Legal, individual, and environmental predictors of court disposition in a sample of serious adolescent offenders

Ramping Up Detention of Young Serious Offenders: A Safer Future?

When youth commit serious violent or sexual offenses, this often generates a call for more severe punishments and longer detention sentences. An important question is whether (long) detention sentences are effective in decreasing recidivism among serious young offenders. To estimate recidivism rates in serious young offenders and elucidate the link between sentencing (in terms of custodial vs. non-custodial and length of imprisonment) and recidivism, three multilevel meta-analyses were conducted. With a systematic literature search, 27 studies and four datasets were traced, involving N = 2,308 participants, yielding 90 effect sizes for overall recidivism, 24 for specifically violent recidivism, and 23 for the association between length of imprisonment and recidivism. The average weighted overall recidivism rate was 44.47% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 37.59-51.46%) over an average period of 8.68 years. The rate of violent recidivism was estimated at 30.49% (95% CI: 20.92-40.52%), over an average period of 11.45 years. Recidivism rates were higher when recidivism was defined as an arrest for any new offense rather than for a specific offense and in studies conducted in the United States versus European studies. Violent recidivism rates were higher in studies with longer follow-up periods. Based on the limited available studies, no difference in recidivism rates following custodial and non-custodial sentences were found, nor an association between length of imprisonment and recidivism. To increase rehabilitation chances for youth offenders, further research is warranted to better understand the impact of sentencing and to ascertain what is needed to make custodial and non-custodial sentences more effective.

What Predicts Out-of-Home Placement in Juvenile Court Dispositions? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Research suggests that juvenile court dispositions are influenced by legal factors, such as offense severity and prior record, as well as extralegal factors, such as race/ethnicity, sex, and age. To date, however, no research has reviewed whether legal or extralegal factors are more predictive of juvenile court dispositions across extant research. To address this gap, the present study reports on a systematic review and meta-analysis of predictors of residential placement in the juvenile justice system. A total of 40 independent samples were analyzed from 33 studies that met the criteria for inclusion in the review. Meta-analytic techniques were used to examine the average effects of offense characteristics, prior record, age, preadjudication detention status, race and ethnicity, sex, and contextual factors on odds of placement. The findings suggest that legal factors are more strongly associated with juvenile court dispositions than extralegal or contextual factors. Additionally, the strongest predictor of placement was whether the juvenile defendant had been detained at intake, illustrating the influential role of early case assessment in juvenile court.

Anti-Racism Strategies in Pediatric Psychology: Using STYLE Can Help Children Overcome Adverse Experiences With Police

Black children are exposed to police violence at alarming rates. Such stress impacts development and treatment of physical health problems. In the current discourse, we introduce STYLE (Self-examination, Talk about community-police relations and racism, Yield space and time to anti-racism work, Learn about how structural racism impacts child health, Evaluate policies and practices through an anti-racism lens). STYLE offers a framework through which professionals in pediatric psychology can engage in anti-racist work across contexts from clinical care to academic and advocacy settings. Pediatric psychologists have a responsibility to be on the frontline as interventionists, educators, researchers, organizers, and advocates for racial justice through anti-racism practices. The current paper introduces STYLE in clinical care, community service, training/supervision, and academic and advocacy contexts. Case examples are provided. Professionals in pediatric psychology must first focus on changing their STYLE to promote individual and infrastructural change consistent with anti-racism work.

How Racial Identity and Worry About Discrimination Impact Coping Responses to Racial Discrimination Among Black American Community Members

Every year, most Black Americans report experiencing racial discrimination, which has been shown to have a variety of negative consequences. Aspects of racial identity, particularly holding a positive perception of one's racial group (private regard), may buffer the impact of negative experiences including racial discrimination through differential coping strategy use. The current study (1) examined whether level of private regard impacted the type of coping strategies used across various forms of perceived experiences of racial discrimination and (2) tested for indirect pathways from perceived experiences of racial discrimination to different coping strategy use. Adults (N = 297) from the community who self-identified as Black American/African American completed several questionnaires on Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Four-fifths (80%) of participants reported racial discrimination at least once. Racial identity-particularly private regard-was positively associated with active coping strategy use. Furthermore, results from mediation models demonstrated racial identity was an important predictor of coping strategy use, suggesting high private regard has protective effects against racial discrimination. Worry was an especially robust mediator for pathways from racial discrimination to coping strategies. Altogether, results indicate a need for targeted interventions that promote the development of private regard and address worry about racial discrimination among Black American adults.

Early Environmental Unpredictability: Implications for Youth's Perceptions and Social Functioning

According to an evolutionary perspective, early environmental unpredictability induces expectations in youth that their future is uncertain and increases their likelihood of engaging in opportunistic, impulsive, and aggressive behaviors. Although considerable evidence supports the links between environmental unpredictability and such behaviors, less is known about how youth growing up in volatile environments actually perceive their lives and how these perceptions relate to their behavior. In this study, two samples of 10-17 year-olds, one with a history of maltreatment and removal from home (n = 90; 52% female; 67% Hispanic-American) and one without (n = 80; 54% female; 69% Hispanic-American), reported on their perceptions of unpredictability and social functioning. Maltreated youth endorsed greater perceptions of unpredictability than non-maltreated youth. For both groups, greater perceptions of unpredictability were associated with increased aggression and conduct problems and decreased prosociality. Findings advance understanding of a developmental pathway contributing to opportunistic and risky social behavior in youth.

Maturity in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Concept Analysis

THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES

The transition from adolescence to adulthood can be a particularly challenging time for teenagers with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Adolescents with T1DM must manage a treatment regimen which requires a high level of responsibility and self-care. Often the responsibilities of self-care are given to these teens without a clear assessment of their maturity, resulting in poor health outcomes. In order to accurately assess a youth's ability to assume self-management of T1DM, a clear understanding of the concept of maturity is needed.

PHENOMENA ADDRESSED

The purpose of this paper is to provide a theoretical definition of the concept of maturity in the context of adolescents with T1DM and support this definition based on a literature review. This discussion was developed utilizing the Walker and Avant approach to concept analysis.

RESEARCH LINKAGES

This concept analysis defined maturity in adolescents with T1DM as a multi-dimensional state of development that encompasses the physical, cognitive, psychological, and social dimensions of being. Maturity requires that an individual is capable of functioning with behavioral, cognitive, and emotional autonomy in self-care activities related to TIDM on a consistent basis. This explanation also emphasizes that the process of achieving maturity is gradual and dynamic in nature. Caregivers must understand that physical age alone does not indicate that an adolescent is adequately prepared to assume independent diabetes management. Nurses are in the unique position to assist youth with the transition from dependent diabetes care to independent self-management of the disease; thus, increasing the likelihood of positive outcomes.

Understanding the Influence of Mental Health Diagnosis and Gender on Placement Decisions for Justice-Involved Youth

Justice-involved youth have high rates of psychiatric diagnoses, and these youth are often placed out-of-home, although evidence identifies several negative implications of juvenile confinement, especially for youth with psychopathology. Furthermore, youth in the justice system may be processed differently based on gender. As males and females tend to manifest symptoms differently, the psychopathology of youth may act to moderate the relationship between gender and placement in the juvenile justice system. The present study used a large, diverse sample (n = 9 851, 19.8 % female) to examine whether youth placed in various types of out-of-home facilities differed in terms of externalizing, internalizing, substance use, or comorbid disorders, and to determine the predictive value of mental health diagnoses in placement decisions. The moderation effect of psychopathology and substance use on the relationship between gender and placement also was explored. The results indicated that each type of disorder differed across placements, with internalizing being most prevalent in non-secure, and externalizing, comorbid, and substance use being most prevalent in secure settings. Mental health diagnoses improved the prediction of placement in each out-of-home placement beyond legal and demographic factors such that externalizing and substance use disorders decreased the likelihood of placement in non-secure settings, and internalizing, externalizing, and substance use disorders increased the likelihood of placement in secure and state-secure facilities. The relationship between internalizing pathology and placement in more secure facilities was moderated by externalizing pathology. The relationship between gender and placement was significantly moderated by mental health such that females with mental health diagnoses receive less secure placements. Implications for policymakers and practitioners are discussed, as well as implications for reforming juvenile justice within a developmental approach.

Who decides? The decision-making process of juvenile judges concerning minors with mental disorders

Previous research on juvenile judges' decision-making process has neglected the role of the different actors involved in judicial procedures. The decision can be considered as a result of information exchange between the different actors involved. The process of making a decision is equally important as the decision itself, especially when the decision considers minors with mental disorders. The presence and the type of interaction determine the information available to the juvenile judges to make their final decision. The overall aim of this study is to gain insight into the role of all actors, including the juvenile judge, in the juvenile judge's decision-making process in cases relating to minors with mental disorders. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with professional actors (n=32), minors (n=31) and parents (n=17). The findings indicated that the judge's decision is overall the result of an interaction between the juvenile judge, the social services investigator and the youth psychiatrist. The other professional actors, the minors and the parents had only a limited role in the decision-making process. The research concludes that the judge's decision-making process should be based on dialogue, and requires enhanced collaboration between the juvenile court and youth psychiatrists from mental health services. Future decision-making research should pay more attention to the interactions of the actors that guide a juvenile judge's decision.

The blurred vision of Lady Justice for minors with mental disorders: records of the juvenile court in Belgium

PURPOSE

This study examined (1) the information present in juvenile court records in Belgium (Flanders) and (2) whether there are differences in information between records that mention a mental disorder and those that do not.

METHOD

The file study sample included 107 court records, and we used a Pearson's chi-square test and a t-test to analyze the information within those records.

RESULTS

Information in juvenile court records varied considerably. This variability was evident when we compared juvenile court records with and without mention of a mental disorder. Significantly more information about school-related problems, the functioning of the minor, and the occurrence of domestic violence was included in records that mentioned a mental disorder compared with records that did not.

CONCLUSION

The content of the juvenile court records varied, particularly with regard to the mental health status of the minor in question. We suggest guidelines to standardize the information contained in juvenile court records.

Mental health in juvenile judges' decision-making: review of literature

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the (strength of the) association between mental health aspects in juvenile offenders and the decision-making process of the juvenile judge. In particular, the presence of a mental disorder in the juvenile offender, the presence of a mental health report, and the mental health orientation of the juvenile judge were studied.

METHODS

A literature review was performed in order to identify relevant studies on the basis of three selection criteria: (i) the decision-making process of the juvenile judge concerning juvenile offenders, (ii) the use of quantitative methodology and (iii) the focus on the three mental health aspects.

RESULTS

Eight studies were found to meet the criteria (n=4318). The association between a mental disorder in the juvenile offender, a mental health report, and the decision of the juvenile judge was rather strong. There was no evidence of an association between mental health orientation of the juvenile judge and his/her decision.

DISCUSSION

Mental health aspects seem to be associated with the decision-making process of the juvenile judge. Future research should further examine the association between these aspects and the decision of the juvenile judge, particularly in the subgroup of juvenile offenders with mental disorders.

Entry risk into the juvenile justice system: African American, American Indian, Asian American, European American, and Hispanic children and adolescents

BACKGROUND

Findings on disproportionate minority contact remain mixed. Few empirical studies have examined to what extent entry risk into juvenile justice varies across ethnic/racial groups, and to what extent childhood aggressive behaviors foretell later deviance and entry risk. In the current study, we sought to address these shortcomings by implementing a survival analysis on a representative sample of youth followed from age 8 to 18.

METHODS

The sample included N = 2,754 lower to lower-middle SES youth from five different ethnic/racial groups (African American, American Indian, Asian American, European American, and Hispanic youth), part of a large-scale violence prevention effort. Aggressive behaviors were rated by teachers during elementary school, entry risk into juvenile justice was measured by official data, while SES was based on census data.

RESULTS

Developmental entry risk into the juvenile justice system peaked at age 14 and subsequently declined. No differences were found across the four racial groups; however, Hispanic youth were at elevated risk (by 73%). Only childhood physical aggressive behavior increased entry risk (by 87%); this was above and beyond a 'simple' maturational liability we found and net any effects by sex, race/ethnicity, and SES.

CONCLUSIONS

Some evidence suggested disproportionate minority contact, but only for Hispanic youth. Entry risk was invariant by race, but differed for males versus females and for youth from relatively higher socioeconomic status (SES) strata compared to youth from lower ones. Intervention efforts should target physically aggressive children during the elementary school years; however, some of the evidence also suggests that there exists a 'maturational liability' developmentally over time, between the ages of 8 and 18, independent of any of the focal predictors tested.

Trajectories of desistance and continuity in antisocial behavior following court adjudication among serious adolescent offenders

Because many serious adolescent offenders reduce their antisocial behavior after court involvement, understanding the patterns and mechanisms of the process of desistance from criminal activity is essential for developing effective interventions and legal policy. This study examined patterns of self-reported antisocial behavior over a 3-year period after court involvement in a sample of 1,119 serious male adolescent offenders. Using growth mixture models, and incorporating time at risk for offending in the community, we identified five trajectory groups, including a "persister" group (8.7% of the sample) and a "desister" group (14.6% of the sample). Case characteristics (age, ethnicity, antisocial history, deviant peers, a criminal father, substance use, psychosocial maturity) differentiated the five trajectory groups well, but did not effectively differentiate the persisting from desisting group. We show that even the most serious adolescent offenders report relatively low levels of antisocial activity after court involvement, but that distinguishing effectively between high-frequency offenders who desist and those who persist requires further consideration of potentially important dynamic factors related to this process.

ESTIMATING A DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LENGTH OF STAY AND FUTURE RECIDIVISM IN SERIOUS JUVENILE OFFENDERS

The effect of sanctions on subsequent criminal activity is of central theoretical importance in criminology. A key question for juvenile justice policy is the degree to which serious juvenile offenders respond to sanctions and/or treatment administered by the juvenile court. The policy question germane to this debate is finding the level of confinement within the juvenile justice system that maximizes the public safety and therapeutic benefits of institutional confinement. Unfortunately, research on this issue has been limited with regard to serious juvenile offenders. We use longitudinal data from a large sample of serious juvenile offenders from two large cities to 1) estimate a causal treatment effect of institutional placement, as opposed to probation, on future rate of rearrest and 2) investigate the existence of a marginal effect (i.e., benefit) for longer length of stay once the institutional placement decision had been made. We accomplish the latter by determining a dose-response relationship between the length of stay and future rates of rearrest and self-reported offending. The results suggest that an overall null effect of placement exists on future rates of rearrest or self-reported offending for serious juvenile offenders. We also find that, for the group placed out of the community, it is apparent that little or no marginal benefit exists for longer lengths of stay. Theoretical, empirical, and policy issues are outlined.

ESTIMATING A DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LENGTH OF STAY AND FUTURE RECIDIVISM IN SERIOUS JUVENILE OFFENDERS

The effect of sanctions on subsequent criminal activity is of central theoretical importance in criminology. A key question for juvenile justice policy is the degree to which serious juvenile offenders respond to sanctions and/or treatment administered by the juvenile court. The policy question germane to this debate is finding the level of confinement within the juvenile justice system that maximizes the public safety and therapeutic benefits of institutional confinement. Unfortunately, research on this issue has been limited with regard to serious juvenile offenders. We use longitudinal data from a large sample of serious juvenile offenders from two large cities to 1) estimate a causal treatment effect of institutional placement, as opposed to probation, on future rate of rearrest and 2) investigate the existence of a marginal effect (i.e., benefit) for longer length of stay once the institutional placement decision had been made. We accomplish the latter by determining a dose-response relationship between the length of stay and future rates of rearrest and self-reported offending. The results suggest that an overall null effect of placement exists on future rates of rearrest or self-reported offending for serious juvenile offenders. We also find that, for the group placed out of the community, it is apparent that little or no marginal benefit exists for longer lengths of stay. Theoretical, empirical, and policy issues are outlined.

Juvenile psychopathy and judicial decision making: an empirical analysis of an ethical dilemma

In the burgeoning juvenile psychopathy literature, there is a debate on whether it is appropriate to apply this construct to youths. Some have suggested that labeling children/adolescents as psychopathic might result in negative consequences, such as being recommended for more restrictive placements. However, the scant evidence is equivocal. This study provides additional insights on this issue by assessing judicial perceptions and recommendations to a hypothetical case. Results indicate that psychopathy influenced perceptions of amenability (eta = .12) and dangerousness (eta = .25), and recommendations for placement (eta = .11). More specifically, youth who were both labeled as psychopathic and ascribed psychopathic traits were viewed as less amenable to treatment and more dangerous and were more likely to be recommended for a restrictive placement than youth who were neither labeled nor described as such. The effect of psychopathy on placement recommendations, however, was not significant after controlling for perceptions of dangerous. This suggests that the influence of psychopathy on judicial restrictiveness may operate through the perceived dangerousness of the youth.

AN EMPIRICAL PORTRAIT OF COMMUNITY REENTRY AMONG SERIOUS JUVENILE OFFENDERS IN TWO METROPOLITAN CITIES

This study examined the community reentry process among 413 serious adolescent offenders released from juvenile court commitments in two metropolitan areas. Data are provided about postrelease court supervision and community-based services (CBSs) during the first 6 months in the community as well as indicators of antisocial activity, formal system involvement, school attendance, and employment. Findings indicate that a far greater proportion of offenders reported receiving supervision than CBSs, but when utilized, the frequency of CBS use was high, and intensive services reduced the odds of formal system involvement. In addition, court supervision increased the likelihood of positive adjustment during community reentry. These results held after controlling for social context variables, including peer deviance, parental monitoring, and contact with caring adults.