Expression of Insulinoma-Associated Protein 1 (INSM1) and Orthopedia Homeobox (OTP) in Tumors with Neuroendocrine Differentiation at Rare Sites

Absence of orthopaedia homeobox protein (OTP) expression is associated with disease spread and adverse outcome in pulmonary carcinoid tumour patients

Pulmonary carcinoid (PC) tumours typically have a good prognosis, although metastases occur, and the disease may progress after a long period of time. Expression of orthopaedia homeobox protein (OTP) has been recognized as a possible independent prognostic marker in PCs. Immunohistochemical (IHC) OTP expression has been associated with better prognosis, but the staining has yet to be implemented in routine clinical diagnostics. In response to this, two new monoclonal OTP antibodies were recently developed.This retrospective study included 164 PC patients operated on at Helsinki University Hospital between 1990 and 2020. Tissue microarray slides, prepared from formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded primary tumour samples, were stained with OTP IHC using one polyclonal and two novel monoclonal antibodies.Absence of OTP expression was associated with a shorter disease-specific survival (DSS) and disease progression (p < 0.001). Patients without OTP expression had a 5-year DSS of 73-79%, whereas 5-year DSS was 91-94% with OTP expression, depending on the primary antibody. In a univariable Cox regression model, absence of OTP expression was associated with adverse outcome along with atypical histological subtype, metastatic disease, Ki-67 proliferation index > 1%, and larger tumour size. In a multivariable Cox regression model, only absence of OTP expression and lymph node involvement at the time of diagnosis were associated with risk of worse prognosis. All three antibodies showed good concordance with each other.Our findings support the role of OTP as an independent prognostic marker in PCs and applicability of IHC staining in routine clinical use with novel monoclonal antibodies.

OTP, CD44, and Ki-67: A Prognostic Marker Panel for Relapse-Free Survival in Patients with Surgically Resected Pulmonary Carcinoid

Although most patients with pulmonary carcinoid (PC) can be cured by surgery, relapse may occur until 15 years after resection in up to 10% of patients. This is unpredictable at the outset, necessitating extensive follow-up (FU). We sought to determine whether an immunohistochemical marker panel (OTP, CD44, and Ki-67) could better indicate relapse-free survival (RFS) and increase uniformity among pathologists regarding carcinoid classification. To this purpose, all surgically resected PC (2003-2012) were identified in the Dutch cancer/pathology registry, and a matched relapse vs nonrelapse cohort (ratio 1:2, N = 161) was created. Cases were revised by 4 pathologists and additionally for immunohistochemistry (IHC) markers. The marker panel was applied to the complete population-based cohort (N = 536) to investigate the negative predictive value (NPV) of relapse. Median FU was 86.7 months. WHO classification among pathologists revealed poor overall agreement (mitotic count: 0.380, necrosis: 0.476) compared with IHC markers (Ki-67: 0.917, OTP: 0.984, CD44: 0.976). The mean NPV of all pathologists increased from 0.74 (World Health Organization, WHO) to 0.85 (IHC marker panel). IHC risk stratification of the complete cohort, regardless of subtype, showed a statistically significant difference in RFS between patients with high risk (n = 222) and low risk (n = 314), with an NPV of 95.9%. In conclusion, our results support the use of biomarker-driven FU management for patients with PC as the OTP/CD44/KI-67 marker panel can reliably predict which patients will probably not develop relapse over time and may benefit from a more limited postoperative follow-up. Furthermore, IHC marker assessment by pathologists for PC stratification is superior to traditional WHO typing.

Primary neuroendocrine tumor of the breast: A case report

Primary neuroendocrine neoplasm of the breast (PNENB) is a rare subtype of breast cancer, accounting for <1% of all breast tumors. The morphological features of PNENB are similar to those of neuroendocrine tumors originating in the lungs or gastrointestinal system, with tumor cells exhibiting the strong expression of neuroendocrine markers, including chromogranin A and synaptophysin. Since this type of cancer was first reported, the definition, classification and diagnostic criteria of PNENB have evolved and changed. However, accurate diagnostic criteria and standard treatment guidelines are lacking. The present report describes a specific case of PNENB, which was consistent with the morphological and molecular features of other cases in most previous studies. In addition, the current body of literature on PNENB, including its development, diagnosis, molecular features, treatment and prognosis is reviewed.

Neuroendocrine Marker Expression in Primary Non-neuroendocrine Epithelial Tumors of the Ovary: A Study of 551 Cases

Expression of neuroendocrine (NE) markers in primary ovarian non-NE epithelial tumors has rarely been evaluated. The aim of our study was to evaluate the expression of the most widely used NE markers in these neoplasms and to determine any prognostic significance of NE marker expression. The cohort consisted of 551 primary ovarian tumors, including serous borderline tumors, low-grade serous carcinomas, high-grade serous carcinomas (HGSC), clear cell carcinomas, endometroid carcinomas, mucinous borderline tumors, and mucinous carcinomas. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed using antibodies against INSM1, synaptophysin, chromogranin, and CD56 on tissue microarray. Positivity for INSM1, synaptophysin, chromogranin, and CD56 was most frequently observed in mucinous tumors (48.7%, 26.0%, 41.5%, and 100%, respectively). The positivity for these NE markers was mostly restricted to nonmucinous elements distributed throughout the tumor. The mucinous borderline tumor and mucinous carcinomas groups had similar proportions of positivity (mucinous borderline tumor: 53%, mucinous carcinomas: 39%). In the other tumor types, except for HGSC, there was only focal expression (5%-10%) or negativity for NE markers. HGSC showed high CD56 expression (in 26% of cases). Survival analysis was only performed for CD56 in HGSC as this was the only group with sufficient positive cases, and it showed no prognostic significance. Except for mucinous tumors, expression of NE markers in non-NE ovarian epithelial tumors is low. CD56 expression in HGSC occurs frequently but is without diagnostic or prognostic value.

Expression of novel neuroendocrine markers in breast carcinomas: a study of INSM1, ASCL1, and POU2F3

INSM1, ASCL1, and POU2F3 are novel transcription factors involved in neuroendocrine (NE) differentiation of neoplasms in several organs, but data on their expression in breast carcinomas (BCs) are limited. We retrospectively evaluated the expression of these markers in a series of 97 BCs (58 with NE morphology and 39 with otherwise uncommon morphology) tested prospectively using immunohistochemistry (IHC). Nuclear staining in >50% of the cells was used as the positive cut-off. Thirty-two of the 97 BCs (33%) were INSM1-positive. INSM1-positivity correlated significantly with histologic type and presence of stromal mucin. INSM1 also correlated with synaptophysin and chromogranin, established markers of NE differentiation (P < .0001 and P = .0023, respectively). In BC with NE morphology, the expression of INSM1 supported NE differentiation, and INSM1 was more specific than synaptophysin and more sensitive and specific than chromogranin. INSM1 was the most expressed NE marker in 17 BCs. INSM1-positive BCs included 56% of solid papillary BCs, 88% of BCs with solid papillary features, and 75% of high-grade NE carcinomas. Of 35 BCs tested for POU2F3 and ASCL1, only 1 and 4 cases were positive, respectively. Our results show that INSM1 is a sensitive marker of NE differentiation in BC and should be included with synaptophysin and chromogranin in the IHC panel used to evaluate NE differentiation in BC with NE morphology. ASCL1 and POU2F3 are uncommon in BC and their routine assessment is not warranted.

Molecular Subtypes of Extra-pulmonary Neuroendocrine Carcinomas Identified by the Expression of Neuroendocrine Lineage-Specific Transcription Factors

Extra-pulmonary neuroendocrine carcinomas (EPNEC) represent a group of rare and heterogenous neoplasms with adverse clinical outcome. Their molecular profile is largely unexplored. Our aim was to investigate if the major transcriptional drivers recently described in high-grade pulmonary neuroendocrine carcinomas characterize distinct molecular and clinical subgroups of EPNEC. Gene expression of ASCL1, NEUROD1, DLL3, NOTCH1, INSM1, MYCL1, POU2F3, and YAP1 was investigated in a series of 54 EPNEC (including 10 cases with mixed components analyzed separately) and in a group of 48 pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinomas (P-LCNEC). Unsupervised hierarchical cluster analysis classified the whole series into four major clusters. P-LCNEC were classified into two major clusters, the first ASCL1/DLL3/INSM1-high and the second (including four EPNEC) ASCL1/DLL3-low but INSM1-high. The remaining EPNEC cases were sub-classified into two other clusters. The first showed INSM1-high and alternative ASCL1/DLL3 or NEUROD1 high expression. The second was characterized mainly by MYCL1 and YAP1 overexpression. In the ten cases with mixed histology, ASCL1, DLL3, INSM1, and NEUROD1 genes were significantly upregulated in the neuroendocrine component. Higher gene-expression levels of NOTCH1 and INSM1 were associated with lower pT stage and negative nodal status. Low INSM1 gene expression was associated with shorter overall survival in the entire case series (p = 0.0017) and with a trend towards significance in EPNEC, only (p = 0.06). In conclusion, our results show that EPNEC possess distinct neuroendocrine-lineage-specific transcriptional profiles; moreover, low INSM1 gene expression represents a novel potential unfavorable prognostic marker in high-grade NECs including those in extra-pulmonary location.

Differential Orthopedia Homeobox expression in pulmonary carcinoids is associated with changes in DNA methylation

Limited number of tumor types have been examined for Orthopedia Homeobox (OTP) expression. In pulmonary carcinoids, loss of expression is a strong indicator of poor prognosis. Here, we investigated OTP expression in 37 different tumor types, and the association between OTP expression and DNA methylation levels in lung neuroendocrine neoplasms. We analyzed publicly available multi-omics data (whole-exome-, whole-genome-, RNA sequencing and Epic 850K-methylation array) of 58 typical carcinoids, 27 atypical carcinoids, 69 large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma and 51 small cell lung cancer patients and TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas) data of 33 tumor types. 850K-methylation analysis was cross-validated using targeted pyrosequencing on 35 carcinoids. We report bimodality of OTP expression in carcinoids (OTPhigh vs OTPlow group, likelihood-ratio test P = 1.5 × 10-2 ), with the OTPhigh group specific to pulmonary carcinoids while absent from all other cohorts analyzed. Significantly different DNA methylation levels were observed between OTPhigh and OTPlow carcinoids in 12/34 OTP infinium probes (FDR < 0.05 and β-value effect size > .2). OTPlow carcinoids harbor high DNA methylation levels as compared to OTPhigh carcinoids. OTPlow carcinoids showed a significantly worse overall survival (log-rank test P = .0052). Gene set enrichment analysis for somatically mutated genes associated with hallmarks of cancer showed robust enrichment of three hallmarks in the OTPlow group, that is, sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressor and genome instability and mutation. Together our data suggest that high OTP expression is a unique feature of pulmonary carcinoids with a favorable prognosis and that in poor prognostic patients, OTP expression is lost, most likely due to changes in DNA methylation levels.

INSM1 Expression in Breast Neoplasms with Neuroedocrine Features

According to the 2019 WHO classification of breast tumors, neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are classified into well-differentiated NE tumors (NET) and poorly differentiated NE carcinomas (NEC), while other breast cancers (BCs) of special and no special type with neuroendocrine (NE) features are not incorporated in this scheme anymore. We aimed to assess whether INSM1, a novel NE marker, could have a role in breast NEN subtyping. We selected 63 BCs operated from 2003 to 2018, classified as BCs with NE features, with available clinico-pathological data. Following 2019 WHO criteria, this cohort was reclassified into 37 NETs/NECs, the remaining 26 tumors representing solid-papillary (7), mucinous (7), and mixed type (12) carcinomas with NE differentiation. Chromogranin A (CGA) and synaptophysin (SYN) immunostains were reviewed, and INSM1 was tested by immunohistochemistry. Thirty CGA- and SYN-negative no special type BCs served as negative control. INSM1 was expressed in 52/63 cases of the whole cohort (82.54%). INSM1 positive and negative cases had no significantly different clinico-pathological characteristics. INSM1 expression was not significantly different between the newly reclassified NET/NEC group and other BCs with NE features. No immunoexpression was observed in control BCs. The sensitivity and specificity of INSM1 for the NE phenotype was 82.5% and 100%, respectively, compared to 61.9% and 100% for CGA, and 95.2 and 100% for SYN. In conclusion, INSM1 is as accurate as traditional NE biomarkers to identify NE differentiation in BC. In analogy to standard NE markers, INSM1 could not distinguish NET and NEC from the other BC histotypes with NE differentiation.

INSM1, a Novel Biomarker for Detection of Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: Cytopathologists’ View

Background: Insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1) has been considered as a novel immunostain for neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) and is hypothesized to be more reliable than first-generation NET biomarkers, such as CGA (chromogranin A), SYP (synaptophysin) and CD56 (neural cell adhesion molecule). In this review, we summarize existing literature on INSM1′s reliability as an immunostain for detection of various NETs, its results in comparison to first-generation NET biomarkers, and its expression in both non-NETs and benign tissues/cells on cytology specimens (cell blocks/smears).

SATB2 Is Expressed in a Subset of Pulmonary and Thymic Neuroendocrine Tumors

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate SATB2 expression and prognostic implications in a large cohort of thoracic neuroendocrine tumors.

METHODS

Surgical pathology files (1995-2017) and an institutional thymic epithelial tumor database (2010-2020) were searched for resected neuroendocrine tumors. Cases were stained with SATB2 (clone EP281). Percent SATB2-positive tumor cells and expression intensity were scored.

RESULTS

In the lung, SATB2 was expressed in 5% or more of tumor cells in 29 (74.4%) of 39 small cell carcinomas and 9 (22.5%) of 40 atypical and 26 (40.6%) of 64 typical carcinoid tumors. SATB2 percent tumor cell expression and intensity were higher in small cell carcinomas than in carcinoid tumors (both P < .001, respectively). After adjusting for tumor subtype, SATB2 expression did not correlate with outcome. In the thymus, four (100%) of four atypical carcinoid tumors and one large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma but no small cell carcinoma (n = 2) expressed SATB2 in 5% or more of tumor cells.

CONCLUSIONS

SATB2 (clone EP281) is expressed in a large subset of pulmonary and thymic neuroendocrine tumors and therefore does not appear to be a useful marker to identify the origin of neuroendocrine tumors. Validation studies are needed, specifically including thymic neuroendocrine tumors, as the expression pattern might be different in those tumors.

Insulinoma-associated Protein 1 Expression and Its Diagnostic Significance in Female Genital Tract Neuroendocrine Carcinomas

Neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs) are rare, but aggressive malignant tumors of the female genital tract, especially in the uterine the cervix. Beside histologic morphology, positivity of neuroendocrine markers with immunohistochemistry plays an important role in diagnosis of NECs. Insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1) is a novel marker reported to be widely expressed in a variety of neuroendocrine tumors. A previous study also suggested INSM1 has superior performance to conventional neuroendocrine markers in cervical NECs. In our present study, comparison between immunomarkers was performed in female genital tract NECs. Forty-nine patients with gynecologic NECs (4 vagina, 39 cervix, 5 endometrium, 1 ovary) were included from 1993 to 2019 at our center. Immunohistochemistry was performed with INSM1, CD56, synaptophysin (SYN), chromogranin-A (CgA), and thyroid transcription factor 1 (TTF1). The results show INSM1 has superior sensitivity and intensity compared with CD56, SYN, CgA, and TTF1 in cervical small cell NECs, but not in large cell NECs. In contrast to cervical NECs, INSM1 immunohistochemistry shows only focal and weak staining in endometrial NECs. Our result suggested INSM1 is a sensitive marker which can be used as first-line test in histologic suspicious cervical cases, especially small cell NECs. However, negative INSM1 stain does not exclude the possibility of NECs. In endometrial NECs, conventional panel with CD56, SYN, CgA has better diagnostic performance than INSM1 alone.

Breast cancer with neuroendocrine differentiation: an update based on the latest WHO classification

Breast cancers with neuroendocrine (NE) differentiation are very heterogeneous, comprising broadly cancers that are morphologically similar to NE tumors (NET) of other anatomic sites, infiltrating breast carcinomas, no special type (IBC-NST) and other special subtypes with NE morphology and/or NE markers expression. Depending on the classification schemes, they are variably included into "NE breast cancers". The latest WHO classification harmonized NE breast cancers with NE neoplasms (NEN) of other organ systems, defined NEN into well-differentiated NET (low Nottingham grade) and poorly-differentiated NE carcinoma (NEC) (high Nottingham grade). Other IBC with NE differentiation are diagnosed based on solely the non-NEN component. Due to the changes in diagnostic criteria, variable results were obtained in the previous studies on NE breast cancers. Hence, the clinical value of NE differentiation in breast cancers is not well investigated and understood. In this review, the current understanding in the pathogenesis, clinical, prognostic, immunhistochemical, and molecular features of "NE breast cancers" is summarized. Controversial issues in their diagnosis and classification are also discussed.

Diagnostic Utility of INSM1 in Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma

Insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1) is shown to be an excellent marker for neuroendocrine differentiation. However, the diagnostic utility of INSM1 in medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) has not yet been extensively investigated. INSM1 staining was performed on 21 MTCs, 7 MTC mimickers (including 3 papillary carcinomas, 2 poorly differentiated carcinomas, 1 follicular adenoma, and 1 nodular plasma cell hyperplasia), and 3 cases of C-cell hyperplasia. INSM1 staining of these cases was compared with the traditional MTC markers including calcitonin (CT), monoclonal carcinoembryonic antigen (mCEA), chromogranin A (CgA), and synaptophysin (Syn). The H-score was generated using the QuPath program, an open-source image analysis software. All 21 MTC cases and 3 C-cell hyperplasia cases were positive for all markers. The MTC mimickers were entirely negative for INSM1. INSM1 and Syn displayed, more consistently, high expression with minimal variability than CgA that showed a wide range of expression with significant variability. mCEA and CT exhibited mostly a high expression with some variability. Being a nuclear stain, interpretation was easier with INSM1 compared to other cytoplasmic markers. INSM1 is an excellent marker for neuroendocrine differentiation, entirely applicable in the diagnosis of MTC and C-cell hyperplasia with high sensitivity and specificity. In comparison with the traditional MTC markers, INSM1 is unique in the crisp nuclear staining pattern with a consistent, diffuse, and strong expression. INSM1 can be potentially combined with CT or mCEA as a dual stain, especially when the lesional tissue is limited for a panel of immunostains.

Nuclear Insulinoma-Associated Protein 1 Expression as a Marker of Neuroendocrine Differentiation in Neoplasms of the Breast

Insulinoma-associated protein-1 (INSM1), a transcription factor encoded by the insulinoma associated-1 gene, is a second-generation biomarker of neuroendocrine differentiation. Its sensitivity and specificity in comparison with chromogranin-A and synaptophysin have been extensively validated in several organs, but evidence regarding its expression in mammary neoplasms is limited. In this study, INSM1 immunohistochemistry was validated in a cohort of 22 mammary neoplasms, enriched with special type breast carcinomas with known neuroendocrine differentiation as determined by immunohistochemistry for synaptophysin and chromogranin-A. Subsequently, INSM1 expression was evaluated in a consecutive series of 66 invasive breast cancer biopsies. In the validation cohort, 14 tumors were synaptophysin-positive, of which all but one showed INSM1 immunoreactivity. Eight tumors were synaptophysin-negative, of which 3 showed focal nuclear INSM1 expression. Six tumors were chromogranin-A-positive, of which one was INSM1-negative. When compared with synaptophysin, INSM1 seems more sensitive but less specific than chromogranin-A. In the biopsy cohort, only one invasive carcinoma of no special type showed substantial INSM1 immunoreactivity (ie, 25% of the tumor cells). Three more cases showed 1% nuclear INSM1 staining. We conclude that neuroendocrine differentiation in invasive breast carcinoma of no special type is a rare finding. Immunohistochemical biomarkers, comprising INSM1 as well as the first-generation biomarkers chromogranin-A and synaptophysin, are useful to distinguish neuroendocrine differentiation in breast neoplasms. The identification of neuroendocrine differentiation can be helpful to establish the diagnosis of special type breast carcinomas such as solid papillary carcinoma.

INSM1 immunostaining in solid papillary carcinoma of the breast

Solid papillary carcinoma (SPC) is a histological subtype of breast carcinomas. At least 50% of SPC show neuroendocrine differentiation. Insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1) is a transcription factor now employed as a useful neuroendocrine marker. It is suppressed by the Notch signaling pathway in other neuroendocrine tumors. However, the usefulness of INSM1 as a neuroendocrine marker and the relationships between INSM1 and NOTCH receptors in SPC of the breast currently remain unclear. To clarify the usefulness of INSM1 as a neuroendocrine marker and the relationships between INSM1 and NOTCH receptors in SPC, we performed immunohistochemistry using 19 tissue specimens of SPC of the breast. We complementarily analyzed public RNA sequencing data on breast carcinomas. Immunohistochemical examinations revealed that the staining intensity of INSM1 was significantly higher in the neuroendocrine group than in the non-neuroendocrine group. Positive correlations were observed between INSM1 and synaptophysin (SYP), or chromogranin-A (CHGA). In all cases, NOTCH 2 and 3 were positive, while NOTCH 1 and 4 were negative. According to public RNA data analyses, there were positive correlations between INSM1 and SYP, or CHGA, and negative correlations between INSM1 and NOTCH1-3. INSM1 is useful as a diagnostic marker for SPC with neuroendocrine differentiation in the breast.

Long Non-coding RNAs in Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Neoplasms

Pulmonary neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are classified into low-grade neuroendocrine tumors and high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs). There are significant differences in therapeutic strategies of the different NEN subtypes, and therefore, precise classification of pulmonary NENs is critical. However, challenges in pulmonary NEN classification include overlap of diagnostic histological features among the subtypes and reduced or negative expression of neuroendocrine markers in poorly differentiated pulmonary NECs. Recently, transcription factor insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1) was identified as a sensitive marker of neuroendocrine and neuroepithelial differentiation. In this study, INSM1 expression was detected by immunohistochemistry in greater than 94% of pulmonary NENs, indicating that it is a highly sensitive marker of pulmonary NENs and is useful to detect poorly differentiated pulmonary NECs. Although there are well-established morphological and immunohistologic criteria to diagnose pulmonary NENs, there is no universal consensus regarding prognostic markers of pulmonary NENs. Studies have shown that non-small cell lung cancers express long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), which regulate gene expression, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and carcinogenesis. We characterized expression and function of lncRNAs, including HOX transcript antisense RNA (HOTAIR), maternally expressed 3 (MEG3), and prostate cancer antigen 3 (PCA3) in pulmonary NENs, including typical carcinoid tumors, atypical carcinoid tumors, small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC/NEC), and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC/NEC). In situ hybridization and real-time polymerase chain reaction studies showed higher expression (p < 0.01) of all lncRNAs in SCLC/NEC. Small interfering RNA studies indicated a role for MEG3 and PCA3 in tumor proliferation. Therefore, these lncRNAs may serve as prognostic indicators of pulmonary NEN aggressiveness and as possible therapeutic targets.

Genome-wide investigation of gene-cancer associations for the prediction of novel therapeutic targets in oncology

A major cause of failed drug discovery programs is suboptimal target selection, resulting in the development of drug candidates that are potent inhibitors, but ineffective at treating the disease. In the genomics era, the availability of large biomedical datasets with genome-wide readouts has the potential to transform target selection and validation. In this study we investigate how computational intelligence methods can be applied to predict novel therapeutic targets in oncology. We compared different machine learning classifiers applied to the task of drug target classification for nine different human cancer types. For each cancer type, a set of “known” target genes was obtained and equally-sized sets of “non-targets” were sampled multiple times from the human protein-coding genes. Models were trained on mutation, gene expression (TCGA), and gene essentiality (DepMap) data. In addition, we generated a numerical embedding of the interaction network of protein-coding genes using deep network representation learning and included the results in the modeling. We assessed feature importance using a random forests classifier and performed feature selection based on measuring permutation importance against a null distribution. Our best models achieved good generalization performance based on the AUROC metric. With the best model for each cancer type, we ran predictions on more than 15,000 protein-coding genes to identify potential novel targets. Our results indicate that this approach may be useful to inform early stages of the drug discovery pipeline.

Neuroendocrine neoplasms of the breast: A review focused on the updated World Health Organization (WHO) 5th Edition morphologic classification

Neuroendocrine breast neoplasms are uncommon invasive carcinomas that have historically been poorly defined due to various definitions of what constitutes a neuroendocrine carcinoma. The 5th Edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) Classification of Breast Tumors has moved to a dichotomous classification of neuroendocrine neoplasms in the breast in order to become standardized with classifications of other organ systems. Neuroendocrine breast neoplasms in the new edition are classified as "neuroendocrine tumor" and "neuroendocrine carcinoma." Key changes are exclusion of special histologic types (solid papillary carcinoma and hypercellular variant of mucinous carcinoma) and the inclusion of large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma. Neuroendocrine tumors are genetically heterogenous and harbor molecular alterations that differ from invasive carcinoma, no special type. Neuroendocrine carcinomas (high-grade) show some overlapping molecular alterations with their counterparts in other organ systems. Data regarding the prognostic significance of neuroendocrine differentiation are conflicting, and histologic grade and tumor stage remain the main prognostic parameters. Current management of neuroendocrine neoplasms is not different from other types of breast carcinoma. This review will provide an update to the current WHO classification of neuroendocrine breast neoplasms and describe pertinent clinical, histologic, and molecular features of these uncommon tumors.

Insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1): a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for neuroendocrine tumors

BACKGROUND

Insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1), a transcriptional regulator with a zinc-finger DNA-binding domain, has been validated as a cytoplasmic marker for neuroendocrine differentiation of tumor cells. Next to its abundant expression in the fetal pancreas, it is expressed in brain tumors, pheochromocytomas, medullary thyroid carcinomas, insulinomas and pituitary and small-cell lung carcinomas. INSM1 is not expressed in normal adult tissues and/or most non-neuroendocrine tumors. It regulates various downstream signaling pathways, including the Sonic Hedgehog, PI3K/AKT, MEK/ERK1/2, ADK, p53, Wnt, histone acetylation, LSD1, cyclin D1, Ascl1 and N-Myc pathways. Although INSM1 appears to be a subtle and specific biomarker for neuroendocrine tumors, its role in tumor development has remained unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we highlight INSMI expression, as well as its diagnostic significance and use as a therapeutic target in various neuroendocrine tumors. Targeting signaling pathways or gene expression alterations associated with INSM1 expression may be instrumental for the design of novel therapeutic strategies for neuroendocrine tumors.

Orthopedia Homeobox (OTP) in Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Tumors: The Diagnostic Value and Possible Molecular Interactions

Generally, patients with stage I-IIIa (TNM) pulmonary carcinoid disease have a favourable prognosis after curative resection. Yet, distant recurrence of disease after curative surgery occurs in approximately 1–6% of patients with typical carcinoid and 14–29% in patients with atypical carcinoid disease, respectively. Known predictors of distant recurrence of disease are atypical carcinoid, lymphatic involvement, and incomplete resection status. However, none of them can be reliably used, alone or in combination, to exclude patients from long-term follow-up (advised 15 years). By genomic profiling, Orthopedia homeobox (OTP) has been identified as a promising prognostic marker for pulmonary carcinoid with a favourable prognosis and low risk of distant disease recurrence. Moreover, OTP is a highly specific marker for carcinoids of pulmonary origin and recent genome wide analysis has identified OTP as a crucial predictor of aggressive tumor behaviour. OTP in combination with CD44, a stem cell marker and cell-surface protein, enables the identification of patients with surgical resected carcinoid disease that could potentially be excluded from long-term follow-up. In future clinical practice OTP may enable clinicians to reduce the diagnostic burden and related distress and reduce costs of long-term radiological assessments in patients with a pulmonary carcinoid. This review addresses the current clinical value of OTP and the possible molecular mechanisms regulating OTP expression and function in pulmonary carcinoids.

Parathyroid Neoplasms: Immunohistochemical Characterization and Long Noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Expression

Parathyroid adenomas are slow growing benign neoplasms associated with hypercalcemia, while atypical parathyroid adenomas and parathyroid carcinomas are uncommon tumors and their histologic features may overlap with parathyroid adenomas. LncRNAs participate in transcription and in epigenetic or post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, and probably contribute to carcinogenesis. We analyzed a group of normal, hyperplastic, and neoplastic parathyroid lesions to determine the best immunohistochemical markers to characterize these lesions and to determine the role of selected lncRNAs in tumor progression. A tissue microarray consisting of 111 cases of normal parathyroid (n = 14), primary hyperplasia (n = 15), secondary hyperplasia (n = 10), tertiary hyperplasia (n = 11), adenomas (n = 50), atypical adenomas (n = 7), and carcinomas (n = 4) was used. Immunohistochemical staining with antibodies against chromogranin A, synaptophysin, parathyroid hormone, and insulinoma-associated protein 1(INSM1) was used. Expression of lncRNAs including metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript one (MALAT1), HOX transcript antisense intergenic RNA (HOTAIR), and long intergenic non-protein coding regulator of reprograming (Linc-ROR or ROR) was also analyzed by in situ hybridization and RT-PCR. All of the parathyroid tissues were positive for parathyroid hormone, while most cases were positive for chromogranin A (98%). Synaptophysin was expressed in only 12 cases (11%) and INMS1 was negative in all cases. ROR was significantly downregulated during progression from normal, hyperplastic, and adenomatous parathyroid to parathyroid carcinomas. These results show that parathyroid hormone and chromogranin A are useful markers for parathyroid neoplasms, while synaptophysin and INSM1 are not very sensitive broad-spectrum markers for these neoplasms. LincRNA ROR may function as a tumor suppressor during parathyroid tumor progression.