Migration and father absence: shifting family structure in Mexico

International Displacement and Family Stress in Latin America

Family stress theories posit that individual family members are positioned to adapt to external stressors differently and that these differences can strain family systems. Analyzing in-depth interviews with a diverse sample of migrant mothers in Costa Rica, we investigate how families adjust to the stressors of international displacement. Three stages of family stress adjustment emerged from our analysis: (1) parents' prioritization of safety, (2) parents' and children's grappling with new legal, economic, and social circumstances, and (3) parents' protracted uncertainty in one or more of these realms concomitant with children's feeling resettled. A fourth stage of (4) convergent parent and child resettling also emerged, but only among select families who enjoyed stable financial or emotional support from extended kin or local institutions in Costa Rica. Parents' perceptions of their security, and social, economic, and legal circumstances contributed to the progression between stages of stress adjustment.

Dynamic household structure and composition: a manual for longitudinal analysis of living arrangements

OBJECTIVE

This research note introduces a set of tools to conduct analysis of household structure and composition with either limited or comprehensive longitudinal data. The data used here are from Health and Demographic Surveillance Systems in Africa, but the methods can be adapted and applied to other longitudinal micro-data such as register data. A training manual describing the procedures for creating time-varying household measures step-by-step is supplied as supplementary material to this note. Code is provided in STATA but can easily be translated for other statistical software, and the logic for each step remains the same.

RESULTS

The analysis of household structure demonstrates how with limited data (such as a household identifier), it is possible to construct time-varying measures of household membership, including household size or the number of members in specific age and sex groups. The analysis of household composition demonstrates how with expanded data (including links to parents in addition to residence status in the same household), it is possible to construct time-varying measures of household membership of specific kin, i.e. mother, sibling or grandparent. The results illustrated in this research note are a taste of what can be achieved by following the training manual in the supplementary material.

Transnational Social Stratification? Legal Status of Immigrant Parents and the Educational Achievements of Mexican Children

Although there is evidence documenting the impacts of Mexican parents’ migration to the United States on the educational attainment of the children they leave behind, the potential role of parents’ legal status in stratifying their children's educational achievement is poorly understood. Using data from the Mexican Migration Project, I estimate the educational effects of parents’ documentation status for the children left behind in Mexico. I utilize coarsened exact matching and entropy balancing, alongside community fixed effects, in a counterfactual regression framework to address the endogeneity of parental migration decisions. I find that parental migration's effectiveness as a mechanism for securing educational gains among children left in Mexico differs by parents’ legal status. Documentation allows migrant parents to translate their experiences in the United States into relatively greater educational achievement for their children in Mexico. In the post-1986 period, the non-immigrant children of undocumented parents experienced a significant education penalty. These findings elucidate the effect of US immigration policy on social stratification in Mexican society.

Paternal Migration and Children's Educational Attainment and Work Activity: The Case of Mexico

Most of the research evaluating the import of paternal migration for children's outcomes has taken "left-behind children" as a single group. Such an approach does not take into account how family processes may intersect with migration processes. Taking a life course perspective, this paper distinguishes fathers' short-term and long-term migrations, as well as return migration, as they affect children's productive activities. Using the Mexican Family Life Survey (2002-2009), we followed school-aged children from two-parent households in 2002 and observed their activities as they transitioned into adulthood from 2005 through 2009. We found that fathers' short-term migration is negatively associated with children's labor force participation, especially for 12- to 18-year-old boys, suggesting that paternal migration may interrupt adolescent boys' labor market transition in the short-term. Fathers' long-term migration and return migration does not significantly alter children's activities. However, the negative role of fathers' long-term absence and benefits brought by the paternal migration trip are important mechanisms for educational persistence and the labor force entrance of 12- to 18-year-old girls, highlighting the conditions under which certain mechanisms may work. This suggests that migration is a family process, with the outcomes lying in the interplay of the stages of migration, children's life stages, and how gender is treated within cultural and familial contexts.

Does Parental Migration During Childhood Affect Children's Lifetime Educational Attainment? Evidence From Mexico

Existing scholarship reveals important and competing influences of parental migration on children's educational trajectories. On the one hand, in the short term, left-behind children commonly take on additional housework and sometimes place less emphasis on education if they aspire to follow in their parents' migratory footsteps. On the other hand, parental migration often leads to monetary transfers (remittances), which reduces financial pressure on sending households and can strengthen educational aspirations among children left behind. Because previous studies examined these effects on children still completing their educations, the cumulative impact of parental migration on children's educational attainment remains uncertain. In this study, we use retrospective life history data from the Mexican Migration Project to link parental migrations occurring during childhood with children's educational attainment measured in adulthood. Using a novel counterfactual approach, we find that parental migration during childhood is associated with increased years of schooling and higher probabilities of completing lower-secondary school, entering upper-secondary school, and completing upper-secondary school. These associations were strongest among children whose parents did not complete primary school and those living in rural areas. Results from a placebo test suggest that these positive associations cannot be attributed to unobserved household characteristics related to parental migration, which supports a causal interpretation of our main findings. Thus, our analysis suggests that, on average, and particularly among more-disadvantaged households, the long-term educational benefits associated with parental migration outweigh short-term disruptions and strain associated with parental absence.

The Interaction and Impact of Social Support and Father Absence on Breastfeeding

Background: Behaviors related to early childhood nutrition are influenced by a mother's social environment. In many low- and middle-income countries, breastfeeding rates have steadily declined. At the same time, many communities have a history of domestic or international migration that affects the family support systems for women and children remaining in these communities. While social support has been shown to be important to health behaviors conducive to maternal and child health, scant research examines whether social support moderates the impact of an absent father on breastfeeding. Objective: We aim to assess the relationship between father absence and breastfeeding duration and test whether social support moderates the impact of father absence on breastfeeding duration. Methods: We use data from the Social Networks and Health Information Survey (n = 292), a random household survey conducted in a municipality in Guanajuato, Mexico, to estimate Poisson regression models of breastfeeding duration. Results: In multivariate models, an absent father is negatively associated with breastfeeding, whereas social support is positively associated. A significant and positive interaction between father absence and social support suggests that at high levels of support, breastfeeding duration for women with absent fathers does not appear to be meaningfully different from women with present fathers. This suggests that receiving high levels of social support during pregnancy may mitigate the absence of the child's father. Conclusions: Social support interventions for mothers of infants should target mothers and children in households without a father. More research should also be directed at understanding how social support processes during pregnancy can affect breastfeeding in other low- and middle-income countries with high rates of emigration.

Depressive symptoms among mothers with young children-the role of family migration and social networks in Mexico

BACKGROUND

Women who remain in migratory sending communities as their family members migrate internationally are at risk for depression. Limited research examines the association between the number of absent household members and a woman's mental health.

AIMS

This study examines the association between residing in a migrant household and depressive symptoms for women in Mexico while accounting for social networks and social support.

METHODS

Logistic regression analysis was employed using the Social Networks and Health Information Survey (SNHIS) (n = 320), a random household survey conducted in a medium-sized municipality in Guanajuato, Mexico.

RESULTS

Multivariate results suggest that residing in a household with two or more migrants was associated with increased odds of depressive symptoms, while having immediate kin in the community reduced the odds of depressive symptoms. Social relationships in the community and social support were associated with reduced odds of depressive symptoms. Their inclusion in the models reduced the significance of but did not significantly mediate the association between residing in a household with multiple migrants and depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Services aimed at improving women's health should target women who reside in households with multiple migrants and focus on reducing the stress and mental health impacts associated with these relationships.

Spanning Borders, Cultures, and Generations: A Decade of Research on Immigrant Families

The authors review research conducted during the past decade on immigrant families, focusing primarily on the United States and the sending countries with close connections to the United States. They note several major advances. First, researchers have focused extensively on immigrant families that are physically separated but socially and economically linked across origin and destination communities and explored what these family arrangements mean for family structure and functions. Second, family scholars have explored how contexts of reception shape families and family relationships. Of special note is research that documented the experiences and risks associated with undocumented legal status for parents and children. Third, family researchers have explored how the acculturation and enculturation process operates as families settle in the destination setting and raise the next generation. Looking forward, they identify several possible directions for future research to better understand how immigrant families have responded to a changing world in which nations and economies are increasingly interconnected and diverse, populations are aging, and family roles are in flux and where these changes are often met with fear and resistance in immigrant-receiving destinations.

Migration and investments in the health of children left behind: the role of remittances in children's healthcare utilization in Cambodia

Remittances, financial support from family members who have migrated for work, are an increasingly important source of income for households left behind in many lower- and middle-income countries. While remittances have been shown to affect the health status of children left behind, evidence is very limited as to whether and how they affect children's healthcare utilization. Yet, this is an important consideration for policymakers seeking to improve equitable access to quality care in settings where migration is common. I examine whether children under age five whose household receives remittances are more likely to utilize higher quality healthcare providers than those without remittances in Cambodia, a country with high rates of migration and a pluralistic health system. The analysis includes 2230 children reporting recent illness in three waves of the Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey with data on migration, remittances and children's health expenditures. I use mixed-effects and fixed-effects regression analysis to estimate the effect of remittances on children's likelihood of entering care with a formally trained provider, and among those attending a formally trained provider, likelihood of using a public-sector facility. Treatment expenditures are lower among households with remittances, while transportation expenditures do not vary significantly by remittance status. In mixed-effects and fixed-effect regression models, children who receive remittances have a lower likelihood of utilizing qualified providers (adjusted OR = 0.66, 95% confidence interval 0.44-0.98), though this effect is attenuated in fixed-effects models, and there is no association between remittances and attending a public-sector facility. These findings underscore that remittances alone are not sufficient to increase children's utilization of qualified providers in migrant-sending areas, and suggest that policymakers should to address barriers to care beyond cost to promote utilization and equity of access to higher quality care where remittances are a common source of income.

Mental health and risk behaviors of children in rural China with different patterns of parental migration: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

One in seven members of China's population are migrants. There are an estimated 41 million children left behind in rural areas who are living without one or both of their parents. The impact of two- and single-parent migration on child mental health and risk behaviors is unclear. The aim of this study was to compare the mental health and risk behaviors among children whose parents are either both migrating (B-LBC), have one parent migrating (O-LBC) or those whose parents do not migrate (N-LBC).

METHODS

This study was a cross-sectional survey using a self-administered questionnaire conducted in rural areas with high proportions of left behind children (LBC) in Anhui Province, southeast China. The tools used were the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaires, Youth Risk Behavior Survey and the Young's Internet Addiction Test for Chinese.

RESULTS

Full data were available for 699 B-LBC, 552 O-LBC and 741 N-LBC. After adjusting for gender, age, grade, number of siblings and self-rated socio-economic status, B-LBC were significantly more likely to have higher emotional symptoms scores (B(SE) = 0.36(0.11), p < 0.01), higher hyperactivity scores (B(SE) = 0.22(0.11), p < 0.01) and higher total difficulties scores (B(SE) = 0.79(0.29), p < 0.01) than N-LBC. B-LBC were also more likely to be an addicted internet user (OR(95%CI) = 1.91(1.33, 2.76), p < 0.01) compared to N-LBC. However, there were no identified differences between O-LBC and N-LBC or between O-LBC and B-LBC in any measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings found that living with one parent or both parents was associated with better mental health and fewer risk behaviors than was being separated from both parents. Future research is needed to consider the implications of these findings for policies and programs to protect LBC, especially for those with two migrating parents.

Bullying victimization and depression among left-behind children in rural China: Roles of self-compassion and hope

BACKGROUND

Bullying victimization among school-aged children is an important public health issue that may affect their well-being and mental health. However, few studies have been conducted on left-behind children in rural China, who are defined as the children who stay in rural areas for more than six months and have one or both parents migrating to urban areas for work. The mechanisms through which bullying victimization will influence depression have disproportionally adopted a psychopathological perspective, and the protective factors are understudied.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims at investigating the factors that might contribute to breaking up the vicious circle between bullying victimization and developmental problems, focusing on the protective role of self-compassion and hope in the association between bullying victimization and depression.

METHODS

Using questionnaires, data were collected from a sample of 1091 school-aged left-behind children from west and central China.

RESULTS

Compared with rural children living with their parents, left-behind children reported a higher level of bullying victimization. Bullying victimization was positively associated with depression through decreased self-compassion and hope, and self- compassion played a more crucial role than hope in the linkage between bullying victimization and depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study's findings suggest that it is necessary to incorporate self-compassion and hope in mental health prevention and intervention programs targeting left-behind children with bullying victimization experiences.

Migration and absent fathers: Impacts on the mental health of left-behind family members in Thailand

This paper examines whether children and main caregivers of overseas migrant fathers have fewer or more mental health symptoms compared to those of non-migrant fathers. The sample includes 997 households from the 2008 Child Health and Migrant Parents in South-East Asia project. The mental health measurements are the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Self-Reporting Questionnaire. Compared to children of non-migrant fathers, those of migrant fathers are more likely to demonstrate conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention. Factors which appear to impact a caregiver's mental health include the physical health status of children, caregiver's education level and household economic status. To reduce the risk of mental health problems on left-behind children, our findings imply the importance of encouraging and educating left-behind families to monitor the children's psychological well-being, especially those in father-migrant families.

Immigrants in Their Parental Homeland: Half a Million U.S.-born Minors Settle Throughout Mexico

In the past 10 years, a historical change occurred in migration flows within North America: specifically, Mexico–U.S. migration reached zero net migration. Alongside Mexican adults returning to their homeland was an unprecedented number of U.S.-born minors. Little is known about this massive migration of U.S. citizen children. We analyze Mexican census data from 2000 to 2015 to estimate the size and characteristics of the population of U.S.-born minors residing in Mexico. Between 2000 and 2010, the population of U.S.-born minors doubled to more than half a million. The population stabilized, aged, and became longer-term Mexican residents thereafter. The large majority of U.S.-born minors are primary school–aged. Although concentrated in the northern border and traditional migrant-sending regions, U.S.-born minors are distributed throughout Mexico. The majority of U.S.-born minors live in Mexico with two Mexican-born parents, but one-third are separated from one or both parents, and most of those separated from parents reside with grandparents. We interpret these trends in reference to the determinants of Mexico–U.S. migration, transnational and mixed-status families, and the future spatial and social mobility of U.S.-born minors living in Mexico.

Father Absence, Social Networks, and Maternal Ratings of Child Health: Evidence from the 2013 Social Networks and Health Information Survey in Mexico

Objectives To bridge the literature on the effect of father absence, international migration, and social networks on child health, we assess the association between father absence and maternal ratings of child poor health (MCPH). Next we test whether social networks of immediate and extended kin mediate the relationship between fathers' absence and MCPH. Methods Nested logistic regression models predicting MCPH are estimated using the 2013 Social Networks and Health Information Survey, collected in a migrant-sending community in Guanajuato, Mexico. These unique data distinguish among father absence due to migration versus other reasons and between immediate and extended kin ties. Results Descriptive results indicate that 25% of children with migrant fathers are assessed as having poor health, more often than children with present (15.5%) or otherwise absent fathers (17.5%). In the multivariate models, fathers' absence is not predictive of MCPH. However, the presence of extended kin ties for the mother was associated with approximately a 50% reduction in the odds of MCPH. Additionally, mother's poor self-assessed health was associated with increased odds of MCPH while the presence of a co-resident adult lowered the odds of MCPH. In sensitivity analysis among children with migrant fathers, the receipt of paternal remittances lowered the odds of MCPH. Conclusions for Practice Social networks have a direct and positive association with MCPH rather than mediating the father absence-MCPH relationship. The presence of extended kin ties in the local community is salient for more favorable child health and should be considered in public health interventions aimed at improving child health.

Mixed blessings: A qualitative exploration of mothers' experience of child care and feeding in the rapidly urbanizing city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Many studies have drawn attention to the vital role mothers have in safeguarding the health and nutritional wellbeing of their children. However, little is known about mothers’ experiences and the challenges they face in fulfilling this role in rapidly urbanizing cities in Africa. This study aims to explore child care and feeding practices of mothers with children under five years of age in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. This qualitative study was conducted using a semi-structured interview guide. A total of thirty-six interviews were conducted with purposively selected participants. All interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated for analysis. We used a thematic analysis approach, which was guided by a resilience framework. The findings are presented as three major themes. 1) ‘Mixed blessings-balancing motherhood’s expectations’. While mothers identified positively with the social recognition and sense of fulfillment of being a ‘good mother’, they were ambivalent/torn about earning the necessary income from outside work and fulfilling their duties at home. 2) ‘Instabilities due to rampant urban sprawl’. While women expressed a keen desire to balance work and motherhood, the disintegrating social capital, due to large in-migration, market fluctuations and abrupt/forced resettlements to new housing units had left mothers without support for childcare, stressed and exhausted. 3) ‘Anchored by faith: a source of resilience to cope with adversities’. In the face of the multiple adversities, mothers cited their strong faith as their most reliable foundation for their resilience. In summary, the societal and environmental changes accompanying the rapid urbanization in low income settings makes combining child care and working outside the home very challenging for mothers. As a result they suffer from fatigue and feelings of isolation. Efforts to improve child feeding and care in urban low-income settings need to consider context appropriate strategies that support mothers with small children.

Diverse Experience of Immigrant Children: How Do Separation and Reunification Shape Their Development?

Although many immigrant children to the United States arrive with their parents, a notable proportion are first separated and later reunited with their parents. How do the experiences of separation and reunification shape the well-being of immigrant children? Data were from a national survey of legal adult immigrants and their families, the New Immigrant Survey from 2003 to 2004 (for academic achievement, age 6-12, N = 876; for psychosocial well-being, age 6-17, N = 1,084). Results indicated that immigrant children who were once separated from their parents exhibited poorer literacy and higher risk of emotional and behavioral problems than those who migrated with parents. A protracted period of separation and previous undocumented status of parents amplified the disadvantages experienced by these children.

Migration and Parental Absence: A Comparative Assessment of Transnational Families in Latin America

Despite growing research on transnational families and children's welfare in migrant-sending countries, there is a dearth of information about the prevalence of, what we call, parental absence via migration, especially relative to other sources of parental absence, and a lack of estimates that are comparable across populations and places. This makes it difficult to determine the scale for policy interventions, and to justify future research on transnational families and children's welfare. Using harmonized surveys covering eight Latin American countries and Puerto Rico, validated by nationally representative census and survey data, we provide the first estimates of the prevalence parental absence via migration that are comparable across populations in contemporary Latin America. We show that between 7 and 21 percent of children live in transnational families where parents are absent because of migration. We compare our estimates to similar estimates of parental absence from other sources, and show that, in several populations, more children are experiencing parental absence due to migration than to union dissolution or parental mortality. Finally, we link our descriptive work to children's welfare by examining the characteristics of children's home environments when parents migrate. Children living in families with absent parents due to migration are less likely to coreside with extended family members, and to fare better in terms of household assets, relative to children living in other family forms. We conclude by highlighting the limitations of the data, and underscore the value of attempts to estimate the prevalence of parental absence via migration.

Effects of Parental Migration on Life Satisfaction and Academic Achievement of Left-Behind Children in Rural China-A Case Study in Hubei Province

In the rural areas of China, there is a high occurrence of parental migration, wherein adults are flushed into urban areas to search for employment opportunities, leading to millions of left-behind children (LBC) in rural China. LBC attracts more attention from the social community and Chinese government. Here, we compared the life satisfaction and academic achievement of left-behind children (LBC) and non-left-behind children (NLBC) in rural regions that send out migrant labor in Hubei province, central China. We investigated 1031 LBC and 992 NLBC students in grades 4 to 9 in ten elementary and four middle schools, using a structured questionnaire including sociodemographic characteristics, life satisfaction, and academic achievement scores. The results showed that LBC have a lower life satisfaction and lower academic achievement than NLBC (p < 0.01). Meanwhile, as the child’s age at separation from parents decreased, their life satisfaction decreased. Additionally, correlations were observed between life satisfaction and academic achievement scores in LBC (p = 0.004) as well as in NLBC (p = 0.064). Collectively, these findings provide novel insights into a comprehensive understanding of LBC and suggest that the life satisfaction levels of LBC should be improved in rural China.

Mexican parent's undocumented status and the educational attainment of the children left behind

Research shows that having undocumented parents lowers the educational attainment of children that grew up in the United States, but we know less about how it affects the education of children left behind in their origin countries. We use fixed effects models and data from the Mexican Migration Project to examine this relationship. We find that having both parents documented increases the educational attainment of children left behind by over two years in comparison to similar children with mixed-status, undocumented, and nonimmigrant parents. The effect is especially robust for boys that migrate as teenagers. These findings reveal that US immigration laws that define most Mexican immigrants as undocumented have had a devastating effect on the education of Mexican children left behind.

Changes in the Transnational Family Structures of Mexican Farm Workers in the Era of Border Militarization

Historically, undocumented Mexican farm workers migrated circularly, leaving family behind in Mexico on short trips to the United States. Scholars have argued that border militarization has disrupted circular migration as the costs of crossing the border lead to longer stays, increased settlement, and changing transnational family practices. Yet, no study has explored changes in the transnational family structures of Mexico-U.S. migrants that span the era of border militarization. Using data from the National Agricultural Workers Survey, we document a dramatic shift away from transnational family life (as measured by location of residence of dependent children) among undocumented Mexican farm workers and a less dramatic shift among documented Mexican farm workers in the United States between 1993 and 2012. These trends are not explained by changes in the sociodemographic characteristics of farm workers or by changing demographic conditions or rising violence in Mexico. One-half of the trend can be accounted for by lengthened duration of stay and increased connections to the United States among the undocumented, but none of the trend is explained by these measures of settlement among the documented, suggesting that some Mexican farm workers adopt new family migration strategies at first migration. Increases in border control are associated with lower likelihood that children reside in Mexico-a finding that holds up to instrumental variable techniques. Our findings confirm the argument that U.S. border militarization-a policy designed to deter undocumented migration-is instead disrupting transnational family life between Mexico and the United States and, in doing so, is creating a permanent population of undocumented migrants and their children in the United States.

Long-term impacts of parental migration on Chinese children's psychosocial well-being: mitigating and exacerbating factors

PURPOSE

Prolonged separation from migrant parents raises concerns for the well-being of 60 million left behind children (LBC) in rural China. This study aimed to investigate the impact of current and previous parental migration on child psychosocial well-being, with a focus on emotional and behavioral outcomes, while considering factors in family care and support.

METHODS

Children were recruited from schools in migrant-sending rural areas in Zhejiang and Guizhou provinces by random stratified sampling. A self-administered questionnaire measured children's psychosocial well-being, demographics, household characteristics, and social support. Multiple linear regression models examined the effects of parental migration and other factors on psychosocial difficulties.

RESULTS

Data from 1930 current, 907 previous, and 701 never LBC were included (mean age 12.4, SD 2.1). Adjusted models showed both previous and current parental migration was associated with significantly higher overall psychosocial difficulties, involving aspects of emotion, conduct, peer relationships, hyperactivity, and pro-social behaviors. Parental divorce and lack of available support demonstrated a strong association with greater total difficulties. While children in Guizhou had much worse psychosocial outcomes than those in Zhejiang, adjusted subgroup analysis showed similar magnitude of between-province disparities regardless of parental migration status. However, having divorced parents and lack of support were greater psychosocial risk factors for current and previous-LBC than for never LBC.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental migration has an independent, long-lasting adverse effect on children. Psychosocial well-being of LBC depends more on the relationship bonds between nuclear family members and the availability of support, rather than socioeconomic status.

Age at migration, family instability, and timing of sexual onset

This study builds on and extends previous research on nativity variations in adolescent health and risk behavior by addressing three questions: (1) whether and how generational status and age at migration are associated with timing of sexual onset among U.S. adolescents; (2) whether and how family instability mediates associations between nativity and sexual debut; and (3) whether and how these associations vary by gender. We find that first- and second-generation immigrant youth initiate sexual activity later than native youth. Foreign-born youth who migrate after the start of adolescence exhibit the latest sexual onset; boys' sexual behavior is particularly sensitive to age at migration. Parental union stability is protective for first- and second-generation youth, especially boys; however, instability in co-residence with parents accelerates sexual debut for foreign-born girls, and dilutes protections from parental marital stability. Use of a non-English language at home delays sexual onset for immigrant girls, but not boys.

Two Sources of Error in Data on Migration From Mexico to the United States in Mexican Household-Based Surveys

We examine the nature and degree of two sources of error in data on migration from Mexico to the United States in Mexican household-based surveys: (1) sampling error that results when whole households migrate and no one is left behind to report their migration; and (2) reporting errors that result when migrants are not identified by survey respondents. Using data from the first two waves of the Mexican Family Life Survey, which tracked Mexican migrants to the United States from 2002 to 2005, we find that one-half of migrants from Mexico to the United States are not counted as a result of these two sources of error. Misreporting is the larger source of error, accounting for more than one-third of all migrants. Those who are not counted, especially whole-household migrants, are a unique group. Their omission results in an underestimate of female migrants, child migrants, and migrants from the Mexican border region, and an overestimate of migrants from the periphery region.

The Potential and Limitations of Cross-Context Comparative Research on Migration

This article is an overview of household survey approaches for the comparative study of international migration dynamics. Focusing on differences in the drivers of international mobility at different times and places, I highlight the problems of obtaining data with adequate representation across time periods and geographies, and discuss a broad constellation of prospective and retrospective approaches, paying particular attention to the migration ethnosurvey. I place this methodology within a broader constellation of prospective and retrospective data collection techniques, briefly describing the advantages and disadvantages of each and summarizing the commonalities and differences of ethnosurvey approaches adopted around the world. In particular, I discuss the potential and limitations of cross-context research and suggest post hoc case selection and other adjustments to ameliorate problems. I conclude with ideas about how case and sample selection can help to bolster migration studies in the future.

Sexual onset and contraceptive use among adolescents from poor neighbourhoods in Managua, Nicaragua

Background and objectives The prevalence of teenage pregnancies in Nicaragua is the highest in Latin-America. This study aimed to gain insight into factors which determine the sexual behaviours concerned.

Methods From July until August 2011, a door-to-door survey was conducted among adolescents living in randomly selected poor neighbourhoods of Managua. Logistic regression was used to analyse factors related to sexual onset and contraceptive use.

Results Data from 2803 adolescents were analysed. Of the 475 and 299 sexually active boys and girls, 43% and 54%, respectively, reported contraceptive use. Sexual onset was positively related to increasing age, male sex, alcohol consumption and not living with the parents. Catholic boys and boys never feeling peer pressure to have sexual intercourse were more likely to report consistent condom use. Having a partner and feeling comfortable talking about sexuality with the partner were associated with hormonal contraception.

Conclusions Our data identified associates of adolescents’ sexual behaviour related to personal characteristics (sex and alcohol use), to the interaction with significant others (parents, partners, peers) and to the environment (housing condition, religion). We interpreted those associates within the context of the rapidly changing society and the recently implemented health system reform in Nicaragua.

Chinese Abstract

摘要

背景与目的 尼加瓜拉是拉丁美洲青少年妊娠率最高的国家。本研究旨在深入了解其性行为相关因素。

方法 2011年7月至8月，研究者在马那瓜贫困地区随机抽样，通过入户访视对青少年进行调查。统计方法采用Logistic回归，分析与性发生及避孕相关的影响因素。

结果 研究分析了2 803名青少年的数据。在475名与299名有性活动的男孩与女孩中，分别有43%与54%采取了避孕措施。研究表明，性发生与年龄增长、男性性别、酒精摄入及脱离父母独居等因素呈正相关。天主教男孩与从未感受到性交方面同侪压力的男孩会坚持使用避孕套。有性伴侣且可以与性伴侣坦然讨论性话题与避孕药的使用相关。

结论 研究数据表明，青少年性行为与个人特征（性活动及酒精摄入）、其他个体影响（父母、性伴侣、同侪）以及环境因素（住房条件、宗教）相关。我们认为这些相关性发生的背景为尼加拉瓜瞬息万变的社会环境与近期实施的医疗系统体制的改革。

Immigration and the Family Circumstances of Mexican-Origin Children: A Binational Longitudinal Analysis

Using data from the birth cohort of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (n = 1,200) and the Mexican Family Life Survey (n = 1,013), this study investigated the living arrangements of Mexican-origin preschool children. The analysis examined children's family circumstances in both sending and receiving countries, used longitudinal data to capture family transitions, and considered the intersection between nuclear and extended family structures. Between ages 0-1 and 4-5, Mexican children of immigrants experienced significantly more family instability than children in Mexico. They were more likely to transition from 2-parent to single-parent families and from extended family households to simple households. There were fewer differences between U.S. children with immigrant versus native parents, but the higher level of single parenthood among children of natives at ages 0-1 and the greater share making transitions from a 2-parent to a single-parent family suggest ongoing erosion of children's family support across generations in the United States.