A Brassica napus PHT1 phosphate transporter, BnPht1;4, promotes phosphate uptake and affects roots architecture of transgenic Arabidopsis

DL-alanine promotes the colonization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and their synergistic enrichment of selenium and decrease of cadmium absorption by Brassica napus

In selenium-rich regions, selenium and cadmium coexist in soil, posing a threat to agricultural product safety. This study explores the influence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and DL-alanine on selenium and cadmium uptake in Brassica napus. Through pot and medium experiments, along with FTIR and XPS analyses, we found that DL-alanine significantly boosts Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation and root colonization. Compared with the control group, the combined treatment of DL-alanine and Pseudomonas aeruginosa increased the selenium content in the shoots by 55.8 %, and decreased the cadmium content in the shoots and roots by 66.3 % and 67.9 %, respectively. The direct reason for this result is that the available selenium in the rhizosphere soil increased by 32 % and the available cadmium decreased by 10 %. Further investigation shows that DL-alanine promotes the transformation of Se(0) to Se(-II) and the formation of CdSe nanoparticles by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which enhances the availability of selenium and reduces that of cadmium. Furthermore, gene expression analysis revealed that the expression levels of selenium-related genes were upregulated, while those of cadmium transport genes were downregulated. This study proposes a new method for improving selenium utilization and reducing cadmium absorption in soils where selenium and cadmium coexist, providing a theoretical basis for safer agricultural practices.

From genes to traits: maximizing phosphorus utilization efficiency in crop plants

Phosphorus (P) is a critical macronutrient for plant growth, but its limited availability requires efficient utilization strategies. The excessive use of P fertilizers leads to low phosphorus utilization efficiency (PUE), causing severe environmental impacts and speeding up the exhaustion of P mineral reserves. Plants respond to inorganic phosphate (Pi) deficiency through complex signaling pathways that trigger changes in gene expression, root architecture, and metabolic pathways to enhance P acquisition and utilization efficiency. By exploring the interplay between genetic regulators and microorganisms, cultivars with superior PUE traits can be developed, which will ensure agricultural resilience and productivity in the face of depleting global P reserves. We highlight the synergistic interaction between genetic regulators and microorganisms to boost PUE as well as recent advancements in unraveling molecular mechanisms governing P homeostasis in plants, emphasizing the urgency to improve plant traits for improved P utilization.

Genome-wide identification of WRKY transcription factor genes in Euphorbia lathyris reveals ElWRKY48 as a negative regulator of phosphate uptake and ingenol biosynthesis

WRKY transcription factors (TFs) play pivotal roles in regulating plant nutrient uptake, particularly phosphate (Pi) acquisition, and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Euphorbia lathyris, a significant medicinal plant with diverse pharmacological activities, lacks a systematic analysis of WRKY members and their functional roles. In this study, 58 ElWRKY genes were identified in the E. lathyris genome, classified into seven subgroups through comparative genomics analysis, and distributed on 10 chromosomes. Phylogenetic and expression pattern analyses identified ElWRKY48 as a candidate gene involved in Pi uptake regulation. The transgenic validation assay demonstrated that ElWRKY48 overexpression negatively regulated Pi uptake and led to phosphorus-deficient phenotypes in the hairy roots of E. lathyris. Furthermore, the transcriptome analysis revealed an opposite expression pattern between the Pi transporter gene ElPHT1 (Elat0034050.1) and ElWRKY48 in the transgenic lines overexpressing ElWRKY48. The negative regulation of ElPHT1 expression by ElWRKY48 was validated through qRT-PCR, Y1H, EMSA, gene knockout (CRISPR/Cas9), and LUC assays. Additionally, the overexpression of ElWRKY48 reduced diterpenoid ingenol biosynthesis by suppressing the expression of its biosynthesis-related genes. These findings provide valuable insights into the role of WRKY in Pi uptake and offer potential avenues for genetic improvement in the yield and quality of E. lathyris.

Metabolism Interaction Between Bacillus cereus SESY and Brassica napus Contributes to Enhance Host Selenium Absorption and Accumulation

The use of beneficial bacteria to enhance selenium absorption in crops has been widely studied. However, it is unclear how the interaction between bacteria and plants affects selenium absorption in crops. Here, pot experiments and Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) experiments were performed. Transcriptomic analyses were used to reveal the interaction between Bacillus cereus SESY and Brassica napus. The results indicated that B. cereus SESY can significantly increase the biomass and selenium content of B. napus. The genes related to the colonization, IAA synthesis, and l-cysteine synthesis and metabolism of B. cereus SESY were significantly stimulated by B. napus through transcriptional regulation. Further verification results showed that l-cysteine increased selenium content in B. napus roots and shoots by 62.9% and 88.4%, respectively. B. cereus SESY and l-cysteine consistently regulated the relative expression level of genes involved in plant hormone, amino acid metabolism, selenium absorption, and Se enzymatic and nonenzymatic metabolic pathway of B. napus. These genes were significantly correlated with selenium content and biomass of B. napus (p < 0.05). Overall, IAA biosynthesis, and l-cysteine biosynthesis and metabolism in B. cereus SESY stimulated by interactions triggered molecular and metabolic responses of B. napus, underpinning host selenium absorption and accumulation.

The BnamiR827-BnaA09.NLA1-BnaPHT1 module regulates phosphate homeostasis, pollen viability, and seed yield in Brassica napus

Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient for the growth and yield of crops. However, there is limited understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of phosphate (Pi) homeostasis, and its impact on growth, development, and yield-related traits in Brassica napus. Here, we identified four NITROGEN LIMITATION ADAPTATION1 (BnaNLA1) genes in B. napus; their expression was predominant in roots and suppressed by Pi starvation-induced BnamiR827. All the BnaNLA1 proteins have similar sequences, subcellular localizations, and abilities to rescue the growth defects of the atnla1 mutant. One of the genes, BnaA09.NLA1, is expressed abundantly in roots, and also in old leaves, anthers, and pollen. Knocking out BnaNLA1 genes or overexpressing BnamiR827 resulted in increased concentrations of Pi in leaves and stamens and reduced pollen viability, thereby negatively impacting seed yield. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) and split-ubiquitin yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) analyses demonstrated that BnaA09.NLA1 interacted with seven Pi transporters highly expressed in roots and/or anthers (i.e. BnaPT8/10/11/27/35/37/42) to regulate Pi uptake and Pi allocation in anthers. Taken together, this study demonstrates that the BnamiR827-BnaA09.NLA1-BnaPHT1 module is involved in the regulation of Pi uptake and Pi allocation in floral organs, which is vital for the growth, pollen viability, and seed yield of B. napus.

Multiomics dissection of Brassica napus L. lateral roots and endophytes interactions under phosphorus starvation

Many plants associate with endophytic microbes that improve root phosphorus (P) uptake. Understanding the interactions between roots and endophytes can enable efforts to improve P utilization. Here, we characterize the interactions between lateral roots of endophytes in a core collection of 50 rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) genotypes with differing sensitivities to low P conditions. With the correlation analysis result between bacterial abundance and plant physiological indices of rapeseeds, and inoculation experiments on plates and soil, we identify one Flavobacterium strain (C2) that significantly alleviates the P deficiency phenotype of rapeseeds. The underlying mechanisms are explored by performing the weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA), and conducting genome-wide association studies (GWAS) using Flavobacterium abundance as a quantitative trait. Under P-limited conditions, C2 regulates fatty acid and lipid metabolic pathways. For example, C2 improves metabolism of linoleic acid, which mediates root suberin biosynthesis, and enhances P uptake efficiency. In addition, C2 suppresses root jasmonic acid biosynthesis, which depends on α-linolenic acid metabolism, improving C2 colonization and activating P uptake. This study demonstrates that adjusting the endophyte composition can modulate P uptake in B. napus plants, providing a basis for developing agricultural microbial agents.

PHR1 involved in the regulation of low phosphate-induced leaf senescence by modulating phosphorus homeostasis in Arabidopsis

Phosphorus (P) is a crucial macronutrient for plant growth, development, and reproduction. The effects of low P (LP) stress on leaf senescence and the role of PHR1 in LP-induced leaf senescence are still unknown. Here, we report that PHR1 plays a crucial role in LP-induced leaf senescence, showing delayed leaf senescence in phr1 mutant and accelerated leaf senescence in 35S:PHR1 transgenic Arabidopsis under LP stress. The transcriptional profiles indicate that 763 differentially expressed SAGs (DE-SAGs) were upregulated and 134 DE-SAGs were downregulated by LP stress. Of the 405 DE-SAGs regulated by PHR1, 27 DE-SAGs were involved in P metabolism and transport. PHR1 could bind to the promoters of six DE-SAGs (RNS1, PAP17, SAG113, NPC5, PLDζ2, and Pht1;5), and modulate them in LP-induced senescing leaves. The analysis of RNA content, phospholipase activity, acid phosphatase activity, total P and phosphate content also revealed that PHR1 promotes P liberation from senescing leaves and transport to young tissues under LP stress. Our results indicated that PHR1 is one of the crucial modulators for P recycling and redistribution under LP stress, and the drastic decline of P level is at least one of the causes of early senescence in P-deficient leaves.

Identification of GmPT proteins and investigation of their expressions in response to abiotic stress in soybean

MAIN CONCLUSION

Investigation the expression patterns of GmPT genes in response to various abiotic stresses and overexpression of GmPT11 in soybean hairy roots and Arabidopsis exhibited hypersensitivity to salt stress. Soybean is considered to be one of the significant oil crops globally, as it offers a diverse range of essential nutrients that contribute to human health. Salt stress seriously affects the yield of soybean through negative impacts on the growth, nodulation, reproduction, and other agronomy traits. The phosphate transporters 1(PHT1) subfamily, which is a part of the PHTs family in plants, is primarily found in the cell membrane and responsible for the uptake and transport of phosphorus. However, the role of GmPT (GmPT1-GmPT14) genes in response to salt stress has not been comprehensively studied. Here, we conducted a systematic analysis to ascertain the distribution and genomic duplications of GmPT genes, as well as their expression patterns in response to various abiotic stresses. Promoter analysis of GmPT genes revealed that six stress-related cis-elements were enriched in these genes. The overexpression of GmPT11 in soybean hairy roots and Arabidopsis exhibited hypersensitivity to salt stress, while no significant change was observed under low phosphate treatment, suggesting a crucial role in the response to salt stress. These findings provide novel insights into enhancing plant tolerance to salt stress.

Comprehensive Evolution and Expression anaLysis of PHOSPHATE 1 Gene Family in Allotetraploid Brassica napus and Its Diploid Ancestors

The members of PHOSPHATE 1 (PHO1) family play important roles in plant phosphate (Pi) transport and adaptation to Pi deficiency. The functions of PHO1 family proteins have been reported in several plant species, with the exception of Brassica species. Here, we identified 23, 23, and 44 putative PHO1 family genes in Brassica rapa, Brassica oleracea, and Brassica napus by whole genome analysis, respectively. The phylogenetic analysis divided PHO1 family proteins into eight groups, which represented the orthologous relationships among PHO1 members. The gene structure and the conserved motif analysis indicated that the most PHO1 family genes had similar gene structures and the PHO1 proteins shared mutual conserved motifs. The chromosome distribution analysis showed that the majority of BnPHO1 family genes distributed analogously at chromosomes with BrPHO1 and BoPHO1 family genes. The data showed that PHO1 family genes were highly conserved during evolution from diploid to tetraploid. Furthermore, the expression analysis showed that PHO1 family genes had different expression patterns in plant tissues, suggesting the diversity of gene functions in Brassica species. Meanwhile, the expression analysis also revealed that some PHO1 family genes were significantly responsive to Pi deficiency, suggesting that PHO1 family genes play critical roles in Pi uptake and homeostasis under low Pi stress. Altogether, the characteristics of PHO1 family genes provide a reliable groundwork for further dissecting their functions in Brassica species.

Isolation and Characterization of Erianthus arundinaceus Phosphate Transporter 1 (PHT1) Gene Promoter and 5' Deletion Analysis of Transcriptional Regulation Regions under Phosphate Stress in Transgenic Tobacco

Phosphorus deficiency highly interferes with plant growth and development. Plants respond to persistent P deficiency by coordinating the expression of genes involved in the alleviation of stress. Promoters of phosphate transporter genes are a great choice for the development of genetically modified plants with enhanced phosphate uptake abilities, which improve crop yields in phosphate-deficient soils. In our previous study, the sugarcane phosphate transporter PHT1;2 gene showed a significantly high expression under salinity stress. In this study, the Erianthus arundinaceus EaPHT1;2 gene was isolated and characterized using various in silico tools. The deduced 542 amino acid residues have 10 transmembrane domains, with a molecular weight and isoelectric point of 58.9 kDa and 9.80, respectively. They displayed 71-96% similarity with Arabidopsis thaliana, Zea mays, and the Saccharum hybrid. To elucidate the function of the 5' regulatory region, the 1.1 kb promoter was isolated and validated in tobacco transgenics under Pi stress. The EaPHT1;2 promoter activity was detected using a β-glucuronidase (GUS) assay. The EaPHT1;2 promoter showed 3- to 4.2-fold higher expression than the most widely used CaMV35S promoter. The 5' deletion analysis with and without 5' UTRs revealed a small-sized 374 bp fragment with the highest promoter activity among 5' truncated fragments, which was 2.7 and 4.2 times higher than the well-used CaMV35S promoter under normal and Pi deprivation conditions, respectively. The strong and short promoter of EaPHT1;2 with 374 bp showed significant expression in low-Pi-stress conditions and it could be a valuable source for the development of stress-tolerant transgenic crops.

Phosphate Transporter BnaPT37 Regulates Phosphate Homeostasis in Brassica napus by Changing Its Translocation and Distribution In Vivo

Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is actively taken up by Pi transporters (PTs) from the soil and transported into the plant. Here, we functionally characterized the Brassica napus gene BnaPT37, which belongs to the PHT1 family. BnaPT37 is a plasma membrane-localized protein containing 534 amino acids. Expression of BnaPT37 increased significantly under Pi deficiency in various tissues, especially in fully expanded leaves. Expression of the β-glucuronidase reporter gene driven by the BnaPT37 promoter showed that BnaPT37 is expressed in the root, stem, calyx, and leaf under Pi deficiency. BnaPT37 can complement a yeast mutant strain defective in five Pi transporters and can restore the growth of the Arabidopsis atpt1/2 double mutant under Pi deprivation. Overexpression of BnaPT37 in rapeseed significantly increased Pi translocation from root to shoot. Moreover, the movement of Pi from fully expanded leaves to new leaves and roots was enhanced in the transgenic lines compared to the wild type. However, the overexpression of BnaPT37 inhibited the flowering time, plant height, and Pi accumulation in seeds. In conclusion, BnaPT37 functions as a plasma membrane-localized Pi transporter and might be involved in Pi translocation from root to shoot and Pi distribution from source to sink in B. napus.

Effects of Soybean Phosphate Transporter Gene GmPHT2 on Pi Transport and Plant Growth under Limited Pi Supply Condition

Phosphorus is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and development, but phosphate resources are limited and rapidly depleting due to massive global agricultural demand. This study identified two genes in the phosphate transporter 2 (PHT2) family of soybean by bioinformatics. The expression patterns of two genes by qRT-PCR at leaves and all were induced by low-phosphate stress. After low-phosphate stress, GmPHT2;2 expression was significantly higher than GmPHT2;1, and the same trend was observed throughout the reproductive period. The result of heterologous expression of GmPHT2 in Arabidopsis knockout mutants of atpht2;1 shows that chloroplasts and whole-plant phosphorus content were significantly higher in plants complementation of GmPHT2;2 than in plants complementation of GmPHT2;1. This suggests that GmPHT2;2 may play a more important role in plant phosphorus metabolic homeostasis during low-phosphate stress than GmPHT2;1. In the yeast backfill assay, both genes were able to backfill the ability of the defective yeast to utilize phosphorus. GmPHT2 expression was up-regulated by a low-temperature treatment at 4 °C, implying that GmPHT2;1 may play a role in soybean response to low-temperature stress, in addition to being involved in phosphorus transport processes. GmPHT2;1 and GmPHT2;2 exhibit a cyclic pattern of circadian variation in response to light, with the same pattern of gene expression changes under red, blue, and white light conditions. GmPHT2 protein was found in the chloroplast, according to subcellular localization analysis. We conclude that GmPHT2 is a typical phosphate transporter gene that can improve plant acquisition efficiency.

Integrating genome-wide association studies with selective sweep reveals genetic loci associated with tolerance to low phosphate availability in Brassica napus

Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.; B. napus) is an important oil crop worldwide. However, the genetic mechanisms of B. napus adaptations to low phosphate (P) stress are largely unknown. In this study, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 68 SNPs significantly associated with seed yield (SY) under low P (LP) availability, and 7 SNPs significantly associated with phosphorus efficiency coefficient (PEC) in two trials. Among these SNPs, two, chrC07__39807169 and chrC09__14194798, were co-detected in two trials, and BnaC07.ARF9 and BnaC09.PHT1;2 were identified as candidate genes of them, respectively, by combining GWAS with quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). There were significant differences in the gene expression level of BnaC07.ARF9 and BnaC09.PHT1;2 between P-efficient and -inefficiency varieties at LP. SY_LP had a significant positive correlation with the gene expression level of both BnaC07.ARF9 and BnaC09.PHT1;2. BnaC07.ARF9 and BnaA01.PHR1 could directly bind the promoters of BnaA01.PHR1 and BnaC09.PHT1;2, respectively. Selective sweep analysis was conducted between ancient and derived B. napus, and detected 1280 putative selective signals. Within the selected region, a large number of genes related to P uptake, transport, and utilization were detected, such as purple acid phosphatase (PAP) family genes and phosphate transporter (PHT) family genes. These findings provide novel insights into the molecular targets for breeding P efficiency varieties in B. napus.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11032-023-01399-9.

Five Post-Translational Modification Residues of CmPT2 Play Key Roles in Yeast and Rice

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) is one of the largest cut flowers in the world. Phosphate transporter Pht1 family member CmPht1;2 protein (CmPT2) plays an important role in response to low-phosphate (LP) stress in chrysanthemum. Post-translational modification (PTM) can modulate the function of proteins in multiple ways. Here, we used yeast and rice systems to study the role of putative PTM in CmPT2 by determining the effect of mutation of key amino acid residues of putative glycosylation, phosphorylation, and myristoylation sites. We chose nine amino acid residues in the putative PTM sites and mutated them to alanine (A) (Cmphts). CmPT2 recovered the growth of yeast strain MB192 under LP conditions. However, G84A, G222A, T239A, Y242A, and N422A mutants could not grow normally under LP conditions. Analysis of phosphorus absorption kinetics showed that the Km of CmPT2 was 65.7 μM. Among the nine Cmphts, the expression of five with larger Km (124.4-397.5 μM) than CmPT2 was further evaluated in rice. Overexpression of CmPT2-OE increased plant height, effective panicle numbers, branch numbers, and yield compared with that of wild type 'Wuyunjing No. 7' (W7). Overexpression of Cmphts-OE led to decreased plant height and effective panicle numbers compared with that of the CmPT2-OE strain. The Pi content in roots of CmPT2-OE was higher than that of the W7 under both high (normal) phosphate (HP) and LP conditions. However, the Pi content in the leaves and roots was significantly lower in the N422A-OE strain than in the CmPT2-OE strain under both HP and LP conditions. Under LP conditions, the phosphorus starvation response (PSR) genes in CmPT2-OE were inhibited at the transcription level. The expression patterns of phosphorus-related genes in T239A, Y242A, and N422A-OE under LP conditions were different from those of CmPT2-OE. In conclusion, these five post-translational modification residues of CmPT2 play key roles in modulating the function of CmPT2. This work boosters our understanding of the function of phosphate transporters and provides genetic resources for improving the efficiency of phosphorus utilization in crop plants.

Genome-Scale Investigation of GARP Family Genes Reveals Their Pivotal Roles in Nutrient Stress Resistance in Allotetraploid Rapeseed

The GARP genes are plant-specific transcription factors (TFs) and play key roles in regulating plant development and abiotic stress resistance. However, few systematic analyses of GARPs have been reported in allotetraploid rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) yet. In the present study, a total of 146 BnaGARP members were identified from the rapeseed genome based on the sequence signature. The BnaGARP TFs were divided into five subfamilies: ARR, GLK, NIGT1/HRS1/HHO, KAN, and PHL subfamilies, and the members within the same subfamilies shared similar exon-intron structures and conserved motif configuration. Analyses of the Ka/Ks ratios indicated that the GARP family principally underwent purifying selection. Several cis-acting regulatory elements, essential for plant growth and diverse biotic and abiotic stresses, were identified in the promoter regions of BnaGARPs. Further, 29 putative miRNAs were identified to be targeting BnaGARPs. Differential expression of BnaGARPs under low nitrate, ammonium toxicity, limited phosphate, deficient boron, salt stress, and cadmium toxicity conditions indicated their potential involvement in diverse nutrient stress responses. Notably, BnaA9.HHO1 and BnaA1.HHO5 were simultaneously transcriptionally responsive to these nutrient stresses in both hoots and roots, which indicated that BnaA9.HHO1 and BnaA1.HHO5 might play a core role in regulating rapeseed resistance to nutrient stresses. Therefore, this study would enrich our understanding of molecular characteristics of the rapeseed GARPs and will provide valuable candidate genes for further in-depth study of the GARP-mediated nutrient stress resistance in rapeseed.

Phosphate (Pi) stress-responsive transcription factors PdeWRKY6 and PdeWRKY65 regulate the expression of PdePHT1;9 to modulate tissue Pi concentration in poplar

Phosphorus (P) is an important nutrient for plants. Here, we identify a WRKY transcription factor (TF) in poplar (Populus deltoides × Populus euramericana) (PdeWRKY65) that modulates tissue phosphate (Pi) concentrations in poplar. PdeWRKY65 overexpression (OE) transgenic lines showed reduced shoot Pi concentrations under both low and normal Pi availabilities, while PdeWRKY65 reduced expression (RE) lines showed the opposite phenotype. A gene encoding a Pi transporter (PHT), PdePHT1;9, was identified as the direct downstream target of PdeWRKY65 by RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq). The negative regulation of PdePHT1;9 expression by PdeWRKY65 was confirmed by DNA-protein interaction assays, including yeast one-hybrid (Y1H), electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), co-expression of the promoters of PdePHT1;9 and PdeWRKY65 in tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) leaves, and chromatin immunoprecipitation-quantitative PCR. A second WRKY TF, PdeWRKY6, was subsequently identified and confirmed to positively regulate the expression of PdePHT1;9 by DNA-protein interaction assays. PdePHT1;9 and PdeWRKY6 OE and RE poplar transgenic lines were used to confirm their positive regulation of shoot Pi concentrations, under both normal and low Pi availabilities. No interaction between PdeWRKY6 and PdeWRKY65 was observed at the DNA or protein levels. Collectively, these data suggest that the low Pi-responsive TFs PdeWRKY6 and PdeWRKY65 independently regulate the expression of PHT1;9 to modulate tissue Pi concentrations in poplar.

Sorting Nexin1 negatively modulates phosphate uptake by facilitating Phosphate Transporter1;1 degradation in Arabidopsis

High-affinity phosphate (Pi) transporters (PHTs) PHT1;1 and PHT1;4 are necessary for plant root Pi uptake especially under Pi-deficient conditions, but how their protein stability is modulated remains elusive. Here, we identified a Ttransfer DNA insertion mutant of Sorting Nexin1 (SNX1), which had more Pi content and less anthocyanin accumulation than the wild type under deficient Pi. By contrast, the snx1-2 mutant displayed higher sensitivity to exogenous arsenate in terms of seed germination and root elongation, revealing higher Pi uptake rates. Further study showed that SNX1 could co-localize and interact with PHT1;1 and PHT1;4 in vesicles and at the plasma membrane. Genetic analysis showed that increased Pi content in the snx1-2 mutant under low Pi conditions could be extensively compromised by mutating PHT1;1 in the double mutant snx1-2 pht1;1, revealing that SNX1 is epistatic to PHT1;1. In addition, SNX1 negatively controls PHT1;1 protein stability; therefore, PHT1;1 protein abundance in the plasma membrane was increased in the snx1-2 mutant compared with the wild type under either sufficient or deficient Pi. Together, our study (i) identifies SNX1 as a key modulator of the plant response to low Pi and (ii) unravels its role in the modulation of PHT1;1 protein stability, PHT1;1 accumulation at the plasma membrane, and root Pi uptake.

Function and application of the Eutrema salsugineum PHT1;1 gene in phosphate deficiency stress

Low availability of inorganic phosphate (Pi) in soil is often a limiting factor for plant growth and productivity. The Pi transporter plays an important role in the absorption and utilization of phosphorus in plants. Eutrema salsugineum shows strong tolerance under Pi stress conditions, but the function of the E. salsugineum PHT1 genes has not yet been systematically studied. This study isolated a phosphate transporter gene (EsPHT1;1) from the halophyte E. salsugineum and functionally characterized it in the herbaceous model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, and in an important oil crop species, soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). Under Pi deficient conditions, transgenic Arabidopsis and transgenic soybean grew better and exhibited significant improvement in root growth, biomass accumulation and seed yield compared with wild-type (WT) plants. These phenotypic enhancements were more apparent under inadequate Pi conditions than under sufficient or no Pi conditions, which is in agreement with the observation that the transgenic plants accumulated higher amounts of Pi and total P in shoots and roots than WT plants only when inadequate Pi was supplied. The results of the present study indicate that overexpression of EsPHT1;1 can efficiently enhance the growth and reproductive performance of both Arabidopsis and soybean plants challenged by low P stress, which results confirm the important role of PHT1;1 in dealing with Pi deficiency.

Overexpression of a Eutrema salsugineum phosphate transporter gene EsPHT1;4 enhances tolerance to low phosphorus stress in soybean

OBJECTIVE

To enhance Pi absorption and utilization efficiency of soybean, a member of PHT1 gene family was isolated and characterized from E. salsugineum, which was a homologous gene of AtPHT1;4 and consequently designated as EsPHT1;4.

RESULTS

Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that the transcript level of EsPHT1;4 significantly increased both in roots and leaves of E. salsugineum under Pi deficient conditions. Furthermore, EsPHT1;4 was transferred to soybean cultivar "YD22" using an Agrobacterium-mediated cotyledonary-node transformation method. Overexpression of EsPHT1;4 in soybean not only promoted the increase of plant biomass and yield of transgenic plants upon low P stress, but also increased the accumulation and transportation of Pi from roots to leaves in the transgenic soybean lines.

CONCLUSION

EsPHT1;4 was critical for controlling the accumulation and translocation of Pi in plants, and can be subsequently used as an effective foreign gene for the improvement of P use efficiency of crops by genetic manipulation.

Boron and Phosphorus Act Synergistically to Modulate Absorption and Distribution of Phosphorus and Growth of Brassica napus

Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is highly susceptible to boron (B) and phosphorus (P) deficiencies, yet knowledge of how these two essential elements interact to contribute to plant growth and crop yield is limited. To this end, a pot experiment with three P application rates (5, 75, and 150 mg P₂O₅ kg^-1 dry soil) and two B application rates (0.25 and 1 mg B kg^-1 dry soil) was conducted. The results showed that high P combined with high B optimized plant growth and facilitated P distribution forward to seeds compared with high P and low B combination at the maturity stage. Under low P conditions, low B supply was more beneficial for P absorption at seedling and bolting stages and increased P distribution ratio in seeds at the maturity stage, resulting in higher photosynthetic efficiency and growth parameters than low P and high B combination. Interestingly, high B supply could upregulate the expression of the P-starvation-induced gene BnaC3.SPX3 and P transport genes in roots under low P conditions, so low B-facilitated P absorption appears to be a BnaPHT1s-independent process. Significant differences of B and P interaction on the seed yield, net photosynthetic rate, and total P absorption and distribution at the maturity stage between two cultivars might reflect the distinct genotypic properties. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of balanced B and P nutrition which acts synergistically to modulate growth and yield formation of B. napus either in nutrition deficiency or sufficiency.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Profile Analysis of the PHT1 Gene Family in Gossypium hirsutum and Its Two Close Relatives of Subgenome Donor Species

Phosphate transporter (PHT) is responsible for plant phosphorus (P) absorption and transport. PHT1 is a component of the high-affinity phosphate transporter system and plays pivotal roles in P absorption under P starvation conditions. However, in cotton, the number and identity of PHT1 genes that are crucial for P absorption from soil remain unclear. Here, genome-wide identification detected twelve PHT1 genes in Gossypium hirsutum and seven and eight PHT1 genes in two close relatives of the G. hirsutum genome-G. arboreum and G. raimondii, respectively. In addition, under low-phosphate treatment, the expressions of GaPHT1;3, GaPHT1;4, and GaPHT1;5 in roots were upregulated after 3 h of induction, and GhPHT1;3-At, GhPHT1;4-At, GhPHT1;5-At, GhPHT1;3-Dt, GhPHT1;4-Dt, and GhPHT1;5-Dt in the roots began to respond after 1 h of induction. Homologous pairs-GaPHT1;4 and GhPHT1;4-At; GaPHT1;5 and GhPHT1;5-At; GrPHT1;4 and GhPHT1;4-Dt, with GhPHT1;5-Dt and GhPHT1;5-At being syntenic-were all highly expressed in the roots under normal conditions. Among the genes highly expressed in the roots, GhPHT1;4-At, GhPHT1;5-At, GhPHT1;4-Dt and GhPHT1;5-Dt were continuously upregulated by P starvation. Therefore, it is concluded that these four genes might be key genes for P uptake in cotton roots. The results of this study provide insights into the mechanisms of P absorption and transport in cotton.

Global Survey and Expressions of the Phosphate Transporter Gene Families in Brassica napus and Their Roles in Phosphorus Response

Phosphate (Pi) transporters play critical roles in Pi acquisition and homeostasis. However, currently little is known about these genes in oil crops. In this study, we aimed to characterize the five Pi transporter gene families (PHT1-5) in allotetraploid Brassica napus. We identified and characterized 81 putative PHT genes in B. napus (BnaPHTs), including 45 genes in PHT1 family (BnaPHT1s), four BnaPHT2s, 10 BnaPHT3s, 13 BnaPHT4s and nine BnaPHT5s. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the largest PHT1 family could be divided into two groups (Group I and II), while PHT4 may be classified into five, Groups I-V. Gene structure analysis revealed that the exon-intron pattern was conservative within the same family or group. The sequence characteristics of these five families were quite different, which may contribute to their functional divergence. Transcription factor (TF) binding network analyses identified many potential TF binding sites in the promoter regions of candidates, implying their possible regulating patterns. Collinearity analysis demonstrated that most BnaPHTs were derived from an allopolyploidization event (~40.7%) between Brassica rapa and Brassica oleracea ancestors, and small-scale segmental duplication events (~39.5%) in the descendant. RNA-Seq analyses proved that many BnaPHTs were preferentially expressed in leaf and flower tissues. The expression profiles of most colinearity-pairs in B. napus are highly correlated, implying functional redundancy, while a few pairs may have undergone neo-functionalization or sub-functionalization during evolution. The expression levels of many BnaPHTs tend to be up-regulated by different hormones inductions, especially for IAA, ABA and 6-BA treatments. qRT-PCR assay demonstrated that six BnaPHT1s (BnaPHT1.11, BnaPHT1.14, BnaPHT1.20, BnaPHT1.35, BnaPHT1.41, BnaPHT1.44) were significantly up-regulated under low- and/or rich- Pi conditions in B. napus roots. This work analyzes the evolution and expression of the PHT family in Brassica napus, which will help further research on their role in Pi transport.

Engineering Multiple Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Canola, Brassica napus

Impacts of climate change like global warming, drought, flooding, and other extreme events are posing severe challenges to global crop production. Contribution of Brassica napus towards the oilseed industry makes it an essential component of international trade and agroeconomics. Consequences from increasing occurrences of multiple abiotic stresses on this crop are leading to agroeconomic losses making it vital to endow B. napus crop with an ability to survive and maintain yield when faced with simultaneous exposure to multiple abiotic stresses. For an improved understanding of the stress sensing machinery, there is a need for analyzing regulatory pathways of multiple stress-responsive genes and other regulatory elements such as non-coding RNAs. However, our understanding of these pathways and their interactions in B. napus is far from complete. This review outlines the current knowledge of stress-responsive genes and their role in imparting multiple stress tolerance in B. napus. Analysis of network cross-talk through omics data mining is now making it possible to unravel the underlying complexity required for stress sensing and signaling in plants. Novel biotechnological approaches such as transgene-free genome editing and utilization of nanoparticles as gene delivery tools are also discussed. These can contribute to providing solutions for developing climate change resilient B. napus varieties with reduced regulatory limitations. The potential ability of synthetic biology to engineer and modify networks through fine-tuning of stress regulatory elements for plant responses to stress adaption is also highlighted.

The auxin-inducible phosphate transporter AsPT5 mediates phosphate transport and is indispensable for arbuscule formation in Chinese milk vetch at moderately high phosphate supply

Phosphorus is a macronutrient that is essential for plant survival. Most land plants have evolved the ability to form a mutualistic symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, which enhances phosphate (Pi) acquisition. Modulation of Pi transporter systems is the master strategy used by mycorrhizal plants to adapt to ambient Pi concentrations. However, the specific functions of PHOSPHATE TRANSPORTER 1 (PHT1) genes, which are Pi transporters that are responsive to high Pi availability, are largely unknown. Here, we report that AsPT5, an Astragalus sinicus (Chinese milk vetch) member of the PHT1 gene family, is conserved across dicotyledons and is constitutively expressed in a broad range of tissues independently of Pi supply, but is remarkably induced by indole-3-acetic acid (auxin) treatment under moderately high Pi conditions. Subcellular localization experiments indicated that AsPT5 localizes to the plasma membrane of plant cells. Using reverse genetics, we showed that AsPT5 not only mediates Pi transport and remodels root system architecture but is also essential for arbuscule formation in A. sinicus under moderately high Pi concentrations. Overall, our study provides insight into the function of AsPT5 in Pi transport, AM development and the cross-talk between Pi nutrition and auxin signalling in mycorrhizal plants.

Functional Analysis of the Phosphate Transporter Gene MtPT6 From Medicago truncatula

Phosphorus is one of the essential macronutrients required by plant growth and development, but phosphate resources are finite and diminishing rapidly because of the huge need in global agriculture. In this study, 11 genes were found in the Phosphate Transporter 1 (PHT1) family of Medicago truncatula. Seven genes of the PHT1 family were available by qRT-PCR. Most of them were expressed in roots, and almost all genes were induced by low-phosphate stress in the nodule. The expression of MtPT6 was relatively high in nodules and induced by low-phosphate stress. The fusion expression of MtPT6 promoter-GUS gene in M. truncatula suggested that the expression of MtPT6 was induced in roots and nodules by phosphate starvation. In roots, MtPT6 was mainly expressed in vascular tissue and tips, and it was also expressed in cortex under low-phosphate stress; in nodules, it was mainly expressed in vascular bundles, cortical cells, and fixation zone cells. MtPT6 had a close relationship with other PHT1 family members according to amino acid alignment and phylogenetic analysis. Subcellular localization analysis in tobacco revealed that MtPT6 protein was localized to the plasma membrane. The heterologous expression of MtPT6 in Arabidopsis knockout mutants of pht1.1 and pht1.4 made seedlings more susceptible to arsenate treatment, and the phosphate concentrations in pht1.1 were higher in high phosphate condition by expressing MtPT6. We conclude that MtPT6 is a typical phosphate transporter gene and can promote phosphate acquisition efficiency of plants.

Two-factor ANOVA of SSH and RNA-seq analysis reveal development-associated Pi-starvation genes in oilseed rape

The 5-leaf-stage rape seedlings were more insensitive to Pi starvation than that of the 3-leaf-stage plants, which may be attributed to the higher expression levels of ethylene signaling and sugar-metabolism genes in more mature seedlings. Traditional suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) and RNA-Seq usually screen out thousands of differentially expressed genes. However, identification of the most important regulators has not been performed to date. Here, we employed two methods, namely, a two-round SSH and two-factor transcriptome analysis derived from the two-factor ANOVA that is commonly used in the statistics, to identify development-associated inorganic phosphate (Pi) starvation-induced genes in Brassica napus. Several of these genes are related to ethylene signaling (such as EIN3, ACO3, ACS8, ERF1A, and ERF2) or sugar metabolism (such as ACC2, GH3, LHCB1.4, XTH4, and SUS2). Although sucrose and ethylene may counteract each other at the biosynthetic level, they may also work synergistically on Pi-starvation-induced gene expression (such as PT1, PT2, RNS1, ACP5, AT4, and IPS1) and root acid phosphatase activation. Furthermore, three new transcription factors that are responsive to Pi starvation were identified: the zinc-finger MYND domain-containing protein 15 (MYND), a Magonashi family protein (MAGO), and a B-box zinc-finger family salt-tolerance protein. This study indicates that the two methods are highly efficient for functional gene screening in non-model organisms.

Molecular identification of the phosphate transporter family 1 (PHT1) genes and their expression profiles in response to phosphorus deprivation and other abiotic stresses in Brassica napus

Phosphate (Pi) transporters play critical roles in Pi acquisition and homeostasis. However, little is known about these transporters in oilseed rape. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to characterize the members of the PHT1 gene family in allotetraploid Brassica napus and to analyze their expression profiles in response to environmental stresses. In total, 49 PHT1 family members were identified in B. napus, including 27 genes in the A subgenome and 22 in the C subgenome. Most of the PHT1 proteins were predicted to localize to the plasma membrane. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that the members of the PHT1 gene family can be divided into seven clades, with the introns/exons and protein motifs conserved in each clade. Collinearity analysis revealed that most of the BnaPHT1 genes shared syntenic relationships with PHT1 members in Arabidopsis thaliana, B. rapa, and B. oleracea, and that whole-genome duplication (polyploidy) played a major driving force for BnaPHT1 evolution in addition to segmental duplication. Transcript abundance analysis showed that a broad range of expression patterns of individual BnaPHT1 genes occurred in response to phosphorus (P) deficiency. In addition, the expression levels of BnaPHT1 genes can be regulated by different nutrient stresses, including nitrogen (N), potassium (K), sulfur (S) and iron (Fe) stresses. Moveover, salt and drought stresses can regulate the transcript abundances of BnaPHT1s, as well as phytohormones including auxin and cytokinin. Gene coexpression analysis based on the RNA-seq data implied that BnaPHT1s might cooperate with each other as well as with other genes to regulate nutrient homeostasis in B. napus. Further analysis of the promoters revealed that GT-1, DRE and P1BS elements are widely distributed within the promoter regions of BnaPHT1 genes. Our results indicate that BnaPHT1s might be involved in cross-talk for sensing the external status of P, N, K, S and Fe, as well as salt and drought stresses. Moreover, these processes might be mediated by phytohormones. Our findings provide the first step in the complex genetic dissection of the Pi transport system in plants and implicate multiple transcriptional regulation, which probably refers to new roles of PHT1 genes in B. napus.

The high-affinity transporter BnPHT1;4 is involved in phosphorus acquisition and mobilization for facilitating seed germination and early seedling growth of Brassica napus

BACKGROUND

Seed germination and seedling establishment are two of the most critical phases in plant development. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the effect of phosphorus on seed germination and post-germinated growth of oilseed rape are unclear so far. Here, we report the role of BnPHT1;4 in seed germination and early seedling development of Brassica napus.

RESULTS

Our results show that BnPHT1;4 is preferentially expressed in cotyledons of early developing seedlings. Overexpression of BnPHT1;4 in oilseed rape promoted seed germination and seedling growth. Expression levels of the genes related to ABA and GA biosynthesis and signaling were significantly altered in BnPHT1;4 transgenic seedlings. Consequently, active GA level was up-regulated, whereas ABA content was down-regulated in BnPHT1;4 transgenic seedlings. Furthermore, exogenous GA could promote seed germination of wild type, while exogenous ABA could partially recover the advanced-germination phenotype of BnPHT1;4 transgenic seeds. Total phosphorus content in cotyledons of the transgenic seedlings was decreased more rapidly than that in wild type when Pi was supplied or deficient, and Pi contents in shoots and roots of the BnPHT1;4 transgenic plants were higher than those in wild type under high and low Pi conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that the high-affinity transporter BnPHT1;4 is involved in phosphorus acquisition and mobilization for facilitating seed germination and seedling growth of Brassica napus by modulating ABA and GA biosynthesis.

Overexpression of cotton PYL genes in Arabidopsis enhances the transgenic plant tolerance to drought stress

PYR/PYL/RCAR proteins are putative abscisic acid (ABA) receptors that play important roles in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. In this study, 27 predicted PYL proteins were identified in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Sequence analysis showed they are conserved in structures. Phylogenetic analysis showed that cotton PYL family could be categorized into three groups. Yeast two-hybrid assay revealed that the GhPYL proteins selectively interacted with some GhPP2C proteins. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis indicated that the most of nine GhPYL genes were down-regulated, while the other three were up-regulated in cotton under drought stress. Overexpression of GhPYL10/12/26 in Arabidopsis conferred the transgenic plants increased ABA sensitivity during seed germination and early seedling growth. On the contrary, the transgenic seedlings displayed better growth status and longer primary roots under normal conditions and mannitol stress, compared with wild type. Furthermore, the transgenic plants showed the enhanced drought tolerance, relative to wild type, when they were suffered from drought stress. Expression of some stress-related genes in transgenic plants was significant higher than that in wild type under osmotic stress. Thus, our data suggested that these cotton PYL genes may be involved in plant response and defense to drought/osmotic stress.

Phosphate Uptake and Allocation - A Closer Look at Arabidopsis thaliana L. and Oryza sativa L

This year marks the 20th anniversary of the discovery and characterization of the two Arabidopsis PHT1 genes encoding the phosphate transporter in Arabidopsis thaliana. So far, multiple inorganic phosphate (Pi) transporters have been described, and the molecular basis of Pi acquisition by plants has been well-characterized. These genes are involved in Pi acquisition, allocation, and/or signal transduction. This review summarizes how Pi is taken up by the roots and further distributed within two plants: A. thaliana and Oryza sativa L. by plasma membrane phosphate transporters PHT1 and PHO1 as well as by intracellular transporters: PHO1, PHT2, PHT3, PHT4, PHT5 (VPT1), SPX-MFS and phosphate translocators family. We also describe the role of the PHT1 transporters in mycorrhizal roots of rice as an adaptive strategy to cope with limited phosphate availability in soil.

Replace, reuse, recycle: improving the sustainable use of phosphorus by plants

The 'phosphorus problem' has recently received strong interest with two distinct strands of importance. The first is that too much phosphorus (P) is entering into waste water, creating a significant economic and ecological problem. Secondly, while agricultural demand for phosphate fertilizer is increasing to maintain crop yields, rock phosphate reserves are rapidly declining. Unravelling the mechanisms by which plants sense, respond to, and acquire phosphate can address both problems, allowing the development of crop plants that are more efficient at acquiring and using limited amounts of phosphate while at the same time improving the potential of plants and other photosynthetic organisms for nutrient recapture and recycling from waste water. In this review, we attempt to synthesize these important but often disparate parts of the debate in a holistic fashion, since solutions to such a complex problem require integrated and multidisciplinary approaches that address both P supply and demand. Rapid progress has been made recently in our understanding of local and systemic signalling mechanisms for phosphate, and of expression and regulation of membrane proteins that take phosphate up from the environment and transport it within the plant. We discuss the current state of understanding of such mechanisms involved in sensing and responding to phosphate stress. We also discuss approaches to improve the P-use efficiency of crop plants and future direction for sustainable use of P, including use of photosynthetic organisms for recapture of P from waste waters.