Indocyanine Green-Conjugated Magnetic Prussian Blue Nanoparticles for Synchronous Photothermal/Photodynamic Tumor Therapy

Smart SPIONs for Multimodal Cancer Theranostics: A Review

Despite significant advancements in anticancer research, the performance statistics of current therapeutic regimens yield unsatisfactory outcomes. Issues such as high metastasis rates, drug resistance, limited efficacy, and severe side effects underscore the urgent need for safer and more effective strategies for tumor mitigation. One promising approach lies in the use of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) for hybridized cancer therapy, leveraging their unique properties and functional versatility to enhance treatment efficacy and safety. They can serve as platforms for various therapeutic as well as diagnostic applications, enhancing imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging. This paper presents an in-depth compilation of the application of nanoparticulate SPIONs amalgamates for multimodal cancer therapeutics. Physical phenomena such as light, heat, sound, and magnetism can be coupled to nanoparticulate delivery systems for developing targeted, precision medicine against cancer. Integration of noninvasive and effective platforms technologies such as photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, magnetic hyperthermia, and sonodynamic therapy hold great promise in counteracting the daunting challenges within cancer therapeutics.

Photodynamic therapy could serve as a promising approach to prevent posterior capsular opacification

Posterior capsular opacification (PCO) causes the vision that has been restored after cataract surgery to become blurred again. YAG laser treatment for PCO not only incurs additional costs but also poses risks of complications, including glaucoma and retinal disorders. Effective prevention and management of PCO remain an area requiring active research. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) utilizes a photosensitizer (PS) to transform oxygen into reactive oxygen species (ROS) under specific wavelengths of light, thereby inducing apoptosis. Given its minimal invasiveness and high specificity, PDT has been extensively applied in the treatment of conditions characterized by abnormal cell proliferation, such as tumors. Considering the pathogenesis of PCO, PDT has demonstrated promising clinical application potential in ophthalmic disease treatment. This review examines the impact of photodynamic therapy on the biological behavior of lens epithelial cells (LECs) and its efficacy in treating PCO. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of different photosensitizers and their clinical application potential.

Metal hexacyanoferrates in photodynamic and photothermal therapies

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves a reaction between photosensitizers (PS) and oxygen (O2) to generate cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), which effectively eliminate undesired cells. Compared to conventional treatments like surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, PDT offers several advantages, including minimal toxicity to healthy tissues and no long-term systemic side effects. However, its therapeutic efficacy is limited under hypoxic conditions, as the process relies on the presence of oxygen in the target tissue. To address these challenges, combining PDT with photothermal therapy (PTT) creates a synergistic phototherapy approach. The heat generated by PTT enhances blood flow in tumors, increasing oxygen delivery to tumor sites and boosting PDT's effectiveness. These combinations are being explored in PDT/PTT as an innovative, synergistic cancer treatment strategy, aiming to enhance the therapeutic index. One promising strategy to connect both PDT and PTT therapies involves developing nanosystems that integrate metal hexacyanoferrate (MHCF) nanoparticles with multifunctional PS. Here, we review several studies that have evaluated the combination of MHCF with various PSs to apply PDT and PTT synergistically. We discuss how nanocomposites based on these materials can address the challenges and limitations still faced in PDT/PTT. This review aims to identify new opportunities for the application of metal hexacyanoferrates in these phototherapeutic modalities.

Mulberry Leaves-Derived Carbon Dots for Photodynamic Treatment of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus-Infected Wounds via Metabolic Perturbation

Antibiotic-resistant pathogens pose a significant global public health challenge, particularly in refractory infections associated with biofilms. The urgent development of innovative, safe, and therapeutically adaptive strategies to combat these resistant biofilms is essential. We present a novel, precise, and controllable photodynamic antibacterial carbon dot (B-M-CD) inspired by the natural antibacterial properties of the mulberry leaf and the bacterial targeting function of boric acid. This photocatalytic antibacterial agent exhibits good biocompatibility and utilizes its inherent antibacterial activities, along with photoactivated oxidase-mimicking activity, to generate reactive oxygen species for the eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). By leveraging the reversible covalent binding between boronic acid groups and cis-diol groups on bacterial surfaces, we further enhance the targeted antibacterial activity. B-M-CDs effectively penetrate extracellular polymeric substances and demonstrate a precise photodynamic antibacterial effect, allowing for localized delivery aimed at biofilm inhibition and destruction. Metabolomic analyses reveal that B-M-CDs disrupt amino acid metabolism, protein synthesis, electron transport chain, and energy metabolism in MRSA. In vivo experiments confirm that this photocatalyst effectively treats MRSA-induced wounds with an efficacy comparable to that of vancomycin while also exhibiting high biocompatibility. This study represents the first development of a precise, photoactivated, controllable, and targeted carbon-based antibacterial nanozyme derived from the traditional Chinese herb, mulberry leaf, providing a novel strategy for designing intelligent antibacterial nanoagents and underscoring their potential as candidate therapeutics for conditions analogous to MRSA infections.

Bioinspired Fe3O4@Ag@ indocyanine green/adenosine triphosphate nanoenzyme in synergistic antibacterial performance

Metal-based nanoenzymes with excellent biocompatibility and stable chemical properties are an effective antimicrobial agent against bacterial resistance due to their radical-mediated catalysis. In this work, due to the pH of most bacterial infection sites being close to neutral, targeting the problem of Fe3O4@Ag difficulty in maintaining the catalytic activity of nanoenzymes in neutral environments, we prepare a novel multifunctional Fe3O4@Ag@ indocyanine green/adenosine triphosphate peroxidase nanoenzymes for synergistic antibacterial activity. ICG (Indocyanine Green) and ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) are adsorbed on the surface of Fe3O4@Ag through electrostatic adsorption to form its structure. The cell viability remained above 90%, indicating its good biocompatibility. By complexing ATP with nanoenzymes to participate in single electron transfer and binding with Fe (II), ATP promotes the sudden release of hydroxyl radical (·OH) from the system, successfully transferring Fe3O4@Ag the peroxidase activity of nanoenzymes extends to neutral pH. By utilizing ICG as a photosensitizer and a sonosensitizer, under the combined treatment of near-infrared light and ultrasound, the photodynamic therapy (PDT)/photothermal therapy (PTT)/sonodynamic therapy (SDT) functions can be achieved, achieving multifunctional synergistic antibacterial effects. In a neutral environment, its bactericidal efficiency against Gram negative (Escherichia coli) and Gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus) is 99.9% and 99.7%, respectively, providing a new multi-mode synergistic antibacterial strategy for bacterial infections.

"Integrated Stacked" Design "Nanobullet" for High Photothermal Conversion in Dual-Mode Lateral Flow Immunoassay

Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium (S. typhimurium), a prevalent foodborne bacterium, necessitates creating sensitive and rapid detection methods for food safety, with lateral flow immunoassays (LFIAs) using nanomaterials as signal tracers being particularly effective. Enhancements in performance and sensitivity are not restricted to the material alone, we propose an "integrated stacked" concept, which combines amorphous active sites, hollow morphology for enhanced reflection, and symmetric structure for strong absorption resonance. This approach leads to significant photothermal enhancement (η = 60.66%) and is supported by finite element analysis (|E|max2 = 3100). A hollow "nanobullet" (RuTe2) was created, featuring a vivid colorimetric signal enhancing the detection range, a large specific surface area (≈6:1) for improved antibody binding, and excellent photothermal properties facilitating dual-mode transduction. After 5 min of binding, the detection limits of RuTe2-LFIA for S. typhimurium after 12 min were 2398.83 cfu mL-1 (colorimetric) and 977.23 cfu mL-1 (photothermal), which were 36.14 and 88.72 times lower than the values of AuNPs-LFIA (86696.19 cfu mL-1). The superior performance of RuTe2-LFIA suggests potential advancements in photothermal materials for point-of-care testing.

Orthogonally conjugated phthalocyanine-porphyrin oligomer for NIR photothermal-photodynamic antibacterial treatment

With the increase of antibiotic resistance worldwide, there is an urgent demand to develop new fungicides and approaches to address the threat to human health posed by the ineffectiveness of traditional antibiotics. In this work, an orthogonal conjugated uniform oligomer bactericide of SiPc-ddCPP was constructed between silicon phthalocyanine and porphyrin, which can effectively treat infection through photodynamic-photothermal combined therapy without considering drug resistance. Compared with organic photothermal agents induced by unstable H-aggregation with blue-shifted absorption and fluorescence/ROS quenching, this orthogonal-structured uniform SiPc-ddCPP nanoparticle shows remarkably stability and NIR photothermal effect (η = 31.15%) along with fluorescence and ROS generation. Antibacterial studies have shown that both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria could be efficiently annihilated in a few minutes through synergistic PDT-PTT along with satisfactory bacterial targeting. These results suggest SiPc-ddCPP is a multifunctional NIR bactericide, which afford a new approach of synergistic PDT-PTT sterilization to conquer the crisis of antibiotic resistance.

Anti-Tumor Strategies of Photothermal Therapy Combined with Other Therapies Using Nanoplatforms

Conventional cancer treatments often have complications and serious side effects, with limited improvements in 5-year survival and quality of life. Photothermal therapy (PTT) employs materials that convert light to heat when exposed to near-infrared light to raise the temperature of the tumor site to directly ablate tumor cells, induce immunogenic cell death, and improve the tumor microenvironment. This therapy has several benefits, including minimal invasiveness, high efficacy, reduced side effects, and robust targeting capabilities. Beyond just photothermal conversion materials, nanoplatforms significantly contribute to PTT by supplying effective photothermal conversion materials and bolstering tumor targeting to amplify anti-tumor effects. However, the anti-tumor effects of PTT alone are ultimately limited and often need to be combined with other therapies. This narrative review describes the recent progress of PTT combined with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, gas therapy, chemodynamic therapy, photoacoustic imaging, starvation therapy, and multimodal therapy. Studies have shown that combining PTT with other treatments can improve efficacy, reduce side effects, and overcome drug resistance. Despite the encouraging results, challenges such as optimizing treatment protocols, addressing tumor heterogeneity, and overcoming biological barriers remain. This paper highlights the potential for personalized, multimodal approaches to improve cancer treatment outcomes.

Ginger-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles Loaded With Indocyanine Green Enhances Phototherapy Efficacy for Breast Cancer

PURPOSE

Phototherapy has remarkable advantages in cancer treatment, owing to its high efficiency and minimal invasiveness. Indocyanine green (ICG) plays an important role in photo-mediated therapy. However, it has several disadvantages such as poor stability in aqueous solutions, easy aggregation of molecules, and short plasma half-life. This study aimed to develop an efficient nanoplatform to enhance the effects of photo-mediated therapy.

METHODS

We developed a novel bio-nanoplatform by integrating edible ginger-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (GDNPs) and the photosensitizer, ICG (GDNPs@ICG). GDNPs were isolated from ginger juice and loaded with ICG by co-incubation. The size distribution, zeta potential, morphology, total lipid content, and drug release behavior of the GDNPs@ICG were characterized. The photothermal performance, cellular uptake and distribution, cytotoxicity, anti-tumor effects, and mechanism of action of GDNPs@ICG were investigated both in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

GDNPs@ICG were taken up by tumor cells via a lipid-dependent pathway. When irradiated by an 808 nm NIR laser, GDNPs@ICG generated high levels of ROS, MDA, and local hyperthermia within the tumor, which caused lipid peroxidation and ER stress, thus enhancing the photo-mediated breast tumor therapy effect. Furthermore, in vivo studies demonstrated that engineered GDNPs@ICG significantly inhibited breast tumor growth and presented limited toxicity. Moreover, by detecting the expression of CD31, N-cadherin, IL-6, IFN-γ, CD8, p16, p21, and p53 in tumor tissues, we found that GDNPs@ICG substantially reduced angiogenesis, inhibited metastasis, activated the anti-tumor immune response, and promoted cell senescence in breast tumor.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated that the novel bio-nanoplatform GDNPs@ICG enhanced the photo-mediated therapeutic effect in breast tumor. GDNPs@ICG could be an alternative for precise and efficient anti-tumor phototherapy.

Application of Multifunctional Metal Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Glioma

Glioma is the most common primary malignant brain tumor with a poor survival rate. It is characterized by diffuse and invasive growth and heterogeneity, which limits tumor identification and complete resection. Therefore, the precise detection and postoperative adjuvant therapy of gliomas have become increasingly important and urgent. Nanotechnology, with its excellent biocompatibility and controllable chemical properties, has attracted much attention in recent decades. Metal nanoparticles are widely used in the field of biomedical imaging and detection, and have shown promising applications in targeted drug delivery and therapy. The current review aims to systematically summarize the application of different types of metal nanoparticles in the treatment and detection of glioma. We also discussed the advantages and mechanisms of metal nanoparticles when used for glioma therapy, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy and photothermal therapy. We hope to promote the application of metallic nanoparticles in glioma diagnosis and treatment, moving towards clinical translation to benefit patients.

Near-Infrared Light-Activated DNA Nanodevice for Spatiotemporal In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging of Messenger RNA

Real-time visualization of messenger RNA (mRNA) is essential for tumor classification, grading, and staging. However, the low signal-to-background ratios and nonspatiotemporal specific signal amplification restricted the in vivo imaging of mRNA. In this study, a near-infrared (NIR) light-activated DNA nanodevice (DND) was developed for spatiotemporal in vivo fluorescence imaging of mRNA. The DND was fabricated by encapsulating indocyanine green (ICG) and DNA fluorescent probes within thermosensitive liposomes and subsequently functionalizing the liposomes with aptamers. The ICG offers the "always-on" fluorescence signal, offering a feasible strategy for monitoring DND distribution. The fluorescence signal of DNA probes remains inactive ("off" state) during the delivery process. Upon targeted delivery of the DNDs to tumor cells via aptamer recognition, the thermosensitive liposomes could be dissociated by the photothermal effect induced by ICG under near-infrared irradiation, thereby facilitating the release of DNA probes. The DNA probes were activated ("turn on") by tumor-specific thymidine kinase 1 (TK1) mRNA through toehold-mediated strand displacement cascades, enabling the signal-amplified fluorescence imaging of mRNA. This study reveals the distinctive light-activated merit and remarkable fluorescence imaging of DNDs, highlighting their great potential to promote progress in spatiotemporal resolution imaging of other disease-relevant RNAs in vivo.

Blood-brain barrier permeable carbon nano-assemblies for amyloid-β clearance and neurotoxic attenuation

Abnormal amyloid β-protein (Aβ42) fibrillation is a key event in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and photodynamic therapy (PDT) possesses great potential in modulating Aβ42 self-assembly. However, the poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration, low biocompatibility, and limited tissue penetration depth of existing photosensitizers limit the progress of photo-oxidation strategies. In this paper, novel indocyanine green-modified graphene quantum dot nano-assemblies (NBGQDs-ICGs) were synthesized based on a molecular assembly strategy of electrostatic interactions for PDT inhibition of Aβ42 self-assembly process and decomposition of preformed fibrils under near-infrared light. Combining the small-size structure of graphene quantum dots and the near-infrared light-responsive properties of ICGs, the NBGQDs-ICGs could achieve BBB penetration under 808 nm irradiation. More importantly, the neuroprotective mechanism of NBGQDs-ICG was studied for the first time by AFM, which effectively weakened the adhesion of Aβ42 aggregates to the cell surface by blocking the interaction between Aβ42 and the cell membrane, and restored the mechanical stability and adhesion of the neuron membrane. Meanwhile, NBGQDs-ICG promoted phagocytosis of Aβ42 by microglia. In addition, the good biocompatibility and stability ensured the biosafety of NBGQDs-ICG in future clinical applications. We anticipate that such multifunctional nanocomponents may provide promising avenues for the development of novel AD inhibitors.

Cuproptosis-based layer-by-layer silk fibroin nanoplatform-loaded PD-L1 siRNA combining photothermal and chemodynamic therapy against metastatic breast cancer

Cuproptosis is a newly identified form of copper-dependent cell death that differs from other known pathways. This discovery provides a new way to explore copper-based nanomaterial applications in cancer therapy. This study used a layer-by-layer self-assembling method to load Cu2-xS nanoparticle (NP) cores with the siRNA of the PD-L1 immune escape-related gene and wrap a silk fibroin (SF) shell to form a multifunctional copper-based SF nanoplatform, denoted as CuS-PEI-siRNA-SFNs. CuS-PEI-siRNA-SFNs induced cuproptosis and exerted an antitumor effect via multiple mechanisms, including photothermal therapy (PTT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), and immune activation. The presence of significant dihydrolipoamide S-acetyltransferase (DLAT) oligomers in 4T1 cells treated with CuS-PEI-siRNA-SFNs indicated the triggering of cuproptosis. Furthermore, in vivo experimental results showed that CuS-PEI-siRNA-SFNs efficiently accumulated in the tumor tissues of 4T1 tumor-bearing mice inhibited primary tumor and lung metastasis, and displayed excellent biosafety and antitumor activity. This study demonstrated that the synergistic effect of cuproptosis, PTT, CDT, and immune activation showed promise for treating metastatic breast cancer.

Enhanced cadmium removal by a magnetic potassium ferrocyanide framework: Performance and mechanism study

Polluted environments often contain large amounts of toxic metals, such as cadmium, which pose a major threat to ecosystems and public health. Contamination by cadmium and its compounds is often observed in areas surrounding zinc mining sites and electroplating factories, and the control of cadmium pollution is essential for environmental safety and health. In this study, a highly efficient and straightforward separation strategy for K4Fe(CN)6@Fe3O4 nanocomposites is successfully developed to capture the Cd ions in the water environment. Batch adsorption experiments revealed that K4Fe(CN)6@Fe3O4 exhibited a high cadmium removal rate (greater than 98 %) at a pH level of 6.0 and solid-liquid ratio of 1.0 g/L at room temperature (298 K). Kinetic analysis revealed that the adsorption process followed a pseudo-second-order model and cadmium was rapidly removed in the first 10 min, with chemisorption dominating the capture of Cd2+ by K4Fe(CN)6@Fe3O4. Adsorption isotherms revealed a heterogeneous adsorption behavior, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 40.78 mg/g. The intrinsic adsorption of Cd2+ by K4Fe(CN)6@Fe3O4 occurring primarily through electrostatic interaction and ion exchange. In addition, K4Fe(CN)6@Fe3O4 exhibited an excellent regeneration capacity. Therefore, integrating Fe3O4 into the metal cyanide not only provided the composite material with excellent chemical stability and selective adsorption sites for Cd2+, but also facilitated subsequent sorbent collection and recovery. Overall, this study presents a simple and feasible approach for integrating Fe3O4 into potassium ferrocyanide frameworks for efficient cadmium removal from contaminated water.

Indocyanine green-loaded N-doped carbon quantum dot nanoparticles for effective photodynamic therapy and cell imaging of melanoma cancer: in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo study

BACKGROUND

Indocyanine Green (ICG) as an agent for photodynamic therapy (PDT) of melanoma cancer has low quantum yield, short circulation half-life, poor photo-stability, and tendency to aggregation.

PURPOSE

N-doped carbon quantum dot (CQD) nanoparticle was applied to encapsulate ICG and overcome ICG obstacle in PDT with simultaneous cell imaging property.

METHODS

CQD was prepared using hydrothermal method. Cell culture study and In vivo assessments on C57BL/6 mice containing melanoma cancer cells was performed.

RESULTS

Results showed that CQD size slightly enhanced from 24.55 nm to 42.67 nm after ICG loading. Detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) demonstrated that CQD improved ICG photo-stability and ROS generation capacity upon laser irradiation. Cell culture study illustrated that ICG@CQD could decrease survival rate of melanoma cancer cells of B16F10 cell line from 48% for pure ICG to 28% for ICG@CQD. Confocal microscopy images approved more cellular uptake and more qualified cell imaging ability of ICG@CQD. In vivo assessments displayed obvious inhibitory effect of tumor growth for ICG@CQD in comparison to free ICG on the C57BL/6 mice. In vivo fluorescence images confirmed that ICG@CQD accumulates remarkably more than free ICG in tumor region. Finally, ICG@CQD was proposed as an innovative nanocarrier for PDT and diagnosis.

"Rigid-Flexible" Dual-Ferrocene Chimeric Nanonetwork for Simultaneous Tumor-Targeted Tracing and Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy

There is an urgent need to develop phototherapeutic agents with imaging capabilities to assess the treatment process and efficacy in real-time during cancer phototherapy for precision cancer therapy. The safe near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent dyes have garnered significant attention and are desirable for theranostics agents. However, until now, achieving excellent photostability and fluorescence (FL) imaging capability in aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) dyes remains a big challenge. Here, for the only FDA-approved NIR dye, indocyanine green (ICG), we developed a dual-ferrocene (Fc) chimeric nanonetwork ICG@HFFC based on the rigid-flexible strategy through one-step self-assembly, which uses rigid Fc-modified hyaluronic acid (HA) copolymer (HA-Fc) and flexible octadecylamine (ODA) bonded Fc (Fc-C18) as the delivery system. HA-Fc reserved the ability of HA to target the CD44 receptor of the tumor cell surface, and the dual-Fc region provided a rigid space for securely binding ICG through metal-ligand interaction and π-π conjugation, ensuring excellent photostability. Additionally, the alkyl chain provided flexible confinement for the remaining ICG through hydrophobic forces, preserving its FL. Thereby, a balance is achieved between outstanding photostability and FL imaging capability. In vitro studies showed improved photobleaching resistance, enhanced FL stability, and increased singlet oxygen (1O2) production efficiency in ICG@HFFC. Further in vivo results display that ICG@HFFC had good tumor tracing ability and significant tumor inhibition which also exhibited good biocompatibility.. Therefore, ICG@HFFC provides an encouraging strategy to realize simultaneous enhanced tumor tracing and photothermal/photodynamic therapy (PTT/PDT) and offers a novel approach to address the limitations of ACQ dyes.

Development of Indocyanine Green/Methyl-β-cyclodextrin Complex-Loaded Liposomes for Enhanced Photothermal Cancer Therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising cancer therapeutic approach due to its spatial selectivity and high potency. Indocyanine green (ICG) has been considered a biocompatible PTT agent. However, ICG has several challenges to hinder its clinical use including rapid blood clearance and instability to heat, light, and solvent, leading to a loss of photoactivation property and PTT efficacy. Herein, we leveraged stabilizing components, methyl-β-cyclodextrin and liposomes, in one nanoplatform (ICD lipo) to enhance ICG stability and the photothermal therapeutic effect against cancer. Compared to ICG, ICD lipo displayed a 4.8-fold reduction in degradation in PBS solvent after 30 days and a 3.4-fold reduction in photobleaching after near-infrared laser irradiation. Moreover, in tumor-bearing mice, ICD lipo presented a 2.7-fold increase in tumor targetability and inhibited tumor growth 9.6 times more effectively than did ICG without any serious toxicity. We believe that ICD lipo could be a potential PTT agent for cancer therapeutics.

Prussian blue nanoparticle-based pH-responsive self-assembly for enhanced photothermal and chemotherapy of tumors

In recent years, there has been growing interest in size-transformable nanoplatforms that exhibit active responses to acidic microenvironments, presenting promising prospects in the field of nanomedicine for tumor therapy. However, the design and fabrication of such size-adjustable nanotherapeutics pose significant challenges compared to size-fixed nanocomposites, primarily due to their distinct pH-responsive requirements. In this study, we developed pH-activated-aggregating nanosystems to integrate chemotherapy and photothermal therapy by creating size-transformable nanoparticles based on Prussian blue nanoparticles (PB NPs) anchored with acid-responsive polyoxometalates (POMs) quantum dots via electrostatic interactions (PPP NPs). Subsequently, we utilized doxorubicin (DOX) as a representative drug to formulate PPPD NPs. Notably, PPPD NPs exhibited a significant response to acidic conditions, resulting in changes in surface charge and rapid aggregation of PPP NPs. Furthermore, the aggregated PPP NPs demonstrated excellent photothermal properties under near-infrared laser irradiation. Importantly, PPPD NPs prolonged their retention time in tumor cells via a size-transformation approach. In vitro cellular assays revealed that the anticancer efficacy of PPPD NPs was significantly enhanced. The IC50 values for the PPPD NPs groupand the PPPD NPs + NIR group were 50.11 μg/mL and 30.9 μg/mL. Overall, this study introduces a novel strategy for cancer therapy by developing size-aggregating nano-drugs with stimuli-responsive properties, holding promise for improved therapeutic outcomes in future combination approaches involving photothermal therapy and chemotherapy.

Repurposing indocyanine green: exploring the potential of an old drug in modern medicine

The repurposing of existing drugs, referred to as theranostics, has made profound impacts on precision medicine. Indocyanine green (ICG), a well-established and clinical dye, has continued to be a star agent, described as a multifunctional molecule with concurrent photo- or sono-sensitiveness capabilities and co-delivery accessibility, showing remarkable potential in the area of unimodal or multimodal imaging-guided therapy of various diseases, leading to the extensive consideration of immediate clinical translations. In this review, we strive to bring the understanding of repurposing performance assessment for ICG into practice by clarifying the relationships between its features and applicability. Specifically, we address the obstacles encountered in the process of developing an ICG repurposing strategy, as well as the noteworthy advancements made in the field of ICG repurposing. We also go into detail about the structure-function correlations of drugs containing ICG and how different structural groups significantly affect the physicochemical properties.

Tumor Cell-Targeting and Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive Nanoplatforms for the Multimodal Imaging-Guided Photodynamic/Photothermal/Chemodynamic Treatment of Cervical Cancer

Purpose

Phototherapy, known for its high selectivity, few side effects, strong controllability, and synergistic enhancement of combined treatments, is widely used in treating diseases like cervical cancer.

Methods

In this study, hollow mesoporous manganese dioxide was used as a carrier to construct positively charged, poly(allylamine hydrochloride)-modified nanoparticles (NPs). The NP was efficiently loaded with the photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) via the addition of hydrogen phosphate ions to produce a counterion aggregation effect. HeLa cell membrane encapsulation was performed to achieve the final M-HMnO2@ICG NP. In this structure, the HMnO2 carrier responsively degrades to release ICG in the tumor microenvironment, self-generates O2 for sensitization to ICG-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT), and consumes GSH to expand the oxidative stress therapeutic effect [chemodynamic therapy (CDT) + PDT]. The ICG accumulated in tumor tissues exerts a synergistic PDT/photothermal therapy (PTT) effect through single laser irradiation, improving efficiency and reducing side effects. The cell membrane encapsulation increases nanomedicine accumulation in tumor tissues and confers an immune evasion ability. In addition, high local temperatures induced by PTT can enhance CDT. These properties of the NP enable full achievement of PTT/PDT/CDT and targeted effects.

Results

Mn2+ can serve as a magnetic resonance imaging agent to guide therapy, and ICG can be used for photothermal and fluorescence imaging. After its intravenous injection, M-HMnO2@ICG accumulated effectively at mouse tumor sites; the optimal timing of in-vivo laser treatment could be verified by near-infrared fluorescence, magnetic resonance, and photothermal imaging. The M-HMnO2@ICG NPs had the best antitumor effects among treatment groups under near-infrared light conditions, and showed good biocompatibility.

Conclusion

In this study, we designed a nano-biomimetic delivery system that improves hypoxia, responds to the tumor microenvironment, and efficiently loads ICG. It provides a new economical and convenient strategy for synergistic phototherapy and CDT for cervical cancer.

Magneto-optical nanosystems for tumor multimodal imaging and therapy in-vivo

Multimodal imaging, which combines the strengths of two or more imaging modalities to provide complementary anatomical and molecular information, has emerged as a robust technology for enhancing diagnostic sensitivity and accuracy, as well as improving treatment monitoring. Moreover, the application of multimodal imaging in guiding precision tumor treatment can prevent under- or over-treatment, thereby maximizing the benefits for tumor patients. In recent years, several intriguing magneto-optical nanosystems with both magnetic and optical properties have been developed, leading to significant breakthroughs in the field of multimodal imaging and image-guided tumor therapy. These advancements pave the way for precise tumor medicine. This review summarizes various types of magneto-optical nanosystems developed recently and describes their applications as probes for multimodal imaging and agents for image-guided therapeutic interventions. Finally, future research and development prospects of magneto-optical nanosystems are discussed along with an outlook on their further applications in the biomedical field.

Morusin-Cu(II)-indocyanine green nanoassembly ignites mitochondrial dysfunction for chemo-photothermal tumor therapy

Nanoscale drug delivery systems derived from natural bioactive materials accelerate the innovation and evolution of cancer treatment modalities. Morusin (Mor) is a prenylated flavonoid compound with high cancer chemoprevention activity, however, the poor water solubility, low active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) loading content, and instability compromise its bioavailability and therapeutic effectiveness. Herein, a full-API carrier-free nanoparticle is developed based on the self-assembly of indocyanine green (ICG), copper ions (Cu2+) and Mor, termed as IMCNs, via coordination-driven and π-π stacking for synergistic tumor therapy. The IMCNs exhibits a desirable loading content of Mor (58.7 %) and pH/glutathione (GSH)-responsive motif. Moreover, the photothermal stability and photo-heat conversion efficiency (42.8 %) of IMCNs are improved after coordination with Cu2+ and help to achieve photothermal therapy. Afterward, the released Cu2+ depletes intracellular overexpressed GSH and mediates Fenton-like reactions, and further synergizes with ICG at high temperatures to expand oxidative damage. Furthermore, the released Mor elicits cytoplasmic vacuolation, expedites mitochondrial dysfunction, and exerts chemo-photothermal therapy after being combined with ICG to suppress the migration of residual live tumor cells. In vivo experiments demonstrate that IMCNs under laser irradiation could excellently inhibit tumor growth (89.6 %) through the multi-modal therapeutic performance of self-enhanced chemotherapy/coordinated-drugs/ photothermal therapy (PTT), presenting a great potential for cancer therapy.

A multimode biosensor based on prussian blue nanoparticles loaded with gold nanoclusters for the detection of aflatoxin B1

Herein, a novel fluorescent/colorimetric/photothermal biosensor is proposed for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) detection in food based on Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNPs) (∼50 nm), gold nanoclusters (AuNCs), and an aptamer (Apt) within three hours. Briefly, a multifunctional compound, namely PBNPs-PEI@AuNCs, was synthesized from PBNPs as the loading carrier, polyethyleneimine (PEI) as the cross-linking agent, and AuNCs directly combined on the surface of PBNPs. The AFB1 Apt was then modified on the PBNPs-PEI@AuNCs to form a PBNPs-PEI@AuNCs-Apt probe, whereby when AFB1 is present, AFB1 is specifically captured by the probe. Meanwhile, the MNPs@antibody was also introduced to capture AFB1, thereby forming a "sandwich" structure compound. After magnetic separation, high temperature was applied to this "sandwich" structure compound to induce the denaturation of the Apt. Then the fluorescent/colorimetric/photothermal signals were collected from the PBNPs-PEI@AuNCs@Apt to give information on its related condition. The detection limits of the biosensor were 0.64 × 10-14, 0.96 × 10-14, and 0.55 × 10-12 g mL-1 for the three signals, which were outputted independently and could be verified with each other to ensure the accuracy of the results. Moreover, the colorimetric and photothermal strategies with this probe do not require large-scale instruments, providing a promising choice for achieving the rapid field detection of AFB1.

CDs-ICG@BSA nanoparticles for excellent phototherapy and in situ bioimaging

For the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, a great challenge is the fabrication of straightforward, non-toxic, multifunctional green nanomaterials. In this study, carbon quantum dots self-assembled with indocyanine green dye at bovine serum albumin for phototherapy and in situ bioimaging are produced by a flexible hydrothermal method. We find that the synthesized nanoparticles have high tumor photothermal therapeutic activity when exposed to 808 nm light, with a photothermal conversion efficiency up to 61 %. The phototoxicity study revealed the excellent phototherapy of the nanoparticles mainly arises from photothermal therapeutic effect other than photodynamic therapy effect. Simultaneously, it allows biological imaging in the visible and near-infrared ranges because of the significant absorption at 365 nm and 840 nm. The current work offers a simple, environmentally friendly, and reasonable method for developing photothermal drugs with a high photothermal conversion efficiency in the near-infrared region, as well as good biosafety for multifunctional nanomaterials for bioimaging tumor diagnosis and direct phototherapy.

Exosome-Coated Prussian Blue Nanoparticles for Specific Targeting and Treatment of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive and invasive types of brain cancer with a 5-year survival rate of 6.8%. With limited options, patients often have poor quality of life and are moved to palliative care after diagnosis. As a result, there is an extreme need for a novel theranostic method that allows for early diagnosis and noninvasive treatment as current peptide-based delivery standards may have off-target effects. Prussian Blue nanoparticles (PBNPs) have recently been investigated as photoacoustic imaging (PAI) and photothermal ablation agents. However, due to their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), their use in glioblastoma treatment is limited. By utilizing a hybrid, biomimetic nanoparticle composed of a PBNP interior and a U-87 cancer cell-derived exosome coating (Exo:PB), we show tumor-specific targeting within the brain and selective thermal therapy potential due to the strong photoconversion abilities. Particle characterization was carried out and showed a complete coating around the PBNPs that contains exosome markers. In vitro cellular uptake patterns are similar to native U-87 exosomes and when exposed to an 808 nm laser, show localized cell death within the specified region. After intravenous injection of Exo:PB into subcutaneously implanted glioblastoma mice, they have shown effective targeting and eradication of tumor volume compared to PEG-coated PBNPs (PEG:PB). Through systemic administration of Exo:PB particles into orthotopic glioblastoma-bearing mice, the PBNP signal was detected in the brain tumor region through PAI. It was seen that Exo:PB had preferential tumor accumulation with less off-targeting compared to the RGD:PB control. Ex vivo analysis validated specific targeting with a direct overlay of Exo:PB with the tumor by both H&E staining and Ki67 labeling. Overall, we have developed a novel biomimetic material that can naturally cross the BBB and act as a theranostic agent for systemic targeting of glioblastoma tissue and photothermal therapeutic effect.

Ultrasound-propelled nanomotors for efficient cancer cell ferroptosis

Ferroptosis is a non-apoptotic form of cell death that is dependent on the accumulation of intracellular iron that causes elevation of toxic lipid peroxides. Therefore, it is crucial to improve the levels of intracellular iron and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a short time. Here, we first propose ultrasound (US)-propelled Janus nanomotors (Au-FeOx/PEI/ICG, AFPI NMs) to accelerate cellular internalization and induce cancer cell ferroptosis. This nanomotor consists of a gold-iron oxide rod-like Janus nanomotor (Au-FeOx, AF NMs) and a photoactive indocyanine green (ICG) dye on the surface. It not only exhibits accelerating cellular internalization (∼4-fold) caused by its attractive US-driven propulsion but also shows good intracellular motion behavior. In addition, this Janus nanomotor shows excellent intracellular ROS generation performance due to the synergistic effect of the "Fenton or Fenton-like reaction" and the "photochemical reaction". As a result, the killing efficiency of actively moving nanomotors on cancer cells is 88% higher than that of stationary nanomotors. Unlike previous passive strategies, this work is a significant step toward accelerating cellular internalization and inducing cancer-cell ferroptosis in an active way. These novel US-propelled Janus nanomotors with strong propulsion, efficient cellular internalization and excellent ROS generation are suitable as a novel cell biology research tool.

Highly-Efficient Gallium-Interference Tumor Therapy Mediated by Gallium-Enriched Prussian Blue Nanomedicine

Prussian blue (PB)-based nanomedicines constructed from metal ion coordination remain restricted due to their limited therapeutic properties, and their manifold evaluation complexity still needs to be unraveled. Owing to the high similarities of its ionic form to iron (Fe) and the resulting cellular homeostasis disruption performance, physiologically unstable and low-toxicity gallium (Ga) has garnered considerable attention clinically as an anti-carcinogen. Herein, Ga-based nanoparticles (NPs) with diverse Ga contents are fabricated in one step using PB with abundant Fe sites as a substrate for Ga substitution, which aims to overcome the deficiencies of both and develop an effective nanomedicine. A systematic comparison of their physicochemical properties effectively reveals the saturated Ga introduction state during the synthesis process, further identifying the most Ga-enriched PB NPs with a substitution content of >50% as a nanomedicine for subsequent exploration. It is verified that the Ga interference mechanisms mediated by the most Ga-enriched PB NPs are implicated in metabolic disorders, ionic homeostasis disruption, cellular structure dysfunction, apoptosis, autophagy, and target activation of the mammalian target of the rapamycin (mTOR) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. This study provides significant guidance on exploiting clinically approved agents for Ga interference and lays the foundation for the next generation of PB-based theranostic agents.

Mn2+ /Ir3+ -Doped and CaCO3 -Covered Prussian Blue Nanoparticles with Indocyanine Green Encapsulation for Tumor Microenvironment Modulation and Image-Guided Synergistic Cancer Therapy

The development of smart theranostic nanoplatforms has gained great interest in effective cancer treatment against the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), including weak acidity, hypoxia, and glutathione (GSH) overexpression. Herein, a TME-responsive nanoplatform named PMICApt /ICG, based on PB:Mn&Ir@CaCO3 Aptamer /ICG, is designed for the competent synergistic photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) under the guidance of photothermal and magnetic resonance imaging. The nanoplatform's aptamer modification targeting the transferrin receptor and the epithelial cell adhesion molecule on breast cancer cells, and the acid degradable CaCO3 shell allow for effective tumor accumulation and TME-responsive payload release in situ. The nanoplatform also exhibits excellent PDT properties due to its ability to generate O2 and consume antioxidant GSH in tumors. Additionally, the synergistic therapy is achieved by a single wavelength of near-infrared laser. RNA sequencing is performed to identify differentially expressed genes, which show that the expressions of proliferation and migration-associated genes are inhibited, while the apoptosis and immune response gene expressions are upregulated after the synergistic treatments. This multifunctional nanoplatform that responds to the TME to realize the on-demand payload release and enhance PDT induced by TME modulation holds great promise for clinical applications in tumor therapy.

Silica-Based Platform Decorated with Conjugated Polymer Dots and Prussian Blue for Improved Photodynamic Cancer Therapy

To advance cancer treatment, we have developed a novel composite material consisting of conjugated polymer dots (CPDs) and Prussian blue (PB) particles, which were immobilized on, and encapsulated within, silica particles, respectively. The CPDs functioned as both a photosensitizer and a photodynamic agent, and the PB acted as a photothermal agent. The silica platform provided a biocompatible matrix that brought the two components into close proximity. Under laser irradiation, the fluorescence from the CPDs in the composite material enabled cell imaging and was subsequently converted to thermal energy by PB. This efficient energy transfer was accomplished because of the spectral overlap between the emission of donor CPDs and the absorbance of acceptor PB. The increase in local temperature in the cells resulted in a significant increase in the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by CPDs, in which their independent use did not produce sufficient ROS for cancer cell treatment. To assess the impact of the enhanced ROS generation by the composite material, we conducted experiments using cancer cells under 532 nm laser irradiation. The results showed that with the increase in local temperature, the generated ROS increased by 30% compared with the control, which did not contain PB. When the silica-based composite material was positioned at the periphery of the tumor for 120 h, it led to a much slower tumor growth than other materials tested. By using a CPD-based photodynamic therapy platform, a new simplified approach to designing and preparing cancer treatments could be achieved, which included photothermal PB-assisted enhanced ROS generation using a single laser. This advancement opens up an exciting new opportunity for effective cancer treatment.

NIR-triggered thermosensitive polymer brush coating modified intraocular lens for smart prevention of posterior capsular opacification

Posterior capsule opacification (PCO) is the most common complication after cataract surgery. Drug-eluting intraocular lens (IOLs) is a promising concept of PCO treatment in modern cataract surgery. However, the large dose of drugs in IOL leads to uncontrollable and unpredictable drug release, which inevitably brings risks of overtreatment and ocular toxicity. Herein, a low-power NIR-triggered thermosensitive IOL named IDG@P(NIPAM-co-AA)-IOL is proposed to improve security and prevent PCO by synergetic controlled drug therapy and simultaneous photo-therapy. Thermosensitive polymer brushes Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-Acrylic acid) (P(NIPAM-co-AA)) is prepared on IOL via surface-initiated reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (SI-RAFT) polymerization. Then, Doxorubicin (DOX) and Indocyanine green (ICG) co-loaded Gelatin NPs (IDG NPs) are loaded in P(NIPAM-co-AA) by temperature control. The IDG NPs perform in suit photodynamic & photothermal therapy (PTT&PDT), and the produced heat also provides a trigger for controllable drug therapy with a cascade effect. Such functional IOL shows excellent synergistic drug-phototherapy effect and NIR-triggered drug release behavior. And there is no obvious PCO occurrence in IDG@P(NIPAM-co-AA) IOL under NIR irradiation compared with control group. This proposed IDG@P(NIPAM-co-AA)-IOL serves as a promising platform that combines phototherapy and drug-therapy to enhance the therapeutic potential and medication safety for future clinical application of PCO treatment.

Efficient evaluation of photodynamic therapy on tumor based on deep learning

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive treatment method for treating tumors. Under laser irradiation, photosensitizers in tumor tissues generate biotoxic reactive oxygen, which can kill tumor cells. The traditional live/dead staining method of evaluating the cell mortality caused by PDT mainly depends on manual counting, which is time-consuming and relies on dye quality. In this paper, we have constructed a dataset of cells after PDT treatment and trained the cell detection model YOLOv3 to count both the dead and live cells. YOLO is a real time AI object detection algorithm. The achieved results demonstrate that the proposed method has a good performance in cell detection, with a mean average precision (mAP) of 94% for live cells and 71.3% for dead cells. This approach can efficiently evaluate the effectiveness of PDT treatment, thus speeding up treatment development effectively.

Erythrocyte-Cancer Hybrid Membrane-Camouflaged Prussian Blue Nanoparticles with Enhanced Photothermal Therapy in Tumors

Prussian blue (PB) nanoparticles have been widely used in photothermal therapy research due to the efficient photothermal conversion ability. In this study, PB was modified with a bionic coating using a hybrid membrane of red blood cell membranes and tumor cell membranes to prepare bionic photothermal nanoparticles (PB/RHM), which can further improve the blood circulation ability and tumor targeting of the nanoparticles to achieve efficient photothermal therapy for tumor treatment. In vitro formulation characterization showed that PB/RHM was a monodisperse spherical core-shell structured nanoparticle with a diameter of 207.2 nm and effectively retained the cell membrane proteins. The in vivo biological evaluation results showed that PB/RHM could effectively accumulate into the tumor tissue, inducing a rapid temperature increase in the tumor site to 50.9 °C within 10 min, inhibiting tumor growth efficiently with a tumor inhibition rate of 93.56% and with good therapeutic safety. In summary, this paper provided a hybrid film-modified Prussian blue nanoparticle with efficient photothermal anti-tumor capacity and safety.

Choline phosphate lipid-hitchhiked near-infrared BODIPY nanoparticles for enhanced phototheranostics

Phototheranostics integrating optical imaging and phototherapy has attracted extensive attention. Achieving nanophototherapeutics with near infrared (NIR)-light synchronously triggered photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) is challenging. Herein, we develop a multifunctional theranostic nanoplatform prepared from the co-assembly of NIR boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) with a cooperative D-π-A structure of a thiophene-BODIPY core and benzene-diethylamino, and a choline phosphate lipid. The as-fabricated nanoparticles (DBNPs) exhibited desirable NIR absorption, uniform spherical morphology and good colloidal stability. The elaborate molecular design and supramolecular assembly endowed DBNPs with desirable PDT and PTT activities. Upon 808 nm laser irradiation, the DBNPs efficiently generated active singlet oxygen and regional hyperpyrexia, with a photothermal conversion efficiency of 37.6%. The excellent PDT and PTT performance of DBNPs boosted the potent in vitro and in vivo anti-tumor effects. In addition, these nanoparticles manifested their good capability of NIR fluorescence imaging of tumors. Overall, the DBNPs provide a paradigm for delivering hydrophobic phototherapy molecules with phospholipids for enhanced tumor treatment and imaging.

Enzyme-Activatable Polypeptide for Plasma Membrane Disruption and Antitumor Immunity Elicitation

Enzyme-instructed self-assembly of bioactive molecules into nanobundles inside cells is conceived to potentially disrupt plasma membrane and subcellular structure. Herein, an alkaline phosphatase (ALP)-activatable hybrid of ICG-CF₄ KY^p is facilely synthesized by conjugating photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) with CF₄ KY^p peptide via classical Michael addition reaction. ALP-induced dephosphorylation of ICG-CF₄ KY^p enables its transformation from small-molecule precursor into rigid nanofibrils, and such fibrillation in situ causes severe mechanical disruption of cytomembrane. Besides, ICG-mediated photosensitization causes additional oxidative damage of plasma membrane by lipid peroxidation. Hollow MnO₂ nanospheres devote to deliver ICG-CF₄ KY^p into tumorous tissue through tumor-specific acidity/glutathione-triggered degradation of MnO₂ , which is monitored by fluorescent probing and magnetic resonance imaging. The burst release of damage-associated molecular patterns and other tumor antigens during therapy effectively triggers immunogenetic cell death and improves immune stimulatory, as demonstrated by the promotion of dendritic cell maturation and CD8⁺ lymphocyte infiltration, as well as constraint of regulatory T cell population. Taken together, such cytomembrane injury strategy based on peptide fibrillation in situ holds high clinical promise for lesion-specific elimination of primary, abscopal, and metastatic tumors, which may enlighten more bioinspired nanoplatforms for anticancer theranostics.

Microfluidic Generation of Near-Infrared Photothermal Vitexin/ICG Liposome with Amplified Photodynamic Therapy

Glioma, in which a malignant tumor cell occurs in neural mesenchymal cells, has a rapid progression and poor prognosis, which is still far from desirable in clinical treatments. We developed a lab-on-a-chip (LOC) device for the rapid and efficient preparation of vitexin/indocyanine green (ICG) liposomes. Vitexin could be released from liposome to kill cancer cell, which can potentially improve the glioma therapeutic effect and reduce the treatment time through synergistic photodynamic/photothermal therapies (PDT/PTT). The vitexin/ICG liposome was fabricated via LOC and its physicochemical property and release in vitro were evaluated. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) method and live/dead staining were used to examine the enhanced antitumor effect of vitexin/ICG liposome in cooperation with PDT/PTT, while the related mechanism was explored by flow cytometry and western blot. The results were as follows: (1) The prepared vitexin/ICG liposome was smaller in size, homogenous in particle size distribution with significant low polydispersity index (PDI), and enhanced cumulative release in vitro. (2) We found that the formulated liposome presented strong cancer cell inhibition and suppression of its migration in a dose-dependent manner. (3) Further mechanistic studies showed that liposome combined with near-infrared irradiation could significantly upregulate levels of B cell lymphoma 2-associated X (Bax) protein and decrease B cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) at protein levels. The vitexin/ICG liposomes prepared based on a simple LOC platform can effectively enhance the solubility of insoluble drugs, and the combined effect of PTT/PDT can effectively increase their antitumor effect, which provides a simple and valid method for the clinical translation of liposomes.

Self-actuated biomimetic nanocomposites for photothermal therapy and PD-L1 immunosuppression

Biomimetic nanocomposites are widely used in the biomedical field because they can effectively solve the problems existing in the current cancer treatment by realizing multi-mode collaborative treatment. In this study, we designed and synthesized a multifunctional therapeutic platform (PB/PM/HRP/Apt) with unique working mechanism and good tumor treatment effect. Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBs) with good photothermal conversion efficiency were used as nuclei and coated with platelet membrane (PM). The ability of platelets (PLTs) to specifically target cancer cells and inflammatory sites can effectively enhance PB accumulation at tumor sites. The surface of the synthesized nanocomposites was modified with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) to enhance the deep penetration of the nanocomposites in cancer cells. In addition, PD-L1 aptamer and 4T1 cell aptamer AS1411 were modified on the nanocomposite to achieve immunotherapy and enhance targeting. The particle size, UV absorption spectrum and Zeta potential of the biomimetic nanocomposite were determined by transmission electron microscope (TEM), Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer and nano-particle size meter, and the successful preparation was proved. In addition, the biomimetic nanocomposites were proved to have good photothermal properties by infrared thermography. The cytotoxicity test showed that it had a good killing ability of cancer cells. Finally, thermal imaging, tumor volume detection, immune factor detection and Haematoxilin-Eosin (HE) staining of mice showed that the biomimetic nanocomposites had good anti-tumor effect and could trigger immune response in vivo. Therefore, this biomimetic nanoplatform as a promising therapeutic strategy provides new inspiration for the current diagnosis and treatment of cancer.

Rational Design of Biomaterials to Potentiate Cancer Thermal Therapy

Cancer thermal therapy, also known as hyperthermia therapy, has long been exploited to eradicate mass lesions that are now defined as cancer. With the development of corresponding technologies and equipment, local hyperthermia therapies such as radiofrequency ablation, microwave ablation, and high-intensity focused ultrasound, have has been validated to effectively ablate tumors in modern clinical practice. However, they still face many shortcomings, including nonspecific damages to adjacent normal tissues and incomplete ablation particularly for large tumors, restricting their wide clinical usage. Attributed to their versatile physiochemical properties, biomaterials have been specially designed to potentiate local hyperthermia treatments according to their unique working principles. Meanwhile, biomaterial-based delivery systems are able to bridge hyperthermia therapies with other types of treatment strategies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy. Therefore, in this review, we discuss recent progress in the development of functional biomaterials to reinforce local hyperthermia by functioning as thermal sensitizers to endow more efficient tumor-localized thermal ablation and/or as delivery vehicles to synergize with other therapeutic modalities for combined cancer treatments. Thereafter, we provide a critical perspective on the further development of biomaterial-assisted local hyperthermia toward clinical applications.

Crosslinked albumin-manganese nanoaggregates with sensitized T1 relaxivity and indocyanine green loading for multimodal imaging and cancer phototherapy

Albumin-manganese-based nanocomposites (AMNs) characterized by simple preparation and good biocompatibility have been widely used for in vivo T₁-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and cancer theranostics. Herein, an aggregation and crosslinking assembly strategy was proposed to achieve the sensitization to T₁ relaxivity of the albumin-manganese nanocomposite. At a relatively low Mn content (0.35%), the aggregation and crosslinking of bovine serum albumin-MnO₂ (BM) resulted in a dramatic increase of T₁ relaxivity from 5.49 to 67.2 mM^-1 s^-1. Upon the loading of indocyanine green (ICG) into the crosslinked BM nanoaggregates (C-BM), the T₁ relaxivity of the C-BM/ICG nanocomposite (C-BM/I) was further increased to 97.3 mM^-1 s^-1, which was much higher than those reported previously even at high Mn contents. Moreover, the presence of C-BM greatly enhanced the photoacoustic (PA) and photothermal effects of ICG at 830 and 808 nm, respectively, and the second near infrared fluorescence (NIR-II FL) of ICG also showed better stability. Therefore, the synthesized C-BM/ICG nanocomposite exhibited remarkable performance in in vivo multimodal imaging of tumors, such as T₁-weighted MRI, NIR-II FL imaging and PA imaging, and cancer phototherapy with little side effects. This work provided a highly efficient and promising multifunctional nanoprobe for breaking through the limits of cancer theranostics, and opened a new avenue for the development of high-relaxivity AMNs and multimodal imaging methodology.

New Insight into Assembled Fe3O4@PEI@Ag Structure as Acceptable Agent with Enzymatic and Photothermal Properties

Metal-based enzyme mimics are considered to be acceptable agents in terms of their biomedical and biological properties; among them, iron oxides (Fe₃O₄) are treated as basement in fabricating heterogeneous composites through variable valency integrations. In this work, we have established a facile approach for constructing Fe₃O₄@Ag composite through assembling Fe₃O₄ and Ag together via polyethyleneimine ethylenediamine (PEI) linkages. The obtained Fe₃O₄@PEI@Ag structure conveys several hundred nanometers (~150 nm). The absorption peak at 652 nm is utilized for confirming the peroxidase-like activity of Fe₃O₄@PEI@Ag structure by catalyzing 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) in the presence of H₂O₂. The Michaelis–Menten parameters (K_m) of 1.192 mM and 0.302 mM show the higher catalytic activity and strong affinity toward H₂O₂ and TMB, respectively. The maximum velocity (V_max) value of 1.299 × 10⁻⁷ M∙s⁻¹ and 1.163 × 10⁻⁷ M∙s⁻¹ confirm the efficiency of Fe₃O₄@PEI@Ag structure. The biocompatibility illustrates almost 100% cell viability. Being treated as one simple colorimetric sensor, it shows relative selectivity and sensitivity toward the detection of glucose based on glucose oxidase. By using indocyanine green (ICG) molecule as an additional factor, a remarkable temperature elevation is observed in Fe₃O₄@PEI@Ag@ICG with increments of 21.6 °C, and the absorption peak is nearby 870 nm. This implies that the multifunctional Fe₃O₄@PEI@Ag structure could be an alternative substrate for formatting acceptable agents in biomedicine and biotechnology with enzymatic and photothermal properties.

In vivo efficacy of verteporfin loaded gold nanorods for combined photothermal/photodynamic colon cancer therapy

The high incidence of cancer recurrences and the frequent occurrence of multidrug resistance often stem from a poorly selective and inefficient antineoplastic therapy, responsible for the onset of undesired side effects as well. A combination of minimal-invasive approaches could thus be a useful strategy to surmount these shortcomings, achieving a safe and solid cancer therapy. Herein, a multi-therapeutic nanotool was designed by merging the photothermal properties of gold nanorods (AuNRs) with the photodynamic activity of the photosensitizer verteporfin. AuNRs were coated with the natural materials lipoic acid and gellan gum (AuNRs_LA,GG) and subsequently loaded with verteporfin (AuNRs_LA,GG/Vert) producing stable colloidal dispersions. AuNRs_LA,GG/Vert were characterized in terms of stability, size and morphology. The hyperthermia exhibited after NIR excitation (810 nm) was also evaluated to highlight the effect on increasing the drug released profile in intra-tumoral mimicking media, as well as cytotoxicity on human colon cancer cell line (HCT116). In vivo studies on HCT116 murine xenograft models were carried out to prove the ability of AuNRs_LA,GG to arrest the tumor growth via NIR laser-triggered hyperthermia. Furthermore, the complete xenograft depletion was demonstrated upon AuNRs_LA,GG/Vert administration by combined photothermal (PTT) and photodynamic (PDT) effects.

Targeted Multifunctional Nanoplatform for Imaging-Guided Precision Diagnosis and Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy of Orthotopic Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Effective theranostic of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in an early-stage is imminently demanded to improve its poor prognosis. Combination of the near-infrared (NIR) photoacoustic imaging (PAI) and fluorescence imaging (FLI) can provide high temporospatial resolution, outstanding optical contrast, and deep penetration and thus is promising for accurate and sensitive HCC diagnosis.

Methods

A versatile CXCR4-targeted Indocyanine green (ICG)/Platinum (Pt)-doped polydopamine melanin-mimic nanoparticle (designated ICG/Pt@PDA-CXCR4, referred to as IPP-c) is synthesized as an HCC-specific contrast agent for high-resolution precise diagnostic PAI/FLI and optical imaging-guided targeted photothermal therapy (PTT)/photodynamic therapy (PDT) of orthotopic small hepatocellular carcinoma (SHCC).

Results

The multifunctional targeted nanoparticle yields superior HCC specificity, high imaging contrast in both PAI and FLI, good stability, reliable biocompatibility, effective singlet oxygen generation and superior photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE, 58.7%) upon 808-nm laser irradiation. The targeting ability of IPP-c was validated in in vitro experiments on selectively killing the CXCR4-overexpressing HCC cells. Moreover, we test the efficient dual-modal optical precision diagnosis properties of IPP-c via in vivo experiments on targeted particle accumulation in an early-stage SHCC mouse model (tumor diameter about 1.2 mm). Then, under the guidance of real-time optical imaging, effective and mini-invasive PTT/PDT of orthotopic SHCCs were demonstrated without damaging adjacent liver tissues or other major organs.

Conclusion

This study presented a multifunctional CXCR4-targeted nanoparticle to conduct effective and mini-invasive phototherapeutics of orthotopic SHCCs via the real-time quantitative guidance by optical imaging, which provided a new perception for building a versatile targeted nanoplatform for phototheranostics of early-stage HCC.

Zn(ii)-Coordination-driven self-assembled nanoagents for multimodal imaging-guided photothermal/gene synergistic therapy

Synergistic photothermal therapy (PTT) with gene therapy (GT) has drawn emerging interest in the improvement of cancer therapeutic efficiency, while the co-delivery of photothermal agents (PTAs) and therapeutic genes by an integrated nanoplatform, with controllability and biodegradability, is still challenging and urgently desired. Herein, a multi-functional metal-organic framework (MOF) based PTT-GT platform (siRNA@PT-ZIF-8) was developed, which was constructed with siRNA, a near-infrared (NIR) responsive organic dye IR780 derivative (IR780-1), and 2-methylimidazole (2-MIM) by a facile one-pot self-assembly method. This "all-in-one" system of siRNA@PT-ZIF-8 enabled not only photothermal/photoacoustic/fluorescence multimodal imaging but also tumor microenvironment responsiveness for specific and on-demand release of therapeutic cargos, overcoming the inherent limitations of free gene or organic PTA molecules (e.g., short blood circulation half-life and weak stability) in conventional PTT and GT. This nanoplatform provides an efficient and safe strategy for cancer theranostics, and the one-step assembly strategy favors personalized formulation design for diverse demands in cancer management.

Multifunctional nanocarrier with self-catalytic production of nitric oxide for photothermal and gas-combined therapy of tumor

Single treatment often faces the problem that it cannot completely eradicate tumor and inhibit the tumor metastasis. In order to overcome this shortcoming, multi-modal tumor treatment has attracted widespread attention. In the present article, based on ascorbyl palmitate (PA) and l-arginine (l-Arg), a multifunctional nanocarrier is designed for synergetic treatment of tumor with photothermal and nitric oxide (NO) gas therapy. Firstly, PA and l-Arg were self-assembled to form novel functional micelles, PL, with high biosafety using electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonding. The functional micelles could self-catalyze to produce NO at the tumor site. Then, Ag₂S quantum dots having fluorescence imaging and photothermal properties were encapsulated to obtain the nanocarrier, A@PL. The results show that A@PL had a hydrated size of around 78 nm and presented good stability within 30 d. Moreover, in vitro studies indicate that it was efficient with regards to NO self-generating capacity, whereas the photothermal conversion efficiency was as high as 34% under near-infrared light irradiation. The cytotoxicity results show that, when the concentration of A@PL was as high as 2 mM, the survival rate of 3 T3 cells was still 78.23%, proving that the probe has good safety characteristics. Fluorescence imaging results show that its maximum enrichment can be achieved at the tumor site after tail vein injection for 3 h, and out of the body after 24 h, indicating good internal circulation. The in vivo studies show that the rate of inhibition of tumor using the nanocarrier was as high as 98%, and almost overcame the problem of tumor recurrence caused by single treatment, thus presenting a significant tumor treatment effect. This new multifunctional nanocarrier with self-catalytic production of NO provides a new idea for the efficient treatment of tumors.

Antithrombotic Therapy by Regulating the ROS-Mediated Thrombosis Microenvironment and Specific Nonpharmaceutical Thrombolysis Using Prussian Blue Nanodroplets

In thrombotic diseases, the effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated oxidative stress as a "perpetrator" in thrombosis must be resolved. Accordingly, an insufficient understanding of thrombus therapy prompted the authors to pursue a more comprehensive and efficient antithrombotic treatment strategy. A Prussian blue (PB)-based nanodroplet system (PB-PFP@PC) is designed using PB and perfluorinated pentane (PFP) in the core, and a targeting peptide (CREKA, Cys-Arg-Glu-Lys-Ala) is attached to poly(lactic-coglycolic acid) (PLGA) as the delivery carrier shell. Upon near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, PB and PFP jointly achieve an unprecedented dual strategy for drug-free thrombolysis: photothermal therapy (PTT) combined with optical droplet vaporization (ODV). PB, a nanoenzyme, also regulates the vascular microenvironment via its antioxidant activity to continuously scavenge abnormally elevated ROS and correspondingly reduce inflammatory factors in the thrombus site. This study provides a demonstration of not only the potential of ODV in thrombus therapy but also the mechanism underlying PTT thrombolysis due to thermal ablation-induced fibrin network structural damage. Moreover, PB catalyzes ROS to generate oxygen (O₂ ), which combines with the ODV effect, enhancing the ultrasound signal. Thus, regulation of the thrombosis microenvironment combined with specific nonpharmaceutical thrombolysis by PB nanodroplets provides a more comprehensive and efficient antithrombotic therapeutic strategy.

Smart nanocomposite assemblies for multimodal cancer theranostics

Despite great strides in anticancer research, performance statistics of current treatment modalities remain dismal, highlighting the need for safe, efficacious strategies for tumour mitigation. Non-invasive fusion technology platforms combining photodynamic, photothermal and hyperthermia therapies have emerged as alternate strategies with potential to meet many of the unmet clinical demands in the domain of cancer. These therapies make use of metallic and magnetic nanoparticles with light absorbing properties, which are manipulated to generate either reactive cytotoxic oxygen species or heat for tumour ablation. Combination therapies integrating light, heat and magnetism-mediated nanoplatforms with the conventional approaches of chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery are emerging as precision medicine for targeted interventions against cancer. This article aims to compile recent developments of advanced nanocomposite assemblies that integrate multimodal therapeutics for cancer treatment. Amalgamation of various effective, non-invasive technological platforms such as photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), magnetic hyperthermia (MHT), and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) have tremendous potential in presenting safe and efficacious solutions to the formidable challenges in cancer therapeutics.

Cu-Doped black phosphorus quantum dots as multifunctional Fenton nanocatalyst for boosting synergistically enhanced H2O2-guided and photothermal chemodynamic cancer therapy

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is a cancer treatment that converts endogenous H₂O₂ into hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) through Fenton reaction to destroy cancer cells. However, there are still some challenges in accelerating the Fenton reaction of CDT and improving the biodegradability of nanocatalysts. Herein, a multifunctional biomimetic BPQDs-Cu@GOD (BCG) Fenton nanocatalyst for boosting synergistically enhanced H₂O₂-guided and photothermal CDT of cancer is reported. Cu²⁺ in BCG can be reduced to Cu⁺ by black phosphorus quantum dots (BPQDs), triggering a Cu⁺-mediated Fenton-like reaction to degrade H₂O₂ and generate abundant ˙OH for cancer CDT. The loaded glucose oxidase (GOD) can consume the glucose in the tumor to produce abundant H₂O₂ for Fenton-like reaction. In addition, Cu²⁺ in BCG can react with GSH in tumor cells to alleviate the antioxidant capacity of tumor tissues, further improving the CDT efficacy. Furthermore, the photothermal performance of BPQDs can be enhanced by capturing Cu²⁺, improving the photoacoustic imaging and photothermal therapy (PTT) functions. More importantly, the enhanced photothermal performance can rapidly accelerate the Fenton-like reaction under NIR irradiation. Finally, Cu²⁺ can accelerate the degradation of BPQDs, which can reduce the retention of reagents. As a novel multifunctional biocompatible Fenton nanocatalyst, BCG have great potential in cancer therapy.

Near infrared light triggered ternary synergistic cancer therapy via L-arginine-loaded nanovesicles with modification of PEGylated indocyanine green

L-arginine (L-Arg) is an important nitric oxide (NO) donor, and its exploration in NO gas therapy has received widespread attention. Application of nano-platforms that can efficiently deliver L-Arg and induce its rapid conversion to NO becomes a predominant strategy to achieve promising therapeutic effects in tumor treatment. Herein, an enhanced nano-vesicular system of ternary synergistic treatment combining NO therapy, photodynamic therapy (PDT) along with mild photothermal therapy (MPTT) was developed for cancer therapy. We integrated photosensitizer PEGylated indocyanine green (mPEG-ICG) into polyphosphazene PEP nano-vesicles through co-assembly and simultaneously encapsulated NO donor L-Arg into the vesicle center chambers to form mPEG-ICG/L-Arg co-loaded system IA-PEP. The unique nanostructure of vesicle provided considerable loading capacity for mPEG-ICG and L-Arg with 15.9% and 17.95% loading content, respectively, and efficiently prevented mPEG-ICG and L-Arg from leaking. Significantly, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) was produced by IA-PEP under 808 nm laser irradiation to perform PDT against tumors, which concurrently reacted with L-Arg to release NO and arouse gas therapy effectively. Moreover, the mild heat produced by IA-PEP could exhibit cooperative anti-tumor effect with minimal damage. As a consequence, in vivo antitumor investigation on nude mice bearing xenograft MCF-7 tumors verified the potent anti-tumor efficacy of IA-PEP under 808 nm laser irradiation with complete tumor elimination. Taken together, the IA-PEP nano-vesicle system designed in this work may provide a promising treatment paradigm for synergistic cancer treatment. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Nitric oxide (NO) gas therapy has drawn widespread attention due to its "green" treatment paradigm with negligible side effects. L-arginine (L-Arg) is an important NO donor. However, how to efficiently deliver L-Arg and induce NO generation remains a big challenge since L-Arg is a water-soluble small molecule. Herein, we developed a nano-vesicle system IA-PEP to integrate photosensitizer PEGylated indocyanine green and L-Arg with high loading content and to produce a ternary synergistic treatment combining NO therapy, photodynamic therapy (PDT) along with mild-temperature photothermal therapy (MPTT) under 808 nm laser irradiation. The in vivo investigation on nude mice bearing xenograft MCF-7 tumors verified its potent anti-tumor efficacy with complete tumor elimination.

Microenvironment-driven sequential ferroptosis, photodynamic therapy, and chemotherapy for targeted breast cancer therapy by a cancer-cell-membrane-coated nanoscale metal-organic framework

Designing and developing nanomedicine based on the tumor microenvironment (TME) for effective cancer treatment is highly desirable. In this work, polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) dispersed nanoscale metal-organic framework (NMOF) of Fe-TCPP (TCPP = tetrakis (4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin) loaded with hypoxia-activable prodrug tirapazamine (TPZ) and coated by the cancer cell membrane (CM) is constructed (the formed nanocomposite denoted as PFTT@CM). Due to the functionalization with the homologous cancer cell membrane, PFTT@CM is camouflaged to evade the immune clearance and preferentially accumulates at the tumor site. Once internalized by cancer cells, PFTT@CM is activated by the TME through redox reaction and Fenton reaction between Fe³⁺ in nano-platform and endogenous glutathione (GSH) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to promote GSH exhausting as well as •OH and O₂ production, which triggers ferroptosis and dramatically enhances photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficacy. Subsequently, the PDT process mediated by TCPP and light would consume oxygen and aggravate tumor hypoxia to further activate the prodrug TPZ for cancer chemotherapy. As a consequence, the TME-driven PFTT@CM nano-platform not only demonstrated its TME modulation ability but also showed a sequential synergistic therapy, which eventually inhibited the cancer cell proliferation. This multimodal nano-platform is expected to shed light on the design of TME-activatable reaction to reinforce the synergistic therapeutic outcome and facilitate the development of effective cancer nanomedicine.

PEGylated Prussian blue nanoparticles for modulating polyethyleneimine cytotoxicity and attenuating tumor hypoxia for dual-enhanced photodynamic therapy

The PEG-Ce6-PEI@PB platform provides a new paradigm for dual-enhanced PDT by modulating PEI cytotoxicity and attenuating tumor hypoxia.