Formulation Development and Characterization of Withaferin-A Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Alzheimer’s Disease

Development of donepezil hydrochloride-loaded PLGA-based nanoparticles for Alzheimer's disease treatment

In recent years, nanoparticle (NP) systems have demonstrated significant promise in pharmaceutical applications. This study focused on the development of donepezil hydrochloride-loaded PLGA-NPs, prepared using the 'Double Emulsion Solvent Evaporation' method. The impact of varying concentrations of polyvinyl alcohol-(PVA) in the aqueous phase and sonication time on NP characteristics was comprehensively examined. Results showed that increasing PVA concentration and sonication time resulted in a reduction in NP size, with an optimal formulation (I-DNP) achieving a particle size of 136.37 nm ± 0.93 and a PDI of 0.122 ± 0.011, indicating uniformity. The zeta potential was measured at - 24.17mV ± 1.21, confirming the electrostatic stability of the formulation, essential for long-term stability. Trehalose was incorporated to enhance stability, and gastrointestinal stability testing revealed that I-DNP degraded faster in acidic environments. The encapsulation efficiency reached 69.22 ± 4.84%, suggesting effective drug loading, and release studies exhibited a sustained release profile, with a Fickian and non-Fickian release mechanism. DSC, FT-IR, and 1H-NMR analyses confirmed the encapsulation and structural integrity of the formulation. In biological activity studies, I-DNP exhibited potent anti-AChE and anti-BuChE activities, with Chorioallantoic Membrane (CAM) assays showing significant inhibition of angiogenesis. These findings highlight the potential of I-DNP as a promising therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease, demonstrating its ability to enhance drug stability, controlled release, and potential blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration. Future studies will focus on long-term stability testing and in vivo Alzheimer's models to further validate its clinical applicability. This research contributes to the advancement of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for neurodegenerative diseases, paving the way for innovative therapeutic approaches.

Unraveling the role of withanolides as key modulators in breast cancer mitigation

Addressing the elaborated landscape of therapeutics of global health concern i.e. breast cancer, this comprehensive review explores the promising effects of withanolides, bioactive compounds derived from Withania somnifera, for the treatment of breast cancer. In the breast, random mutations can accumulate over time, eventually transforming it into a tumor cell as certain receptors may be overexpressed by BC cells, which elicits downstream signaling and causes the production of genes involved in angiogenesis, survival, growth and migration, and other critical cell cycle practices. Merging insights from recent studies, our exploration delves into the molecular mechanisms that highlight withanolide's potential in the intervention of breast cancer. The study of apoptotic pathways unveils the withanolide's distinctive as well as pro-apoptotic effects, hinting at its effect as a potent modulator of the progression of breast cancer cells. Beyond its independent potential, there is a discussion on its distinctive perspective over the other therapies. Inweaving together these threads of evidence illuminates channels for future research. This review acts as a guide for researchers and clinicians negotiating the challenges of incorporating withanolides into the changing landscape for the treatment of breast cancer by balancing optimism with perceptive interpretation.

Promising Natural Remedies for Alzheimer's Disease Therapy

This study examines the intricacies of Alzheimer's disease (AD), its origins, and the potential advantages of various herbal extracts and natural compounds for enhancing memory and cognitive performance. Future studies into AD treatments are encouraged by the review's demonstration of the effectiveness of phytoconstituents that were extracted from a number of plants. In addition to having many beneficial effects, such as improved cholinergic and cognitive function, herbal medicines are also much less harmful, more readily available, and easier to use than other treatments. They also pass without difficulty through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This study focused on natural substances and their effects on AD by using academic databases to identify peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2024. According to the literature review, 66 phytoconstituents that were isolated from 21 distinct plants have shown efficacy, which could be encouraging for future research on AD therapies. Since most clinical trials produce contradictory results, the study suggests that larger-scale studies with longer treatment durations are necessary to validate or refute the therapeutic efficacy of herbal AD treatments.

Bioactive Compound-Fortified Nanocarriers in the Management of Neurodegenerative Disease: A Review

Individual around the globe faces enormous problems from illnesses of the neurological system and the cerebrum, including neurodegenerative conditions and brain tumors. There are still no demonstrated viable treatments for neurological conditions, despite advances in drug delivery technologies such as solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and nano-liposomes. To address this, there is growing interest in leveraging naturally occurring bioactive substances for their therapeutic potential. However, challenges such as limited bioavailability and metabolism hinder their efficacy, particularly in the brain. Although various pharmaceutical interventions exist for neurodegenerative diseases, they often come with significant side effects, and there is currently no specific treatment to cure or slow down disease progression. Challenges such as the blood-brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier present significant obstacles to deliver drugs into the brain. Strategies to improve drug penetration across these barriers include targeting specific transport systems and developing innovative drug delivery approaches. Hence, the development of nanocarriers capable of targeting bioactive compounds to the brain represents a promising approach for neurodegenerative disease therapy. This review explores the potential of bioactive compound-fortified nano-delivery systems for treating neurodegenerative diseases, with various compounds offering unique avenues for investigating neurodegeneration pathways and strategies in overcoming associated challenges.

Progress in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease based on nanosized traditional Chinese medicines

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been employed for centuries in treating and managing Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, their effective delivery to target sites can be a major challenge. This is due to their poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and potential toxicity. Furthermore, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major obstacle to effective TCM delivery, significantly reducing efficacy. Advancements in nanotechnology and its applications in TCM (nano-TCM) can deliver active ingredients or components of TCM across the BBB to the targeted brain area. This review summarizes the recent advances in nanocarrier-based delivery systems for different types of active constituents of TCM for AD, including terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and quinones. Besides, the main challenges and opportunities for the future development of these advanced TCM nanocarriers are emphasized. In conclusion, this review provides valuable insights and guidance for utilizing nanocarriers to shape future TCM drug delivery.

Evolution of Alzheimer's Disease Therapeutics: From Conventional Drugs to Medicinal Plants, Immunotherapy, Microbiotherapy and Nanotherapy

Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents an escalating global health crisis, constituting the leading cause of dementia among the elderly and profoundly impairing their quality of life. Current FDA-approved drugs, such as rivastigmine, donepezil, galantamine, and memantine, offer only modest symptomatic relief and are frequently associated with significant adverse effects. Faced with this challenge and in line with advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of this neurodegenerative condition, various innovative therapeutic strategies have been explored. Here, we review novel approaches inspired by advanced knowledge of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of the disease. Among the therapeutic alternatives, immunotherapy stands out, employing monoclonal antibodies to specifically target and eliminate toxic proteins implicated in AD. Additionally, the use of medicinal plants is examined, as their synergistic effects among components may confer neuroprotective properties. The modulation of the gut microbiota is also addressed as a peripheral strategy that could influence neuroinflammatory and degenerative processes in the brain. Furthermore, the therapeutic potential of emerging approaches, such as the use of microRNAs to regulate key cellular processes and nanotherapy, which enables precise drug delivery to the central nervous system, is analyzed. Despite promising advances in these strategies, the incidence of Alzheimer's disease continues to rise. Therefore, it is proposed that achieving effective treatment in the future may require the integration of combined approaches, maximizing the synergistic effects of different therapeutic interventions.

Blood-brain barrier disruption in dementia: Nano-solutions as new treatment options

Candidate drugs targeting the central nervous system (CNS) demonstrate extremely low clinical success rates, with more than 98% of potential treatments being discontinued due to poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Neurological conditions were shown to be the second leading cause of death globally in 2016, with the number of people currently affected by neurological disorders increasing rapidly. This increasing trend, along with an inability to develop BBB permeating drugs, is presenting a major hurdle in the treatment of CNS-related disorders, like dementia. To overcome this, it is necessary to understand the structure and function of the BBB, including the transport of molecules across its interface in both healthy and pathological conditions. The use of CNS drug carriers is rapidly gaining popularity in CNS research due to their ability to target BBB transport systems. Further research and development of drug delivery vehicles could provide essential information that can be used to develop novel treatments for neurological conditions. This review discusses the BBB and its transport systems and evaluates the potential of using nanoparticle-based delivery systems as drug carriers for CNS disease with a focus on dementia.

Regulation of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease via nanoparticle-loaded phytocompounds with anti-inflammatory and autophagy-inducing properties

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by neuroinflammation linked to amyloid β (Aβ) aggregation and phosphorylated tau (τ) protein in neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Key elements in Aβ production and NFT assembly, like γ-secretase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK), contribute to neuroinflammation. In addition, impaired proteosomal and autophagic pathways increase Aβ and τ aggregation, leading to neuronal damage. Conventional neuroinflammation drugs have limitations due to unidirectional therapeutic approaches and challenges in crossing the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). Clinical trials for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and other therapeutics remain uncertain. Novel strategies addressing the complex pathogenesis and BBB translocation are needed to effectively tackle AD-related neuroinflammation.

PURPOSE

The current scenario demands for a much-sophisticated theranostic measures which could be achieved via customized engineering and designing of novel nanotherapeutics. As, these therapeutics functions as a double edge sword, having the efficiency of unambiguous targeting, multiple drug delivery and ability to cross BBB proficiently.

METHODS

Inclusion criteria involve selecting recent, English-language studies from the past decade (2013-2023) that explore the regulation of neuroinflammation in neuroinflammation, Alzheimer's disease, amyloid β, tau protein, nanoparticles, autophagy, and phytocompounds. Various study types, including clinical trials, experiments, and reviews, were considered. Exclusion criteria comprised non-relevant publication types, studies unrelated to Alzheimer's disease or phytocompounds, those with methodological flaws, duplicates, and studies with inaccessible data.

RESULTS

In this study, polymeric nanoparticles loaded with specific phytocompounds and coated with an antibody targeting the transferrin receptor (anti-TfR) present on BBB. Thereafter, the engineered nanoparticles with the ability to efficiently traverse the BBB and interact with target molecules within the brain, could induce autophagy, a cellular process crucial for neuronal health, and exhibit potent anti-inflammatory effects. Henceforth, the proposed combination of desired phytocompounds, polymeric nanoparticles, and anti-TfR coating presents a promising approach for targeted drug delivery to the brain, with potential implications in neuroinflammatory conditions such as Alzheimer's disease.

Recent Advancements in Nanocarrier-assisted Brain Delivery of Phytochemicals Against Neurological Diseases

Despite ongoing advancements in research, the inability of therapeutics to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) makes the treatment of neurological disorders (NDs) a challenging task, offering only partial symptomatic relief. Various adverse effects associated with existing approaches are another significant barrier that prompts the usage of structurally diverse phytochemicals as preventive/therapeutic lead against NDs in preclinical and clinical settings. Despite numerous beneficial properties, phytochemicals suffer from poor pharmacokinetic profile which limits their pharmacological activity and necessitates the utility of nanotechnology for efficient drug delivery. Nanocarriers have been shown to be proficient carriers that can enhance drug delivery, bioavailability, biocompatibility, and stability of phytochemicals. We, thus, conducted a meticulous literature survey using several electronic databases to gather relevant studies in order to provide a comprehensive summary about the use of nanocarriers in delivering phytochemicals as a treatment approach for NDs. Additionally, the review highlights the mechanisms of drug transport of nanocarriers across the BBB and explores their potential future applications in this emerging field.

Withaferin A: A Pleiotropic Anticancer Agent from the Indian Medicinal Plant Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Cancer represents the second most deadly disease and one of the most important public health concerns worldwide. Surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immune therapy are the major types of treatment strategies that have been implemented in cancer treatment. Unfortunately, these treatment options suffer from major limitations, such as drug-resistance and adverse effects, which may eventually result in disease recurrence. Many phytochemicals have been investigated for their antitumor efficacy in preclinical models and clinical studies to discover newer therapeutic agents with fewer adverse effects. Withaferin A, a natural bioactive molecule isolated from the Indian medicinal plant Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, has been reported to impart anticancer activities against various cancer cell lines and preclinical cancer models by modulating the expression and activity of different oncogenic proteins. In this article, we have comprehensively discussed the biosynthesis of withaferin A as well as its antineoplastic activities and mode-of-action in in vitro and in vivo settings. We have also reviewed the effect of withaferin A on the expression of miRNAs, its combinational effect with other cytotoxic agents, withaferin A-based formulations, safety and toxicity profiles, and its clinical potential.

Isolation and structure elucidation of a steroidal moiety from Withania somnifera and in silico evaluation of antimalarial efficacy against artemisinin resistance Plasmodium falciparum kelch 13 protein

According to the 2021 Malaria report, 241 million clinical episodes with 627000 deaths penalty was estimated across the worldwide. However, mutation in the propeller domain of Plasmodium falciparum kelch 13 protein resulted in longer parasite clearance time following an artemisinin-based treatment and had a greater survival rate of ring-stage parasites even after a brief exposure to a high dose of artesunate. Clinical manifestations become more complex and worse with the emerging trend of drug resistance against artemisinin derivatives and the poor effectiveness of malaria vaccination drive. Steroidal lactone (withanolide) moiety (C-28) isolated from methanolic leaf extract Withania somnifera show a greater affinity towards Pfkelch 13 protein in comparison to the artemisinin derivatives (artesunate, artemether). The isolated compound was characterized to be withaferin A with a percentage yield of 29.01% w/w in chloroform fraction, 1.75% w/w in methanolic extract, and 0.29% w/w in raw leaf powder. Structure-based analysis shows that withaferin A (docking score -8.253, -9.802) has a higher affinity for two distinct binding pockets I and II of the Plasmodium falciparum kelch 13 protein than artesunate (docking score -4.470, -3.656). Further, Gibbs binding free energy signifies thermodynamic stability of the docked complex of withaferin A (-43.25, -43.76 Kcal/mol) in comparison to artesunate docked complex (-8.49, -5.75 Kcal/mol). The pharmacokinetic profile of withaferin A shows more drug-likeness characteristics without violating Jorgensen's rule of three, and Lipinski's rule of five. Hence above experimental findings suggest withaferin A could be a suitable therapeutic adjunct for preclinical evaluation of antimalarial potentiality in artemisinin-resistant malaria.

Preparation and characterization of withaferin A loaded pegylated nanoliposomal formulation with high loading efficacy: In vitro and in vivo anti-tumour study

Withaferin A (WA) is a natural steroidal lactone with promising therapeutic applications. However, its clinical application is limited due to the low bioavailability and hydrophobic nature. In this study, we had prepared PEGylated nanoliposomal withaferin A (LWA) using thin-film hydration method. Dynamic light scattering, Transmission electron microscopy, and HPLC were used to investigate the impact of prepared formulations on the size, charge, morphology, and encapsulation efficiency of the LWA. The prepared nanoliposomal system had spherical vesicles, with the mean particle size of 125 nm and had an encapsulation efficiency of 83.65% with good stability. The characterization results indicated that nanoliposomal formulation is able to improve biocompatibility and bioavailability of WA. In vitro drug release study showed that LWA had an enhanced sustained drug release effect than the free drug. In vitro studies using ascites cell lines (DLA and EAC) showed that LWA treatment could induce apoptosis in ascites cells evidenced by acridine orange/ethidium bromide, Hoechst, and Giemsa staining. In vivo tumour study revealed that LWA treatment significantly reduced tumour growth and improved survival in DLA tumour bearing mice. In vivo results further demonstrated that LWA mitigated solid tumour development by regulating Ki-67 and cyclin D1 protein expression. The overall study results reveal that nanoliposome encapsulated WA exhibits therapeutic efficacy over WA in regulating tumour development as evidenced from ascites cell apoptosis as well as experimental tumour reduction studies.