Folic Acid Acts Through DNA Methyltransferases to Induce the Differentiation of Neural Stem Cells into Neurons

Mitochondrial metabolism in neural stem cells and implications for neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases

Mitochondria are cytoplasmic organelles having a fundamental role in the regulation of neural stem cell (NSC) fate during neural development and maintenance.During embryonic and adult neurogenesis, NSCs undergo a metabolic switch from glycolytic to oxidative phosphorylation with a rise in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content, changes in mitochondria shape and size, and a physiological augmentation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species which together drive NSCs to proliferate and differentiate. Genetic and epigenetic modifications of proteins involved in cellular differentiation (Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin), proliferation (Wingless-type), and hypoxia (Mitogen-activated protein kinase)-and all connected by the common key regulatory factor Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1A-are deemed to be responsible for the metabolic shift and, consequently, NSC fate in physiological and pathological conditions.Both primary mitochondrial dysfunction due to mutations in nuclear DNA or mtDNA or secondary mitochondrial dysfunction in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) metabolism, mitochondrial dynamics, and organelle interplay pathways can contribute to the development of neurodevelopmental or progressive neurodegenerative disorders.This review analyses the physiology and pathology of neural development starting from the available in vitro and in vivo models and highlights the current knowledge concerning key mitochondrial pathways involved in this process.

Emerging Functional Connections Between Metabolism and Epigenetic Remodeling in Neural Differentiation

Stem cells possess extraordinary capacities for self-renewal and differentiation, making them highly valuable in regenerative medicine. Among these, neural stem cells (NSCs) play a fundamental role in neural development and repair processes. NSC characteristics and fate are intricately regulated by the microenvironment and intracellular signaling. Interestingly, metabolism plays a pivotal role in orchestrating the epigenome dynamics during neural differentiation, facilitating the transition from undifferentiated NSC to specialized neuronal and glial cell types. This intricate interplay between metabolism and the epigenome is essential for precisely regulating gene expression patterns and ensuring proper neural development. This review highlights the mechanisms behind metabolic regulation of NSC fate and their connections with epigenetic regulation to shape transcriptional programs of stemness and neural differentiation. A comprehensive understanding of these molecular gears appears fundamental for translational applications in regenerative medicine and personalized therapies for neurological conditions.

Parental folic acid deficiency delays neurobehavioral development in rat offspring by inhibiting the differentiation of neural stem cells into neurons

Maternal folate status during pregnancy is associated with the neurodevelopment of offspring; however, study results on the association between paternal folate status and offspring neurodevelopment are inconsistent. This study aimed to explore whether parental folic acid deficiency affects the neurobehavioral development of offspring by affecting the differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) into neurons. In the present study, the offspring were divided into four groups: parental folic acid deficient group (D-D), maternal folic acid deficient and paternal folic acid normal group (D-N), maternal folic acid normal and paternal folic acid deficient group (N-D), and parental folic acid normal group (N-N). For in vivo study, neurobehavioral indexes, and neuron-specific nuclear protein (NeuN) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression in the brain hippocampus and cerebral cortex of offspring were measured at different time points. For in vitro study, NSCs were cultured from the hippocampus and striatum, and neuronal and astrocytic differentiation were measured. The results demonstrated that parental folic acid deficiency decreased the brain folate level in offspring, delayed early sensory-motor reflex development, impaired spatial learning and memory ability in adolescence and adulthood, decreased differentiation of NSCs into neurons and increased differentiation of NSCs into astrocytes in vivo and in vitro. These impacts on the neurodevelopment of offspring were most pronounced in D-D group, followed by D-N group and N-D group. In conclusion, parental folic acid deficiency inhibits the neurobehavioral development of offspring, possibly by inhibiting the differentiation of NSCs into neurons.

Effect of Fetal Bovine Serum or Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor on Cell Survival and the Proliferation of Neural Stem Cells: The Influence of Homocysteine Treatment

In vitro cell culture is a routinely used method which is also applied for in vitro modeling of various neurological diseases. On the other hand, media used for cell culture are often not strictly standardized between laboratories, which hinders the comparison of the obtained results. Here, we compared the effects of homocysteine (Hcy), a molecule involved in neurodegeneration, on immature cells of the nervous system cultivated in basal medium or media supplemented by either fetal bovine serum or basic fibroblast growth factor. The number of cells in basal media supplemented with basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was 2.5 times higher in comparison to the number of cells in basal media supplemented with fetal bovine serum (FBS). We also found that the neuron-specific β-3-tubulin protein expression dose dependently decreased with increasing Hcy exposure. Interestingly, bFGF exerts a protective effect on β-3-tubulin protein expression at a concentration of 1000 µM Hcy compared to FBS-treated neural stem cells on Day 7. Supplementation with bFGF increased SOX2 protein expression two-fold compared to FBS supplementation. GFAP protein expression increased five-fold on Day 3 in FBS-treated neural stem cells, whereas on Day 7, bFGF increased GFAP expression two-fold compared to FBS-treated neural stem cells. Here, we have clearly shown that the selection of culturing media significantly influences various cellular parameters, which, in turn, can lead to different conclusions in experiments based on in vitro models of pathological conditions.

DNMT1 involved in the analgesic effect of folic acid on gastric hypersensitivity through downregulating ASIC1 in adult offspring rats with prenatal maternal stress

AIMS

Gastric hypersensitivity (GHS) is a characteristic pathogenesis of functional dyspepsia (FD). DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and acid-sensing ion channel 1 (ASIC1) are associated with GHS induced by prenatal maternal stress (PMS). The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanism of DNMT1 mediating the analgesic effect of folic acid (FA) on PMS-induced GHS.

METHODS

GHS was quantified by electromyogram recordings. The expression of DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b, and ASIC1 were detected by western blot, RT-PCR, and double-immunofluorescence. Neuronal excitability and proton-elicited currents of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons were determined by whole-cell patch clamp recordings.

RESULTS

The expression of DNMT1, but not DNMT3a or DNMT3b, was decreased in DRGs of PMS rats. FA alleviated PMS-induced GHS and hyperexcitability of DRG neurons. FA also increased DNMT1 and decreased ASIC1 expression and sensitivity. Intrathecal injection of DNMT1 inhibitor DC-517 attenuated the effect of FA on GHS alleviation and ASIC1 downregulation. Overexpression of DNMT1 with lentivirus not only rescued ASIC1 upregulation and hypersensitivity, but also alleviated GHS and hyperexcitability of DRG neurons induced by PMS.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that increased DNMT1 contributes to the analgesic effect of FA on PMS-induced GHS by reducing ASIC1 expression and sensitivity.

Alleviating Oxidative Damage-Induced Telomere Attrition: a Potential Mechanism for Inhibition by Folic Acid of Apoptosis in Neural Stem Cells

DNA oxidative damage can cause telomere attrition or dysfunction that triggers cell senescence and apoptosis. The hypothesis of this study is that folic acid decreases apoptosis in neural stem cells (NSCs) by preventing oxidative stress-induced telomere attrition. Primary cultures of NSCs were incubated for 9 days with various concentrations of folic acid (0-40 µM) and then incubated for 24 h with a combination of folic acid and an oxidant (100-µM hydrogen peroxide, H₂O₂), antioxidant (10-mM N-acetyl-L-cysteine, NAC), or vehicle. Intracellular folate concentration, apoptosis rate, cell proliferative capacity, telomere length, telomeric DNA oxidative damage, telomerase activity, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, cellular oxidative damage, and intracellular antioxidant enzyme activities were determined. The results showed that folic acid deficiency in NSCs decreased intracellular folate concentration, cell proliferation, telomere length, and telomerase activity but increased apoptosis, telomeric DNA oxidative damage, and intracellular ROS levels. In contrast, folic acid supplementation dose-dependently increased intracellular folate concentration, cell proliferative capacity, telomere length, and telomerase activity but decreased apoptosis, telomeric DNA oxidative damage, and intracellular ROS levels. Exposure to H₂O₂ aggravated telomere attrition and oxidative damage, whereas NAC alleviated the latter. High doses of folic acid prevented telomere attrition and telomeric DNA oxidative damage by H₂O₂. In conclusion, inhibition of telomeric DNA oxidative damage and telomere attrition in NSCs may be potential mechanisms of inhibiting NSC apoptosis by folic acid.

Low folate induces abnormal neuronal maturation and DNA hypomethylation of neuronal differentiation-related genes in cultured mouse neural stem and progenitor cells

Folate deficiency in a fetus is well known to cause neurodevelopment defects and development disorders. A low level of folate is also thought to be a risk for depression in adults. We have previously shown that post-weaning low folate induces neuronal immaturity in the dentate gyrus in mice, which suggests that low folate causes neuropsychological disorders via inhibition of neuronal maturation. In this study, we examined the effects of low folate on expression and epigenetic modification of genes involved in neuronal differentiation and maturation in primary mouse neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) in vitro. An increase in Nestin (NSPC marker)-positive cells was observed in cells differentiated in a low folate medium for 3 days. An increase in βIII-tubulin (Tuj1: immature neuron marker)-positive cells and a decrease in microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2: mature neuron marker)-positive cells were observed in cells differentiated in a low folate medium for 7 days. In these cells, mRNA levels for genes involved in neuronal differentiation and maturation were altered. Hypomethylation of DNA, but not of histone proteins, was also observed at some promoters of these neuronal genes. The level of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), a methyl donor, was decreased in these cells. The abnormalities in neural maturation and changes in gene expression in culture under low folate conditions were partially normalized by addition of SAM (5 μM). Based on these results, decreased SAM may induce DNA hypomethylation at genes involved in neuronal differentiation and maturation under low folate conditions, and this hypomethylation may be associated with low folate-induced neuronal immaturity.

Metabolism navigates neural cell fate in development, aging and neurodegeneration

An uninterrupted energy supply is critical for the optimal functioning of all our organs, and in this regard the human brain is particularly energy dependent. The study of energy metabolic pathways is a major focus within neuroscience research, which is supported by genetic defects in the oxidative phosphorylation mechanism often contributing towards neurodevelopmental disorders and changes in glucose metabolism presenting as a hallmark feature in age-dependent neurodegenerative disorders. However, as recent studies have illuminated roles of cellular metabolism that span far beyond mere energetics, it would be valuable to first comprehend the physiological involvement of metabolic pathways in neural cell fate and function, and to subsequently reconstruct their impact on diseases of the brain. In this Review, we first discuss recent evidence that implies metabolism as a master regulator of cell identity during neural development. Additionally, we examine the cell type-dependent metabolic states present in the adult brain. As metabolic states have been studied extensively as crucial regulators of malignant transformation in cancer, we reveal how knowledge gained from the field of cancer has aided our understanding in how metabolism likewise controls neural fate determination and stability by directly wiring into the cellular epigenetic landscape. We further summarize research pertaining to the interplay between metabolic alterations and neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders, and expose how an improved understanding of metabolic cell fate control might assist in the development of new concepts to combat age-dependent neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Alzheimer's disease.

Effects of antiepileptic drugs' administration during pregnancy on the nerve cell proliferation and axonal outgrowth of human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y nerve cells

It has been suggested that the intelligence quotient of children born to pregnant women taking 1000 mg or more of valproic acid per day is lower than that of children born to pregnant women taking other antiepileptic drugs. However, the mechanism whereby intelligence quotient is decreased in children exposed to valproic acid during the fetal period has not yet been elucidated. Therefore, we used the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y to evaluate the effects of antiepileptic drugs containing valproic acid on nerve cells. We assessed the anti-proliferative effects of drugs in these cells via WST-8 colorimetric assay, using the Cell Counting Kit-8. We also quantified drug effects on axonal elongation from images using ImageJ software. We also evaluated drug effects on mRNA expression levels on molecules implicated in nervous system development and folic acid uptake using real-time PCR. We observed that carbamazepine and lamotrigen were toxic to SH-SY5Y cells at concentrations >500 μM. In contrast, phenytoin and valproic acid were not toxic to these cells. Carbamazepine, lamotrigen, phenytoin, and valproic acid did not affect axonal outgrowth in SH-SY5Y cells. Sodium channel neuronal type 1a (SCN1A) mRNA expression-level ratios increased when valproic acid was supplemented to cells. The overexpression of SCN1A mRNA due to high valproic acid concentrations during the fetal period may affect neurodevelopment. However, since detailed mechanisms have not yet been elucidated, it is necessary to evaluate it by comparing cell axon elongation and SCN1A protein expression due to high-concentration valproic acid exposure.

Culture Conditions Affect Chemical-Induced Developmental Toxicity In Vitro: The Case of Folic Acid, Methionine and Methotrexate in the Neural Embryonic Stem Cell Test

In vitro tests are increasingly applied in chemical hazard assessment. Basic culture conditions may affect the outcome of in vitro tests and should be optimised to reduce false predictions. The neural embryonic stem cell test (ESTn) can predict early neurodevelopmental effects of chemicals, as it mimics the differentiation of stem cells towards the neuroectodermal lineage. Normal early neural differentiation depends crucially on folic acid (FA) and methionine (MET), both elements of the one-carbon (1C) cycle. The aim of this study was to assess the concentration-dependent influence of FA and MET on neural differentiation in the ESTn, and its consequences for assay sensitivity to methotrexate (MTX), a compound that interferes with the 1C cycle. Neural differentiation was inhibited below 0.007 mM and above 0.22 mM FA, while both stem cell viability (< 0.097 mM, > 1.52 mM) and neural differentiation (< 0.181 mM, > 1.35 mM) were affected when changing MET concentrations. A 10-day exposure to 13 nM MTX inhibited neural differentiation, especially in FA- and MET-deficient conditions. However, a 24-hour exposure to 39 nM MTX decreased neural cell and neural crest cell differentiation markers only when the concentration of FA in the medium was three times the standard concentration, which was expected to have a protective effect against MTX. These results show the importance of nutrient concentrations, exposure scenarios and timing of read-outs for cell differentiation and compound sensitivity in the ESTn. Caution should be taken when interpreting results from a single in vitro test, especially when extrapolating to effects on complex morphogenetic processes, like neural tube development.

Maternal Folic Acid Supplementation During Pregnancy Promotes Neurogenesis and Synaptogenesis in Neonatal Rat Offspring

Maternal folic acid supplementation during pregnancy is associated with improved cognitive performances in offspring. However, the effect of supplementation on offspring's neurogenesis and synaptogenesis is unknown, and whether supplementation should be continued throughout pregnancy is controversial. In present study, 3 groups of female rats were fed a folate-normal diet, folate-deficient diet, or folate-supplemented diet from 1 week before mating until the end of pregnancy. A fourth group fed folate-normal diet from 1 week before mating until mating, then fed folate-supplemented diet for 10 consecutive days, then fed folate-normal diet until the end of pregnancy. Offspring were sacrificed on postnatal day 0 for measurement of neurogenesis and synaptogenesis by immunofluorescence and western blot. Additionally neural stem cells (NSCs) were cultured from offspring's hippocampus for immunocytochemical measurement of their rates of proliferation and neuronal differentiation. The results demonstrated that maternal folic acid supplementation stimulated hippocampal neurogenesis by increasing proliferation and neuronal differentiation of NSCs, and also enhanced synaptogenesis in cerebral cortex of neonatal offspring. Hippocampal neurogenesis was stimulated more when supplementation was continued throughout pregnancy instead of being limited to the periconceptional period. In conclusion, maternal folic acid supplementation, especially if continued throughout pregnancy, improves neurogenesis and synaptogenesis in neonatal offspring.

Cross Talk between One-Carbon Metabolism, Eph Signaling, and Histone Methylation Promotes Neural Stem Cell Differentiation

Metabolic pathways, once seen as a mere consequence of cell states, have emerged as active players in dictating different cellular events such as proliferation, self-renewal, and differentiation. Several studies have reported a role for folate-dependent one-carbon (1C) metabolism in stem cells; however, its exact mode of action and how it interacts with other cues are largely unknown. Here, we report a link between the Eph:ephrin cell-cell communication pathway and 1C metabolism in controlling neural stem cell differentiation. Transcriptional and functional analyses following ephrin stimulation revealed alterations in folate metabolism-related genes and enzymatic activity. In vitro and in vivo data indicate that Eph-B forward signaling alters the methylation state of H3K4 by regulating 1C metabolism and locks neural stem cell in a differentiation-ready state. Our study highlights a functional link between cell-cell communication, metabolism, and epigenomic remodeling in the control of stem cell self-renewal.

Programmed Epigenetic DNA Methylation-Mediated Reduced Neuroprogenitor Cell Proliferation and Differentiation in Small-for-Gestational-Age Offspring

Small-for-gestational age (SGA) human newborns have an increased risk of hyperphagia and obesity, as well as a spectrum of neurologic and neurobehavioral abnormalities. We have shown that the SGA hypothalamic (appetite regulatory site) neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) exhibit reduced proliferation and neuronal differentiation. DNA methylation (DNA methyltransferase; DNMT1) regulates neurogenesis by maintaining NPC proliferation and suppressing premature differentiation. Once differentiation ensues, DNMT1 preferentially promotes neuronal and inhibits astroglial fate. We hypothesized that the programmed dysfunction of NPC proliferation and differentiation in SGA offspring is epigenetically mediated via DNMT1. Pregnant rats received either ad libitum food (Control) or were 50% food-restricted to create SGA offspring. Primary hypothalamic NPCs from 1 day old SGA and Controls newborns were cultured and transfected with nonspecific or DNMT1-specific siRNA. NPC proliferation and protein expression of specific markers of NPC (nestin), neuroproliferative transcription factor (Hes1), neurons (Tuj1) and astrocytes (GFAP) were determined. Under basal conditions, SGA NPCs exhibited decreased DNMT1 and reduced proliferation and differentiation, as compared to Controls. In both SGA and Controls, DNMT1 siRNA in complete media inhibited NPC proliferation, consistent with reduced expression of nestin and Hes1. In differentiation media, DNMT1 siRNA decreased expression of Tuj1 but increased GFAP. In vivo data replicated these findings. In SGA offspring, impaired neurogenesis is epigenetically mediated, in part, via reduction in DNMT1 expression and suppression of Hes1 resulting in NPC differentiation. It is likely that the maturation of regions beyond the hypothalamus (e.g., cerebral cortex, hippocampus) may be impacted, contributing to poor cognitive and neurobehavioral competency in SGA offspring.

Folic acid contributes to peripheral nerve injury repair by promoting Schwann cell proliferation, migration, and secretion of nerve growth factor

After peripheral nerve injury, intraperitoneal injection of folic acid improves axon quantity, increases axon density and improves electromyography results. However, the mechanisms for this remain unclear. This study explored whether folic acid promotes peripheral nerve injury repair by affecting Schwann cell function. Primary Schwann cells were obtained from rats by in vitro separation and culture. Cell proliferation, assayed using the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, was higher in cells cultured for 72 hours with 100 mg/L folic acid compared with the control group. Cell proliferation was also higher in the 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg/L folic acid groups compared with the control group after culture for 96 hours. Proliferation was markedly higher in the 100 mg/L folic acid group compared with the 50 mg/L folic acid group and the 40 ng/L nerve growth factor group. In Transwell assays, the number of migrated Schwann cells dramatically increased after culture with 100 and 150 mg/L folic acid compared with the control group. In nerve growth factor enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, treatment of Schwann cell cultures with 50, 100, and 150 mg/L folic acid increased levels of nerve growth factor in the culture medium compared with the control group at 3 days. The nerve growth factor concentration of Schwann cell cultures treated with 100 mg/L folic acid group was remarkably higher than that in the 50 and 150 mg/L folic acid groups at 3 days. Nerve growth factor concentration in the 10, 50, and 100 mg/L folic acid groups was higher than that in the control group at 7 days. The nerve growth factor concentration in the 50 mg/L folic acid group was remarkably higher than that in the 10 and 100 mg/L folic acid groups at 7 days. In vivo, 80 μg/kg folic acid was intraperitoneally administrated for 7 consecutive days after sciatic nerve injury. Immunohistochemical staining showed that the number of Schwann cells in the folic acid group was greater than that in the control group. We suggest that folic acid may play a role in improving the repair of peripheral nerve injury by promoting the proliferation and migration of Schwann cells and the secretion of nerve growth factors.

Impact of Metabolic Pathways and Epigenetics on Neural Stem Cells

Balancing self-renewal with differentiation is crucial for neural stem cells (NSC) functions to ensure tissue development and homeostasis. Over the last years, multiple studies have highlighted the coupling of either metabolic or epigenetic reprogramming to NSC fate decisions. Metabolites are essential as they provide the energy and building blocks for proper cell function. Moreover, metabolites can also function as substrates and/or cofactors for epigenetic modifiers. It is becoming more evident that metabolic alterations and epigenetics rewiring are highly intertwined; however, their relation regarding determining NSC fate is not well understood. In this review, we summarize the major metabolic pathways and epigenetic modifications that play a role in NSC. We then focus on the notion that nutrients availability can function as a switch to modify the epigenetic machinery and drive NSC sequential differentiation during embryonic neurogenesis.

Tissue Engineering Therapies Based on Folic Acid and Other Vitamin B Derivatives. Functional Mechanisms and Current Applications in Regenerative Medicine

B-vitamins are a group of soluble vitamins which are cofactors of some of the enzymes involved in the metabolic pathways of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. These compounds participate in a number of functions as cardiovascular, brain or nervous systems. Folic acid is described as an accessible and multifunctional niche component that can be used safely, even combined with other compounds, which gives it high versatility. Also, due to its non-toxicity and great stability, folic acid has attracted much attention from researchers in the biomedical and bioengineering area, with an increasing number of works directed at using folic acid and its derivatives in tissue engineering therapies as well as regenerative medicine. Thus, this review provides an updated discussion about the most relevant advances achieved during the last five years, where folic acid and other vitamins B have been used as key bioactive compounds for enhancing the effectiveness of biomaterials' performance and biological functions for the regeneration of tissues and organs.

Alterations in DNA methyltransferases and methyl-CpG binding domain proteins during cleft palate formation as induced by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in mice

Maternal exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) induces cleft palate formation in mice. This TCDD treatment, which may be considered an environmental factor in cleft palate formation, is associated with alterations in DNA methylation. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of DNA methylation produced by TCDD in mouse embryos are poorly understood. DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) and methyl‑CpG binding domain proteins (MBDs) are thought to be closely associated with the actions of DNA methylation. Therefore, the present study tested the hypothesis that this cleft palate inducing effect of TCDD will alter the expression levels of DNMTs and various MBDs in palate tissue of fetal mice. Pregnant C57BL/6J mice were treated with either TCDD (64 µg/kg) or corn oil (control) at embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5) and fetal palates were harvested for structural and molecular analyses at E13.5, E14.5, E15.5 and E17.5. Expression levels of DNMTs and MBDs were assayed using reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. The incidence of cleft palates in the TCDD group was 98.24%, whereas no cases of cleft palate were observed in the control group. Expression levels of DNMTs and MBDs were significantly increased in the TCDD group compared with the control. The results demonstrate clear alterations in DNMTs and MBDs, as induced by TCDD, and suggest that such alterations are important in cleft palate formation in fetal mice.

Genome-wide survey reveals dynamic effects of folate supplement on DNA methylation and gene expression during C2C12 differentiation

Folic acid supplements taken during pregnancy can prevent neural tube defects and other developmental abnormalities. Here, we explored the effects of folate supplementation on gene expression and DNA methylation during C2C12 differentiation. Based on the folic acid concentration, this study comprised three groups: low folate (L), normal folate (N), and high-folate supplement (H). Our analyses revealed that differentiation and the mRNA expression of the gene myogenin in C2C12 cell were enhanced by folic acid; however, the overall methylation percentage in myogenin promoter between different treatment groups was not significantly different ( P > 0.05). The results of MeDIP-chip showed that hundreds of differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were identified between every two groups in both promoter and CpG islands, respectively. Genes with DMRs between N and L groups were mainly enriched in the processes of cell differentiation and cell development, whereas those with DMRs between H and N groups were frequently enriched in cellular process/cycle and cell metabolic processes. In addition, correlation analysis between methylation profile and expression profile revealed that some genes were regulated by methylation status directly. Together, these analyses suggest that folate deficiency and supplementation can influence the differentiation, genome-wide DNA methylation level and the expression of myogenesis-related genes including myogenin in the C2C12 cell line.

Limb remote ischemic post‑conditioning reduces injury and improves long‑term behavioral recovery in rats following subarachnoid hemorrhage: Possible involvement of the autophagic process

Hemorrhage‑related neurologic injury is a primary cause of disability and mortality following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential neuroprotective effect and the possible role of autophagy in limb remote ischemic post‑conditioning (RIPostC) using an endovascular puncture rat model of SAH. RIPostC was induced by three cycles of occlusion (10 min) and release (10 min) in the bilateral femoral artery using an aneurysm clip. Early RIPostC began immediately following SAH, delayed RIPostC began following a 30 min delay and the repeated RIPostC group underwent the protocol every day for 3 days. Brain water content, SAH grading, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling‑DAPI staining, transmission electron microscopy, and neurological and behavioral tests were conducted three days following surgery. Long term outcomes of behavior and memory were assessed using a rotarod test and Morris water maze test 1 month subsequently. Biomarkers of autophagy, including Beclin‑1 and light chain 3 (LC3), were assessed using western blotting. The results of the present study demonstrated that, compared with other groups, repeated RIPostC was able to alleviate brain edema, prevent neuronal apoptosis, and improve short term and long term neurological function and memory. Beclin‑1 and LC3 in the cortex were upregulated following treatment with repeated RIPostC. Autolysosomes increased 3 days following SAH and were maintained for 1 month in the repeated RIPostC group. Therefore, the present study indicated that the optimized repeated RIPostC may provide a noninvasive strategy to induce neuroprotection, and improve the short and long term outcomes of SAH‑related cerebral injury, possibly involving the autophagy pathway.

Effect of small molecules on cell reprogramming

The essential idea of regenerative medicine is to fix or replace tissues or organs with alive and patient-specific implants. Pluripotent stem cells are able to indefinitely self-renew and differentiate into all cell types of the body which makes them a potent substantial player in regenerative medicine. The easily accessible source of induced pluripotent stem cells may allow obtaining and cultivating tissues in vitro. Reprogramming refers to regression of mature cells to its initial pluripotent state. One of the approaches affecting pluripotency is the usage of low molecular mass compounds that can modulate enzymes and receptors leading to the formation of pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). It would be great to assess the general character of such compounds and reveal their new derivatives or modifications to increase the cell reprogramming efficiency. Many improvements in the methods of pluripotency induction have been made by various groups in order to limit the immunogenicity and tumorigenesis, increase the efficiency and accelerate the kinetics. Understanding the epigenetic changes during the cellular reprogramming process will extend the comprehension of stem cell biology and lead to potential therapeutic approaches. There are compounds which have been already proven to be or for now only putative inducers of the pluripotent state that may substitute for the classic reprogramming factors (Oct3/4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc) in order to improve the time and efficiency of pluripotency induction. The effect of small molecules on gene expression is dosage-dependent and their application concentration needs to be strictly determined. In this review we analysed the role of small molecules in modulations leading to pluripotency induction, thereby contributing to our understanding of stem cell biology and uncovering the major mechanisms involved in that process.

Potential Benefits of Ameliorating Metabolic and Nutritional Abnormalities in People With Profound Developmental Disabilities

Background:

People with profound developmental disabilities have some of the most severe neurological impairments seen in society, have accelerated mortality due to huge medical challenges, and yet are often excluded from scientific studies. They actually have at least 2 layers of conditions: (1) the original disability and (2) multiple under-recognized and underexplored metabolic and nutritional imbalances involving minerals (calcium, zinc, and selenium), amino acids (taurine, tryptophan), fatty acids (linoleic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, arachidonic acid, adrenic acid, Mead acid, plasmalogens), carnitine, hormones (insulinlike growth factor 1), measures of oxidative stress, and likely other substances and systems.

Summary:

This review provides the first list of metabolic and nutritional abnormalities commonly found in people with profound developmental disabilities and, based on the quality of life effects of similar abnormalities in neurotypical people, indicates the potential effects of these abnormalities in this population which often cannot communicate symptoms.

Key messages:

We propose that improved understanding and management of these disturbed mechanisms would enhance the quality of life of people with profound developmental disabilities. Such insights may also apply to people with other conditions associated with disability, including some diseases requiring stem cell implantation and living in microgravity.

Folate Metabolism Regulates Oligodendrocyte Survival and Differentiation by Modulating AMPKα Activity

Folate, an essential micronutrient, is a critical cofactor in one-carbon metabolism for many cellular pathways including DNA synthesis, metabolism and maintenance. Folate deficiency has been associated with an increased risk of neurological disease, cancer and cognitive dysfunction. Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) is a key enzyme to regulate folate metabolism, however folate/DHFR activity in oligodendrocyte development has not been fully understood. Here we show that folate enhances oligodendrocyte maturation both in vitro and in vivo, which is accompanied with upregulation of oligodendrocyte-specific DHFR expression. On the other hand, pharmacological inhibition of DHFR by methotrexate (MTX) causes severe defects in oligodendrocyte survival and differentiation, which could be reversed by folate intake. We further demonstrate that folate activates a metabolic regulator AMPKα to promote oligodendrocyte survival and differentiation. Moreover, activation of AMPKα partially rescues oligodendrocyte defects caused by DHFR-inhibition both in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these findings identify a previously uncharacterized role of folate/DHFR/AMPKα axis in regulating oligodendrocyte survival and myelination during CNS development.

DNA Methylation Profiling at Single-Base Resolution Reveals Gestational Folic Acid Supplementation Influences the Epigenome of Mouse Offspring Cerebellum

It is becoming increasingly more evident that lifestyle, environmental factors, and maternal nutrition during gestation can influence the epigenome of the developing fetus and thus modulate the physiological outcome. Variations in the intake of maternal nutrients affecting one-carbon metabolism may influence brain development and exert long-term effects on the health of the progeny. In this study, we investigated whether supplementation with high maternal folic acid during gestation alters DNA methylation and gene expression in the cerebellum of mouse offspring. We used reduced representation bisulfite sequencing to analyze the DNA methylation profile at the single-base resolution level. The genome-wide DNA methylation analysis revealed that supplementation with higher maternal folic acid resulted in distinct methylation patterns (P < 0.05) of CpG and non-CpG sites in the cerebellum of offspring. Such variations of methylation and gene expression in the cerebellum of offspring were highly sex-specific, including several genes of the neuronal pathways. These findings demonstrate that alterations in the level of maternal folic acid during gestation can influence methylation and gene expression in the cerebellum of offspring. Such changes in the offspring epigenome may alter neurodevelopment and influence the functional outcome of neurologic and psychiatric diseases.

The effects of folic acid on global DNA methylation and colonosphere formation in colon cancer cell lines

Folate and its synthetic form, folic acid (FA), are essential vitamins for the regeneration of S-adenosyl methionine molecules, thereby maintaining adequate cellular methylation. The deregulation of DNA methylation is a contributing factor to carcinogenesis, as alterations in genetic methylation may contribute to stem cell reprogramming and dedifferentiation processes that lead to a cancer stem cell (CSC) phenotype. Here, we investigate the potential effects of FA exposure on DNA methylation and colonosphere formation in cultured human colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines. We show for the first time that HCT116, LS174T, and SW480 cells grown without adequate FA demonstrate significantly impaired colonosphere forming ability with limited changes in CD133, CD166, and EpCAM surface expression. These differences were accompanied by concomitant changes to DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) enzyme expression and DNA methylation levels, which varied depending on cell line. Taken together, these results demonstrate an interaction between FA metabolism and CSC phenotype in vitro and help elucidate a connection between supplemental FA intake and CRC development.

Folic acid attenuates the effects of amyloid β oligomers on DNA methylation in neuronal cells

PURPOSE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a highly prevalent type of dementia. The epigenetic mechanism of gene methylation provides a putative link between nutrition, one-carbon metabolism, and disease progression because folate deficiency may cause hypomethylation of promoter regions in AD-relevant genes. We hypothesized that folic acid supplementation may protect neuron cells from amyloid β (Aβ) oligomer-induced toxicity by modulating DNA methylation of APP and PS1 in AD models.

METHODS

Primary hippocampal neuronal cells and hippocampal HT-22 cells were incubated for 24 h with a combination of folic acid and either Aβ oligomers or vehicle and were then incubated for 72 h with various concentrations of folic acid. AD transgenic mice were fed either folate-deficient or control diets and gavaged daily with various doses of folic acid (0 or 600 μg/kg). DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) activity, cell viability, methylation potential of cells, APP and PS1 expression, and the methylation of the respective promoters were determined.

RESULTS

Aβ oligomers lowered DNMT activity, increased PS1 and APP expression, and decreased cell viability. Folic acid dose-dependently stimulated methylation potential and DNMT activity, altered PS1 and APP promoter methylation, decreased PS1 and APP expression, and partially preserved cell viability. Folic acid increased PS1 and APP promoter methylation in AD transgenic mice.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest a mechanism by which folic acid may prevent Aβ oligomer-induced neuronal toxicity.

Berberine induces apoptosis in human multiple myeloma cell line U266 through hypomethylation of p53 promoter

Berberine has multiple pharmacological activities, such as anti-oxidative, anti-inflammation and anticancer activity. It reduces the proliferation and induces apoptosis in the multiple myeloma cell line, U266. Here we explored the detailed mechanism by analysing the gene expression profiles in U266 treated with or without berberine. DNMT1 andDNMT3B, encoding for a highly conserved member of the DNA methyltransferases, decreased significantly. By dissection of biochemical network database (BNDB) with Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) annotation, the p53 signalling pathway related genes were altered. By using epigenetic chromatin modification enzymes PCR Array, gene expression microarray, RT-PCR and Bisulphite sequencing, the results show that berberine can repress the expression of DNMT1 and DNMT3B, which triggers hypomethylation of TP53 by changing the DNA methylation level and the alteration of p53 dependent signal pathway in human multiple melanoma cell U266.

Folic acid inhibits tau phosphorylation through regulation of PP2A methylation in SH-SY5Y cells

OBJECTIVES

Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), which are composed of intracellular filamentous aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau protein, are one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Because tau phosphorylation is regulated by phosphatases, abnormal metabolism of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) has been proposed to be a contributing factor to the disease process.

RESULTS

To determine the function of folic acid on tau phosphorylation, an in vitro model of human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) were exposed to folic acid (0-40 μmol/L) for 96 h, in the presence or absence of the phosphoesterase inhibitor okadaic acid (OA) (10 nmol/L) for 9 h. The data of western blot showed tau phosphorylation at the Ser396 site in OA-incubated SH-SY5Y cells was inhibited by folic acid in a concentration-dependent manner, with the folic acid concentration of 40 μmol/L providing maximal inhibition. Folic acid can downregulate tau protein phosphorylation by inhibiting the demethylation reactions of PP2A. High folic acid concentrations (20 and 40 μmol/L) increased SAM:SAH ratios and cell viability.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, we can speculate that folate deficiency may be a cause of PP2A deregulation, which can in turn lead to expression of the abnormal hyperphosphorylated form of tau.

Protein content and methyl donors in maternal diet interact to influence the proliferation rate and cell fate of neural stem cells in rat hippocampus

Maternal diet during pregnancy and early postnatal life influences the setting up of normal physiological functions in the offspring. Epigenetic mechanisms regulate cell differentiation during embryonic development and may mediate gene/environment interactions. We showed here that high methyl donors associated with normal protein content in maternal diet increased the in vitro proliferation rate of neural stem/progenitor cells isolated from rat E19 fetuses. Gene expression on whole hippocampi at weaning confirmed this effect as evidenced by the higher expression of the Nestin and Igf2 genes, suggesting a higher amount of undifferentiated precursor cells. Additionally, protein restriction reduced the expression of the insulin receptor gene, which is essential to the action of IGFII. Inhibition of DNA methylation in neural stem/progenitor cells in vitro increased the expression of the astrocyte-specific Gfap gene and decreased the expression of the neuron-specific Dcx gene, suggesting an impact on cell differentiation. Our data suggest a complex interaction between methyl donors and protein content in maternal diet that influence the expression of major growth factors and their receptors and therefore impact the proliferation and differentiation capacities of neural stem cells, either through external hormone signals or internal genomic regulation.

Metabolic circuits in neural stem cells

Metabolic activity indicative of cellular demand is emerging as a key player in cell fate decision. Numerous studies have demonstrated that diverse metabolic pathways have a critical role in the control of the proliferation, differentiation and quiescence of stem cells. The identification of neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) and the characterization of their development and fate decision process have provided insight into the regenerative potential of the adult brain. As a result, the potential of NSPCs in cell replacement therapies for neurological diseases is rapidly growing. The aim of this review is to discuss the recent findings on the crosstalk among key regulators of NSPC development and the metabolic regulation crucial for the function and cell fate decisions of NSPCs. Fundamental understanding of the metabolic circuits in NSPCs may help to provide novel approaches for reactivating neurogenesis to treat degenerative brain conditions and cognitive decline.

Homocysteine induces cytotoxicity and proliferation inhibition in neural stem cells via DNA methylation in vitro

Mild to moderate hyperhomocysteinemia has been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases in human studies. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of homocysteine (Hcy) neurotoxicity on the nervous system are not yet fully understood, inhibition of neural stem cell (NSC) proliferation and alterations in DNA methylation may be involved. The aim of the present study was to characterize the effects of Hcy on DNA methylation in NSCs, and to explore how Hcy-induced changes in DNA methylation patterns affect NSC proliferation. We found that D,L-Hcy (30-1000 μm) but not L-cysteine inhibited cell proliferation and reduced levels of global DNA methylation in NSCs from neonatal rat hippocampus and increased cell injury. High levels of Hcy also induced an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), a decrease in the ratio of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) to SAH, and a reduction in protein expression of the DNA methyltransferases DNMT1, DNMT3a and DNMT3b and their enzymatic activity. Moreover, the DNMT inhibitor zebularine reduced the global DNA methylation level and inhibited NSC proliferation. Our results suggest that alterations in DNA methylation may be an important mechanism by which high levels of Hcy inhibit NSC viability in vitro. Hcy-induced DNA hypomethylation may be caused by a reduction in the DNMT activity which is regulated by the cellular concentrations of SAM and SAH, or their protein expression levels. Our results also suggest that Hcy may play a role in the pathogenesis of certain nervous system diseases via a molecular mechanism that involves negative regulation of NSC proliferation and alterations in DNA methylation.

Lethal cardiotoxicity, steatohepatitis, chronic pancreatitis, and acute enteritis induced by capecitabine and oxaliplatin in a 36-year-old woman

A 36-year-old female was hospitalized with symptoms suggesting intestinal occlusion. She was diagnosed with adenocarcinoma of the ampulla of Vater (pT4N0 stage) and underwent cephalic duodenopancreatectomy 8 months ago. Five cycles of postoperative chemotherapy were administrated using capecitabine and oxaliplatin (CAPOX or XELOX), the last one being completed 1 month ago. During the present hospitalization, because of normal computed tomography and ultrasound abdominal examination, rehydration and antibiotherapy were administrated. However, 4 days after hospital admission, the patient died. At autopsy and histological examination, we found a severe myocardial sclerosis with large scarring areas, severe steatohepatitis, chronic pancreatitis with large fibrotic areas, and acute enteritis. Alcohol consumption was denied. The patient died due to associated heart, liver and pancreatic failure. This multiorgan toxicity and death following CAPOX regimen had not yet been reported in the literature.

VIRTUAL SLIDES

The virtual slide(s) for this article can be found here: http://www.diagnosticpathology.diagnomx.eu/vs/6472150549833105.