, we found that early T cell-dependent IgG1 responses in young adult Mst1-deficient mice were largely intact with signs of impaired affinity maturation. However, the established Ag-specific IgG1 titers in Mst1-deficient mice decayed more readily because of a loss of Ag-specific but not the overall bone marrow plasma cells. Despite the impaired affinity and longevity of Ag-specific Abs, Mst1-deficient mice produced plasma cells displaying apparently normal maturation markers with intact migratory and secretory capacities. Intriguingly, in immunized Mst1-deficient mice, T follicular helper cells were hyperactive, expressing higher levels of IL-21, IL-4, and surface CD40L. Accordingly, germinal center B cells progressed more rapidly into the plasma cell lineage, presumably forgoing rigorous affinity maturation processes. Importantly, Mst1-deficient mice had elevated levels of CD138+Blimp1+ splenic plasma cell populations, yet the size of the bone marrow plasma cell population remained normal. Thus, overproduced low-affinity plasma cells from dysregulated germinal centers seem to underlie humoral immune defects in Mst1-deficiency. Our findings imply that vaccination of Mst1-deficient human patients, even at the early stage of life, may fail to establish long-lived high-affinity humoral immunity and that prophylactic Ab replacement therapy can be beneficial to the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Bagherzadeh Yazdchi
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Mariko Witalis
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.,Molecular Biology Program, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Alexandre P Meli
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Joanne Leung
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Xin Li
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Vincent Panneton
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.,Department of Microbiology, Infectiology, and Immunology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Jinsam Chang
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.,Molecular Biology Program, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Joanna Li
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Stephen L Nutt
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Randy L Johnson
- Department of Cancer Biology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Dae-Sik Lim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Hua Gu
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Irah L King
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Woong-Kyung Suh
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada; .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.,Molecular Biology Program, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
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36
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Schipp C, Schlütermann D, Hönscheid A, Nabhani S, Höll J, Oommen PT, Ginzel S, Fleckenstein B, Stork B, Borkhardt A, Stepensky P, Fischer U. EBV Negative Lymphoma and Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome Like Phenotype Extend the Clinical Spectrum of Primary Immunodeficiency Caused by STK4 Deficiency. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2400. [PMID: 30386345 PMCID: PMC6198654 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Serine/threonine kinase 4 (STK4) deficiency is an autosomal recessive genetic condition that leads to primary immunodeficiency (PID) typically characterized by lymphopenia, recurrent infections and Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) induced lymphoproliferation and -lymphoma. State-of-the-art treatment regimens consist of prevention or treatment of infections, immunoglobulin substitution (IVIG) and restoration of the immune system by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Here, we report on two patients from two consanguineous families of Turkish (patient P1) and Moroccan (patient P2) decent, with PID due to homozygous STK4 mutations. P1 harbored a previously reported frameshift (c.1103 delT, p.M368RfsX2) and P2 a novel splice donor site mutation (P2; c.525+2 T>G). Both patients presented in childhood with recurrent infections, CD4 lymphopenia and dysregulated immunoglobulin levels. Patient P1 developed a highly malignant B cell lymphoma at the age of 10 years and a second, independent Hodgkin lymphoma 5 years later. To our knowledge she is the first STK4 deficient case reported who developed lymphoma in the absence of detectable EBV or other common viruses. Lymphoma development may be due to the lacking tumor suppressive function of STK4 or the perturbed immune surveillance due to the lack of CD4+ T cells. Our data should raise physicians' awareness of [1] lymphoma proneness of STK4 deficient patients even in the absence of EBV infection and [2] possibly underlying STK4 deficiency in pediatric patients with a history of recurrent infections, CD4 lymphopenia and lymphoma and unknown genetic make-up. Patient P2 experienced recurrent otitis in childhood, but when she presented at the age of 14, she showed clinical and immunological characteristics similar to patients suffering from Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (ALPS): elevated DNT cell number, non-malignant lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly, hematolytic anemia, hypergammaglobulinemia. Also patient P1 presented with ALPS-like features (lymphadenopathy, elevated DNT cell number and increased Vitamin B12 levels) and both were initially clinically diagnosed as ALPS-like. Closer examination of P2, however, revealed active EBV infection and genetic testing identified a novel STK4 mutation. None of the patients harbored typically ALPS-associated mutations of the Fas receptor mediated apoptotic pathway and Fas-mediated apoptosis was not affected. The presented case reports extend the clinical spectrum of STK4 deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyrill Schipp
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - David Schlütermann
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Andrea Hönscheid
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Schafiq Nabhani
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jessica Höll
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Prasad T Oommen
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sebastian Ginzel
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany.,Department of Computer Science, Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences, Sankt Augustin, Germany
| | - Bernhard Fleckenstein
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Virology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Björn Stork
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Arndt Borkhardt
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Polina Stepensky
- Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cancer Immunotherapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ute Fischer
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Children's Hospital, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
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37
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Abstract
Ras oncoproteins can promote or suppress cellular apoptosis, but the mechanisms underlying these varied responses remain incompletely understood. Ras is linked to the Hippo tumor suppressor pathway, a highly conserved signaling cassette that regulates organ size in animals ranging from flies to humans. The proximal members of this pathway, Mammalian Ste20-like kinases (Msts) -1 and -2, self-associate in homodimers and also form heterodimers with other proteins. Formation of such complexes is known to regulate Mst kinase activity and thus, the Hippo pathway. In a manuscript that recently appeared in Current Biology, we showed that activated Hras promotes the formation of Mst1/Mst2 heterodimers, that activation of Erk was required for this event, and that these heterodimers were much less active than Mst1/Mst1 or Mst2/Mst2 homodimers. Interestingly, the formation of such heterodimers was required to deactivate the Hippo pathway and to enable transformation by Hras. In this Commentary, we discuss the background for this study and surprising implications thereof.
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38
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Kurz ARM, Catz SD, Sperandio M. Noncanonical Hippo Signalling in the Regulation of Leukocyte Function. Trends Immunol 2018; 39:656-669. [PMID: 29954663 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The mammalian sterile 20-like (MST) kinases are central constituents of the evolutionary ancient canonical Hippo pathway regulating cell proliferation and survival. However, perhaps surprisingly, MST1 deficiency in human patients leads to a severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome with features of autoimmune disease. In line with this, Mst1-deficient mice exhibit severe defects in lymphocyte and neutrophil functions as well as disturbed intracellular vesicle transport. These findings spurred research on the noncanonical functions of MST1 in leukocytes. Here, we summarise the latest findings on this topic and discuss MST1 as a critical regulator of various leukocyte functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela R M Kurz
- Walter Brendel Center of Experimental Medicine, BMC, Klinikum der Universität, LMU Munich, Germany; The Centenary Institute, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Sergio D Catz
- The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Markus Sperandio
- Walter Brendel Center of Experimental Medicine, BMC, Klinikum der Universität, LMU Munich, Germany; DZHK Munich, Germany.
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39
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Taha Z, Janse van Rensburg HJ, Yang X. The Hippo Pathway: Immunity and Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10040094. [PMID: 29597279 PMCID: PMC5923349 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10040094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery, the Hippo pathway has emerged as a central signaling network in mammalian cells. Canonical signaling through the Hippo pathway core components (MST1/2, LATS1/2, YAP and TAZ) is important for development and tissue homeostasis while aberrant signaling through the Hippo pathway has been implicated in multiple pathologies, including cancer. Recent studies have uncovered new roles for the Hippo pathway in immunology. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms by which Hippo signaling in pathogen-infected or neoplastic cells affects the activities of immune cells that respond to these threats. We further discuss how Hippo signaling functions as part of an immune response. Finally, we review how immune cell-intrinsic Hippo signaling modulates the development/function of leukocytes and propose directions for future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaid Taha
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
| | | | - Xiaolong Yang
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
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40
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Lee DH, Kim TS, Lee D, Lim DS. Mammalian sterile 20 kinase 1 and 2 are important regulators of hematopoietic stem cells in stress condition. Sci Rep 2018; 8:942. [PMID: 29343826 PMCID: PMC5772645 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19637-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian Hippo signaling pathway has been implicated in the self-renewal and differentiation of stem and progenitor cells. MST1 and MST2 (MST1/2) are core serine-threonine kinases in the Hippo signaling pathway, one of which, MST1, has been extensively investigated for its role in T cell and myeloid cell function. These studies have identified MST1 as a promising therapeutic target in immunological disease. However, the roles of MST1/2 in hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) function in vivo are not fully understood. Here, we report that mice with a conditional deletion of Mst1/2 exhibit impaired hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) function under stress condition. Furthermore, Mst1/2 deletion markedly altered mature cell output. Therefore, MST1/2 are indispensable for maintenance as well as function of stem and progenitor cells under steady state conditions and with transplantation stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Hye Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Creative Research Initiatives Center, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Tae-Shin Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Creative Research Initiatives Center, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Dongjun Lee
- Department of Medical Science, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, 50612, Korea.
| | - Dae-Sik Lim
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Creative Research Initiatives Center, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Korea.
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41
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) are inherited conditions where components of the immune system are missing or dysfunctional. Over 300 genes have been causally linked to monogenic forms of PID, including a number that regulate the actin cytoskeleton. The majority of cytoskeletal defects disrupt assembly and disassembly of filamentous actin in multiple immune cell lineages impacting functions such as cell migration and adhesion, pathogen uptake, intercellular communication, intracellular signalling, and cell division. RECENT FINDINGS In the past 24 months, new actin defects have been identified through next generation sequencing technologies. Substantial progress has also been made in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms that contribute to immunological dysfunction, and also how the cytoskeleton participates in normal physiological immune processes. SUMMARY This review summarises recent advances in the field, raising awareness of these conditions and our current understanding of their presentation. Description of further cases and new conditions will extend the clinical phenotype of actin-related disorders, and will promote the development of more effective and targeted therapies.
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42
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Park E, Kim MS, Song JH, Roh KH, Lee R, Kim TS. MST1 deficiency promotes B cell responses by CD4 + T cell-derived IL-4, resulting in hypergammaglobulinemia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 489:56-62. [PMID: 28527887 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.05.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
MST1 deficiency causes T and B cell lymphopenia, resulting in combined immunodeficiency. However, MST1-deficient patients also exhibit autoimmune-like symptoms such as hypergammaglobulinemia and autoantibody production. Recent studies have shown that the autoimmune responses observed in MST1-deficient patients were most likely attributable to defective regulatory T (Treg) cells instead of intrinsic signals in MST1-lacking B cells. Nevertheless, it is not determined how MST1 deficiency in T cells breaks B cell tolerance and causes systemic autoimmune-like phenotypes. In this study, we confirmed that Mst1-/- mice developed hypergammaglobulinemia associated with increased levels of IgG, IgA, and IgE. We also showed that uncontrolled B cell responses were resulted from the IL-4-rich environment created by CD4+ T cells. Defective MST1-FOXO1 signaling down-regulated Treg cells, resulting in the collapse of immune tolerance where the populations of Th2 and T follicular helper cells expanded. In conclusion, we suggest that MST1 acts as a molecular brake to maintain immune tolerance by regulating T cell-mediated B cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunchong Park
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Myun Soo Kim
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju Han Song
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Hye Roh
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Rana Lee
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Sung Kim
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea.
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43
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Abstract
Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic disease leading to fibrotic scarring of the intrahepatic and extrahepatic bile ducts, causing considerable morbidity and mortality via the development of cholestatic liver cirrhosis, concurrent IBD and a high risk of bile duct cancer. Expectations have been high that genetic studies would determine key factors in PSC pathogenesis to support the development of effective medical therapies. Through the application of genome-wide association studies, a large number of disease susceptibility genes have been identified. The overall genetic architecture of PSC shares features with both autoimmune diseases and IBD. Strong human leukocyte antigen gene associations, along with several susceptibility genes that are critically involved in T-cell function, support the involvement of adaptive immune responses in disease pathogenesis, and position PSC as an autoimmune disease. In this Review, we survey the developments that have led to these gene discoveries. We also elaborate relevant interpretations of individual gene findings in the context of established disease models in PSC, and propose relevant translational research efforts to pursue novel insights.
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44
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Lanini LLS, Prader S, Siler U, Reichenbach J. Modern management of phagocyte defects. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2017; 28:124-134. [PMID: 27612320 DOI: 10.1111/pai.12654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Phagocytic neutrophil granulocytes are among the first immune cells active at sites of infection, forming an important first-line defense against invading microorganisms. Congenital immune defects concerning these phagocytes may be due to reduced neutrophil numbers or function. Management of affected patients depends on the type and severity of disease. Here, we provide an overview of causes and treatment of diseases associated with congenital neutropenia, as well as defects of the phagocytic respiratory burst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenza Lisa Serena Lanini
- Division of Immunology, University Children's Hospital Zurich and Children's Research Centre, University Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Seraina Prader
- Division of Immunology, University Children's Hospital Zurich and Children's Research Centre, University Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ulrich Siler
- Division of Immunology, University Children's Hospital Zurich and Children's Research Centre, University Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Janine Reichenbach
- Division of Immunology, University Children's Hospital Zurich and Children's Research Centre, University Zurich, Switzerland
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45
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The transcription factor EPAS1 links DOCK8 deficiency to atopic skin inflammation via IL-31 induction. Nat Commun 2017; 8:13946. [PMID: 28067314 PMCID: PMC5228069 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations of DOCK8 in humans cause a combined immunodeficiency characterized by atopic dermatitis with high serum IgE levels. However, the molecular link between DOCK8 deficiency and atopic skin inflammation is unknown. Here we show that CD4+ T cells from DOCK8-deficient mice produce large amounts of IL-31, a major pruritogen associated with atopic dermatitis. IL-31 induction critically depends on the transcription factor EPAS1, and its conditional deletion in CD4+ T cells abrogates skin disease development in DOCK8-deficient mice. Although EPAS1 is known to form a complex with aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT) and control hypoxic responses, EPAS1-mediated Il31 promoter activation is independent of ARNT, but in collaboration with SP1. On the other hand, we find that DOCK8 is an adaptor and negative regulator of nuclear translocation of EPAS1. Thus, EPAS1 links DOCK8 deficiency to atopic skin inflammation via IL-31 induction in CD4+ T cells.
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46
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Shabani M, Nichols KE, Rezaei N. Primary immunodeficiencies associated with EBV-Induced lymphoproliferative disorders. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2016; 108:109-127. [PMID: 27931829 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2016.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 09/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary immunodeficiency diseases (PIDs) are a subgroup of inherited immunological disorders that increase susceptibility to viral infections. Among the range of viral pathogens involved, EBV remains a major threat because of its high prevalence of infection among the adult population and its tendency to progress to life-threatening lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) and/or malignancy. The high mortality in immunodeficient patients with EBV-driven LPDs, despite institution of diverse and often intensive treatments, prompts the need to better study these PIDs to identify and understand the affected molecular pathways that increase susceptibility to EBV infection and progression. In this article, we have provided a detailed literature review of the reported cases of EBV-driven LPDs in patients with PID. We discuss the PIDs associated with development of EBV-LPDs. Then, we review the nature and the therapeutic outcome of common EBV- driven LPDs in the PID patients and review the mechanisms common to the major PIDs. Deep study of these common pathways and gaining a better insight into the disease nature and outcomes, may lead to earlier diagnosis of the disease, choosing the best treatment modalities available and development of novel therapeutic strategies to decrease morbidity and mortality brought about by EBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahsima Shabani
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical School, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran; International Hematology/Oncology Of Pediatrics Experts (IHOPE), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Kim E Nichols
- Department of Oncology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical School, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Expert Group (SRMEG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Boston, MA, USA.
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47
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Worth AJJ, Houldcroft CJ, Booth C. Severe Epstein-Barr virus infection in primary immunodeficiency and the normal host. Br J Haematol 2016; 175:559-576. [PMID: 27748521 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.14339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is ubiquitous in humans, but the majority of infections have an asymptomatic or self-limiting clinical course. Rarely, individuals may develop a pathological EBV infection with a variety of life threatening complications (including haemophagocytosis and malignancy) and others develop asymptomatic chronic EBV viraemia. Although an impaired ability to control EBV infection has long been recognised as a hallmark of severe T-cell immunodeficiency, the advent of next generation sequencing has identified a series of Primary Immunodeficiencies in which EBV-related pathology is the dominant feature. Chronic active EBV infection is defined as chronic EBV viraemia associated with systemic lymphoproliferative disease, in the absence of immunodeficiency. Descriptions of larger cohorts of patients with chronic active EBV in recent years have significantly advanced our understanding of this clinical syndrome. In this review we summarise the current understanding of the pathophysiology and natural history of these diseases and clinical syndromes, and discuss approaches to the investigation and treatment of severe or atypical EBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austen J J Worth
- Department of Immunology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, UK.,Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Charlotte J Houldcroft
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Claire Booth
- Department of Immunology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, UK.,Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
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48
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Abstract
The MST1 and MST2 protein kinases comprise the GCK-II subfamily of protein kinases. In addition to their amino-terminal kinase catalytic domain, related to that of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein kinase Ste20, their most characteristic feature is the presence near the carboxy terminus of a unique helical structure called a SARAH domain; this segment allows MST1/MST2 to homodimerize and to heterodimerize with the other polypeptides that contain SARAH domains, the noncatalytic polypeptides RASSF1-6 and Sav1/WW45. Early studies emphasized the potent ability of MST1/MST2 to induce apoptosis upon being overexpressed, as well as the conversion of the endogenous MST1/MST2 polypeptides to constitutively active, caspase-cleaved catalytic fragments during apoptosis initiated by any stimulus. Later, the cleaved, constitutively active form of MST1 was identified in nonapoptotic, quiescent adult hepatocytes as well as in cells undergoing terminal differentiation, where its presence is necessary to maintain those cellular states. The physiologic regulation of full length MST1/MST2 is controlled by the availability of its noncatalytic SARAH domain partners. Interaction with Sav1/WW45 recruits MST1/MST2 into a tumor suppressor pathway, wherein it phosphorylates and activates the Sav1-bound protein kinases Lats1/Lats2, potent inhibitors of the Yap1 and TAZ oncogenic transcriptional regulators. A constitutive interaction with the Rap1-GTP binding protein RASSF5B (Nore1B/RAPL) in T cells recruits MST1 (especially) and MST2 as an effector of Rap1's control of T cell adhesion and migration, a program crucial to immune surveillance and response; loss of function mutation in human MST1 results in profound immunodeficiency. MST1 and MST2 are also regulated by other protein kinases, positively by TAO1 and negatively by Par1, SIK2/3, Akt, and cRaf1. The growing list of candidate MST1/MST2 substrates suggests that the full range of MST1/MST2's physiologic programs and contributions to pathophysiology remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Galan
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Diabetes Unit and Medical Services, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Joseph Avruch
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Diabetes Unit and Medical Services, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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49
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Xu X, Wang X, Todd EM, Jaeger ER, Vella JL, Mooren OL, Feng Y, Hu J, Cooper JA, Morley SC, Huang YH. Mst1 Kinase Regulates the Actin-Bundling Protein L-Plastin To Promote T Cell Migration. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 197:1683-91. [PMID: 27465533 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Exploring the mechanisms controlling lymphocyte trafficking is essential for understanding the function of the immune system and the pathophysiology of immunodeficiencies. The mammalian Ste20-like kinase 1 (Mst1) has been identified as a critical signaling mediator of T cell migration, and loss of Mst1 results in immunodeficiency disease. Although Mst1 is known to support T cell migration through induction of cell polarization and lamellipodial formation, the downstream effectors of Mst1 are incompletely defined. Mice deficient for the actin-bundling protein L-plastin (LPL) have phenotypes similar to mice lacking Mst1, including decreased T cell polarization, lamellipodial formation, and cell migration. We therefore asked whether LPL functions downstream of Mst1. The regulatory N-terminal domain of LPL contains a consensus Mst1 phosphorylation site at Thr(89) We found that Mst1 can phosphorylate LPL in vitro and that Mst1 can interact with LPL in cells. Removal of the Mst1 phosphorylation site by mutating Thr(89) to Ala impaired localization of LPL to the actin-rich lamellipodia of T cells. Expression of the T89A LPL mutant failed to restore migration of LPL-deficient T cells in vitro. Furthermore, expression of T89A LPL in LPL-deficient hematopoietic cells, using bone marrow chimeras, failed to rescue the phenotype of decreased thymic egress. These results identify LPL as a key effector of Mst1 and establish a novel mechanism linking a signaling intermediate to an actin-binding protein critical to T cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolu Xu
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Xinxin Wang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Elizabeth M Todd
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Emily R Jaeger
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Jennifer L Vella
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756
| | - Olivia L Mooren
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110; and
| | - Yunfeng Feng
- Department of Pathology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756
| | - Jiancheng Hu
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - John A Cooper
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110; and
| | - Sharon Celeste Morley
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110;
| | - Yina H Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756; Department of Pathology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756
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