A study of the genomic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum in Senegal. 1. Typing by Southern blot analysis

A novel DBL-domain of the P. falciparum 332 molecule possibly involved in erythrocyte adhesion

Plasmodium falciparum malaria is brought about by the asexual stages of the parasite residing in human red blood cells (RBC). Contact between the erythrocyte surface and the merozoite is the first step for successful invasion and proliferation of the parasite. A number of different pathways utilised by the parasite to adhere and invade the host RBC have been characterized, but the complete biology of this process remains elusive. We here report the identification of an open reading frame (ORF) representing a hitherto unknown second exon of the Pf332 gene that encodes a cysteine-rich polypeptide with a high degree of similarity to the Duffy-binding-like (DBL) domain of the erythrocyte-binding-ligand (EBL) family. The sequence of this DBL-domain is conserved and expressed in all parasite clones/strains investigated. In addition, the expression level of Pf332 correlates with proliferation efficiency of the parasites in vitro. Antibodies raised against the DBL-domain are able to reduce the invasion efficiency of different parasite clones/strains. Analysis of the DBL-domain revealed its ability to bind to uninfected human RBC, and moreover demonstrated association with the iRBC surface. Thus, Pf332 is a molecule with a potential role to support merozoite invasion. Due to the high level of conservation in sequence, the novel DBL-domain of Pf332 is of possible importance for development of novel anti-malaria drugs and vaccines.

Antibody responses to the repetitive Plasmodium falciparum antigen Pf332 in humans naturally primed to the parasite

Antibodies to the degenerate repeats of EB200, a part of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen Pf332, are protective in monkeys. To analyse the prevalence, magnitude and specificity of antibodies to EB200 in malaria-exposed humans, the IgG antibody reactivity with recombinant EB200 protein as well as with crude malaria antigen was determined in Senegalese donors (n = 100; 4-87 years). Antibody reactivity with EB200 was low or absent in children below 15 years but was prevalent and significantly higher in older donors. In comparison, all individuals displayed reactivity with a crude malaria antigen preparation, which also increased with age. The reactivity with the crude malaria antigen was correlated to the reactivity with EB200, suggesting that the low levels of IgG to EB200 found in some adult donors reflected a limited degree of recent exposure to parasites rather than a selective non-responsiveness to Pf332. Comparison of serological and clinical data showed that high levels of antibodies to crude malaria antigen and to EB200 were predictive of fewer future clinical attacks of malaria. A reactivity pattern very similar to that found in Senegalese donors was observed in Liberian adults where 80% of the sera showed reactivity with EB200 and all peptides were recognized by between 60 and 100% of the donors. This strong reactivity with EB200-derived overlapping peptides suggests that the epitopes in EB200, to a large extent, are linear. In the light of previous data on the parasite neutralizing capacity of antibodies to Pf332, the present results emphasize the potential interest of Pf332-derived sequences for inclusion in a subunit vaccine against P. falciparum malaria.

Plasmodium falciparum: sickle-cell trait is associated with higher prevalence of multiple infections in Gabonese children with asymptomatic infections

Through PCR amplifications of the gene encoding the merozoite surface antigen 2, utilizing allele-specific 3D7 and FC27 probes, we have examined the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in children aged from 7 to 14 years living in a village located in the equatorial forest region of Central Africa (Gabon). Using this technique, 61% (100/163) of the blood samples were shown to be infected with P. falciparum with 24 alleles distinguished by size polymorphism and sequence type. The two main families (3D7 and FC27) and hybrid alleles were detected regardless of sex and hemoglobin phenotype. No age-related changes in prevalence of P. falciparum strains were observed; however, the prevalence of infection (42%) was significantly lower in individuals with the sickle-cell trait compared with their normal-hemoglobin counterparts (68%). Mixtures of genetically distinct parasite clones were present in 82% of children carrying the sickle-cell trait but in only 58% of normal-hemoglobin carriers. The significance of these observations regarding the design and interpretation of epidemiological investigations is discussed in the context of malaria transmission in the region studied.

Current views on the population structure of plasmodium falciparum: Implications for control

In recent years there has been a considerable debate on the population genetic structure of malaria parasites. Work on this subject has been revolutionized by the advent of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, which has made it feasible to study the genetic diversity of parasites in small samples of infected blood, allowing extensive surveys of natural parasite populations to be made. In addition, the technique can be applied to the mosquito stages of the malaria parasite, allowing direct assessments to be trade of the frequency of crossing between parasite clones in Nature. Studies on Plasmodium falcjparum in a wide range of malaria-endemic regions are now revealing the relationship between parasite population structure and malaria epidemiology. In this article, Hamza Babiker and David Walliker review recent work in this field, and discuss how such knowledge might be used to advise on the future deployment of control measures such as antimalarial drugs and possible malaria vaccines.

Immune pressure selects for Plasmodium falciparum parasites presenting distinct red blood cell surface antigens and inducing strain-specific protection in Saimiri sciureus monkeys

The passive transfer of specific antibodies to a naive splenectomized Saimiri sciureus monkey infected with the Palo Alto FUP/SP strain of Plasmodium falciparum resulted in the emergence of parasites resistant to the transferred antibodies. Molecular typing indicated that the original and resistant parasites were isogenic. Saimiri monkeys primed with original parasites were fully susceptible to a challenge by the resistant ones, and vice versa. This absence of crossprotection indicates that strain-specific determinants would be the major targets of protective immunity developed in these monkeys. Phenotypic analysis showed that the surface of the infected red blood cells differed in both lines. Original parasites formed rosettes, autoagglutinated, presented characteristic knobs at the surface of the infected red blood cell, and did not agglutinate in the presence of a pool of human immune sera. In contrast, the resistant parasites did not form rosettes, did not spontaneously autoagglutinate, presented abnormal flattened knobs, and formed large aggregates in the presence of a pool of human immune sera. The presence of strain-specific determinants at the surface of the resistant parasites was confirmed by surface immunofluorescence and agglutination using homologous Saimiri serum. Neither the original nor the resistant parasites cytoadhered to an amelanotic melanoma cell line, suggesting that cytoadherence and agglutination can be dissociated. These results indicate that parasites that differ by the antigens exposed at the surface of the red blood cell induce strain-specific immunity. Furthermore they show that rosetting and nonrosetting parasites differ in their antigenic properties and do not crossprotect.

A study of the genomic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum in Senegal. 2. Typing by the use of the polymerase chain reaction

The genomic polymorphism of Plasmodium falciparum was investigated in a series of samples collected in Senegal during one transmission season. PCR analysis was performed on several genes coding for blood-stage antigens: the gene for the major merozoite surface antigen P190, the gene for the second merozoite surface antigen MSA2 and the gene coding for antigen 96tR/GBP130. In each case, several distinct forms of the genes studied were observed. Both the MAD20 and K1 allelic families of P190 genes were observed. PCR analysis of a single variable region did not differentiate each isolate. However, when the data obtained for several markers are combined, each isolate had a specific genotype. Thus, using PCR to study in parallel several loci is a useful tool to genetically type strains.