On the origin of the free radical property of melanins

Rim101-upregulated Fets contribute to dark pigment formation in gray cells of Candida albicans

Candida albicans has long been known to switch between white and opaque phases; however, a third cell type, referred to as the 'gray' phenotype, was recently characterized. The three phenotypes have different colonial morphologies, with white cells forming white-colored colonies and opaque and gray cells forming dark-colored colonies. We previously showed that Wor1-upregulated ferroxidases (Fets) function as pigment multicopper oxidases that regulate the production of dark-pigmented melanin in opaque cells. In this study, we demonstrated that Fets also contributed to dark pigment formation in gray colonies but in a Wor1-independent manner. Deletion of both WOR1 and EFG1 locked cells in the gray phenotype in some rich media. However, the efg1/efg1 wor1/wor1 mutant could switch between white and gray in minimal media depending on the ambient pH. Specifically, mutant cells exhibited the white phenotype at pH 4.5 but switched to gray at pH 7.5. Consistent with phenotype switching, Fets expressions and melanin production were also regulated by ambient pH. Ectopic expression of the Rim101-405 allele in the mutant enabled the pH restriction to be bypassed and promoted gray cell formation in acidic media. Our data suggest that Rim101-upregulated Fets contribute to dark pigment formation in the gray cells.

Wor1-regulated ferroxidases contribute to pigment formation in opaque cells of Candida albicans

Candida albicans is a harmless commensal resident in the human gut and a prevalent opportunistic pathogen. A key part of its commensalism and pathogenesis is its ability to switch between different morphological forms, including white‐to‐opaque switching. The Wor1 protein was previously identified as a master regulator of white‐to‐opaque switching in mating type locus (MTL) homozygous cells. The mechanisms by which the dark color of the opaque colonies is controlled and the pimpled surface of opaque cells is formed remain unknown. Candida albicans produces melanin pigment in vitro and during infection. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the regulation of melanin production is unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that ferroxidases (Fets) function as pigment multicopper oxidases and regulate the production of dark‐pigmented melanin in opaque cells. The FET genes presented distinct regulation patterns in response to different extracellular stimuli. In YPD (1% yeast extract, 2% peptone and 2% dextrose)‐rich medium, four of the five FET genes were up‐regulated by Wor1, especially at the human body temperature of 37 °C. In minimal medium with low ammonium concentrations, all five FET genes were up‐regulated by Wor1. However, at high ammonium concentrations, some FET genes were down‐regulated by Wor1. Wor1‐up‐regulated Fets contributed to dark pigment formation in opaque colonies, but not to the elongated shape of these opaque cells. Increased melanin externalization was associated with the pimpled surface of the opaque cells. Melanized C. albicans cells were more resistant to fungal clearance. Deletion of the five FET genes completely blocked melanin production in opaque cells and resulted in the generation of white elongated ‘opaque’ cells. In addition, the up‐regulated Fets are important for defense against oxidant attacks. The functional diversity of Fets may reflect the multiple strategies of C. albicans to rapidly adapt to diverse host niches.

Electron Spin Relaxation Studies of Polydopamine Radicals

We present a thoroughgoing electron paramagnetic resonance investigation of polydopamine (PDA) radicals using multiple electron paramagnetic resonance techniques at the W-band (94 GHz), electron nuclear double resonance at the Q-band (34 GHz), spin relaxation, and continuous wave measurements at the X-band (9 GHz). The analysis proves the existence of two distinct paramagnetic species in the PDA structure. One of the two radical species is characterized by a long spin-lattice T1 relaxation time equal to 46.9 ms at 5 K and is assigned to the radical center on oxygen. The obtained data revealed that the paramagnetic species exhibit different electron spin relaxation behaviors due to different couplings to local phonons, which confirm spatial distancing between two radical types. Our results shed new light on the radical structure of PDA, which is of great importance in the application of PDA in materials science and biomedicine and allows us to better understand the properties of these materials and predict their future applications.

Electronic Transport in the Biopigment Sepia Melanin

Eumelanin is the most common form of the pigment melanin in the human body, with diverse functions including photoprotection, antioxidant behavior, metal chelation, and free radical scavenging. Melanin also plays a role in melanoma skin cancer and Parkinson's disease. Sepia melanin is a natural eumelanin extracted from the ink sac of cuttlefish. Eumelanin is an ideal candidate to eco-design technologies based on abundant, biosourced, and biodegradable organic electronic materials to alleviate the environmental footprint of the electronics sector. Herein, the focus is on the reversible electrical resistive switching in dry and wet Sepia eumelanin pellets, pointing to the possibility of predominant electronic transport satisfying conditio sine qua non to develop melanin-based electronic devices. These findings shed light on the possibility to describe the transport physics of dry eumelanin using the amorphous semiconductor model. Results are of tremendous importance for the development of sustainable organic electronics.

Kinetics of Melanin Polymerization during Enzymatic and Nonenzymatic Oxidation

Melanin is an abundant biopigment in the animal kingdom, but its structure remains poorly understood. This is a substantial impediment to understanding the mechanistic origin of its observed functions. Proposed models of melanin structure include aggregates of both linear and macrocyclic units and noncovalently held monomers. Both models are broadly in agreement with current experimental data. To constrain the structural and kinetic models of melanin, experimental data of high resolution with chemical specificity accompanied by atomistic modeling are required. We have addressed this by obtaining electronic absorption, infrared, and ultraviolet resonance Raman (RR) spectra of melanin at several wavelengths of excitation that are sensitive to small changes in structure. From these experiments, we observed kinetics of the formation of different species en route to melanin polymerization. Exclusive chemical signatures of monomer 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (dopa), intermediate dopachrome (DC), and early-time polymer are established through their vibrational bands at 1292, 1670, and 1616 cm^-1 respectively. Direct evidence of reduced heterogeneity of melanin oligomers in tyrosinase-induced formation is provided from experimental measurements of vibrational bandwidths. Models made with density functional theory show that the linear homopolymeric structures of 5,6-dihydroxyindole can account for experimentally observed wavenumbers and broad bandwidth in Raman spectra of dopa-melanin. We capture resonance Raman (RR) signature of DC, the intermediate stabilized by the enzyme tyrosinase, for the first time in an enzyme-assisted melanization reaction using 488 nm excitation wavelength and propose that this wavelength can be used to probe reaction intermediates of melanin formation in solution.

Functions of fungal melanin beyond virulence

Melanins are ancient biological pigments found in all kingdoms of life. In fungi, their role in microbial pathogenesis is well established; however, these complex biomolecules also confer upon fungal microorganisms the faculty to tolerate extreme environments such as the Earth's poles, the International Space Station and places contaminated by toxic metals and ionizing radiation. A remarkable property of melanin is its capacity to interact with a wide range of electromagnetic radiation frequencies, functioning as a protecting and energy harvesting pigment. Other roles of fungal melanin include scavenging of free radical, thermo-tolerance, metal ion sequestration, cell development, and mechanical-chemical cellular strength. In this review, we explore the various functions ascribed to this biological pigment in fungi and its remarkable physicochemical properties.

Exploring the frontiers of synthetic eumelanin polymers by high-resolution matrix-assisted laser/desorption ionization mass spectrometry

New trends in material science and nanotechnologies have spurred growing interest in eumelanins black insoluble biopolymers derived by tyrosinase-catalysed oxidation of tyrosine via 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI) and its 2-carboxylic acid (DHICA). Efficient antioxidant and photoprotective actions, associated with peculiar optoelectronic properties, are recognised as prominent functions of eumelanin macromolecules within the human and mammalian pigmentary system, making them unique candidates for the realisation of innovative bio-inspired functional soft materials, with structure-based physical-chemical properties. An unprecedented breakthrough into the mechanism of synthetic eumelanin buildup has derived from a detailed investigation of the oxidative polymerization of DHI and its N-methyl derivative (NMDHI) by linear and reflectron matrix-assisted laser/desorption ionization mass spectrometry. Regular collections of oligomers of increasing masses, spanning the entire m/z ranges up to 5000 Da (>30-mer) and 8000 Da (> 50-mer) for the two building blocks, respectively, were disclosed. It is the first time that the in vitro polymerisation of dihydroxyindoles to form synthetic eumelanins is explored up to its high mass limits, giving at the same time information on the polymerisation mode, whether it follows a stepwise pattern (being this the conclusion in our case) or a staking sequencing of small-sized entities. It also highlighted the influence of the N-methyl substituent on the polymerization process; this opens the way to the production of N-functionalized, synthetic eumelanin-inspired soft materials, for possible future technological applications.

Gaseous adsorption in melanins: hydrophilic biomacromolecules with high electrical conductivities

The melanins are an important class of multifunctional biomacromolecules that possess a number of intriguing physical and chemical properties including electrical and photoconductivity. Unusually for a conducting organic material, eumelanin is hydrophilic and its electrical properties are strongly dependent on its hydration state. We have therefore measured adsorption isotherms for two polar adsorbates, water and ethanol, in the pressed powder pellets of synthetic eumelanin typically used in electrical studies. We show that a simple kinetic monolayer Langmuir model describes the adsorption and find that there are strong adsorbate-eumelanin interactions in both cases. These isotherms allow the proper scaling of electrical conductivity data and in doing so make progress toward a better understanding of eumelanin electrical properties, which is a critical prerequisite to the design of new eumelanin-like bioelectronic materials.

Transition dipole strength of eumelanin

We report the transition dipole strength of eumelanin (the principal human photoprotective pigment) in the ultraviolet and visible. We have used both theoretical (density functional) and experimental methods to show that eumelanin is not an unusually strong absorber amongst organic chromophores. This is somewhat surprising given its role as a photoprotectant, and suggests that the dark coloring in vivo (and in vitro) of the eumelanin pigment is a concentration effect. Furthermore, by observing the polymerization of a principle precursor (5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid) into the full pigment, we observe that eumelanin exhibits a small amount (approximately 20%) of hyperchromism (i.e., the reaction process enhances the light absorption ability of the resultant macromolecule relative to its monomeric precursor). These results have significant implications for our understanding of the photophysics of these important functional biomolecules. In particular, they appear to be consistent with the recently proposed chemical disorder secondary structure model of eumelanins.

Towards structure-property-function relationships for eumelanin

We discuss recent progress towards the establishment of important structure-property-function relationships in eumelanins-key functional bio-macromolecular systems responsible for photo-protection and immune response in humans, and implicated in the development of melanoma skin cancer. We focus on the link between eumelanin's secondary structure and optical properties such as broad band UV-visible absorption and strong non-radiative relaxation; both key features of the photo-protective function. We emphasise the insights gained through a holistic approach combining optical spectroscopy with first principles quantum chemical calculations, and advance the hypothesis that the robust functionality characteristic of eumelanin is related to extreme chemical and structural disorder at the secondary level. This inherent disorder is a low cost natural resource, and it is interesting to speculate as to whether it may play a role in other functional bio-macromolecular systems.

The physical and chemical properties of eumelanin

In this article, we review the current state of knowledge concerning the physical and chemical properties of the eumelanin pigment. We examine properties related to its photoprotective functionality, and draw the crucial link between fundamental molecular structure and observable macroscopic behaviour. Where necessary, we also briefly review certain aspects of the pheomelanin literature to draw relevant comparison. A full understanding of melanin function, and indeed its role in retarding or promoting the disease state, can only be obtained through a full mapping of key structure-property relationships in the main pigment types. We are engaged in such an endeavor for the case of eumelanin.

A first-principles density-functional calculation of the electronic and vibrational structure of the key melanin monomers

We report first-principles density-functional calculations for hydroquinone (HQ), indolequinone (IQ), and semiquinone (SQ). These molecules are believed to be the basic building blocks of the eumelanins, a class of biomacromolecules with important biological functions (including photoprotection) and with the potential for certain bioengineering applications. We have used the difference of self-consistent fields method to study the energy gap between the highest occupied molecular orbital and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital, Delta(HL). We show that Delta(HL) is similar in IQ and SQ, but approximately twice as large in HQ. This may have important implications for our understanding of the observed broadband optical absorption of the eumelanins. The possibility of using this difference in Delta(HL) to molecularly engineer the electronic properties of eumelanins is discussed. We calculate the infrared and Raman spectra of the three redox forms from first principles. Each of the molecules have significantly different infrared and Raman signatures, and so these spectra could be used in situ to nondestructively identify the monomeric content of macromolecules. It is hoped that this may be a helpful analytical tool in determining the structure of eumelanin macromolecules and hence in helping to determine the structure-property-function relationships that control the behavior of the eumelanins.

Chemical and structural disorder in eumelanins: a possible explanation for broadband absorbance

We report the results of an experimental and theoretical study of the electronic and structural properties of a key eumelanin precursor-5,6,-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA)-and its dimeric forms. We have used optical spectroscopy to follow the oxidative polymerization of DHICA to eumelanin and observe red shifting and broadening of the absorption spectrum as the reaction proceeds. First principles density functional theory calculations indicate that DHICA oligomers (possible reaction products of oxidative polymerization) have the gap between the highest occupied molecular orbital and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital red-shifted gaps with respect to the monomer. Furthermore, different bonding configurations (leading to oligomers with different structures) produce a range of gaps. These experimental and theoretical results lend support to the chemical disorder model where the broadband monotonic absorption characteristic of all melanins is a consequence of the superposition of a large number of nonhomogeneously broadened Gaussian transitions associated with each of the components of a melanin ensemble. These results suggest that the traditional model of eumelanin as an amorphous organic semiconductor is not required to explain its optical properties and should be thoroughly reexamined. These results have significant implications for our understanding of the physics, chemistry, and biological function of these important biological macromolecules. Indeed, one may speculate that the robust functionality of melanins in vitro is a direct consequence of its heterogeneity, i.e., chemical disorder is a "low cost" natural resource in these systems.

Activation of the alternative complement pathway by fungal melanins

Melanins are complex biological pigments formed by the oxidative polymerization of phenolic and/or indolic compounds. These pigments have been implicated in the pathogenesis of some microbial infections, malignancies, degenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Recent studies have demonstrated that melanins have antigenic and anti-inflammatory properties. These findings led us to further explore the interaction of melanins with the immune system. Melanin particles ("ghosts") were isolated from in vitro-melanized Cryptococcus neoformans cells and Aspergillus niger conidia and then incubated in normal human serum containing (125)I-labeled complement C3. The results demonstrated deposition of C3 fragments onto the melanin ghosts as early as 1 min after incubation, with maximum deposition occurring after 12 min for C. neoformans-derived melanin ghosts and after 25 min for A. niger-derived melanin ghosts. The blocking of classical pathway activation did not affect the kinetics or total deposition of C3 onto the melanin ghosts, indicating that melanins activate complement through the alternative pathway. Immunofluorescence analysis of lungs from BALB/c mice injected intratracheally with C. neoformans-derived melanin ghosts demonstrated deposition of C3 fragments onto the ghosts. Small granulomas were also observed surrounding the ghosts. However, melanization of the C. neoformans cell wall did not alter the kinetics or total deposition of C3 fragments onto the fungal cells. The finding that melanin surfaces can activate the complement system suggests a potential mechanism for the pathogenesis of some degenerative and/or autoimmune processes that involve melanized cells as well as another potential role for melanin in the virulence of melanin-producing microorganisms.

Biosynthesis and functions of melanin in Sporothrix schenckii

Sporothrix schenckii is a human pathogen that causes sporotrichosis, an important cutaneous mycosis with a worldwide distribution. It produces dark-brown conidia, which infect the host. We found that S. schenckii synthesizes melanin via the 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene pentaketide pathway. Melanin biosynthesis in the wild type was inhibited by tricyclazole, and colonies of the fungus were reddish brown instead of black on tricyclazole-amended medium. Two melanin-deficient mutant strains were analyzed in this study: an albino that produced normal-appearing melanin on scytalone-amended medium and a reddish brown mutant that accumulated and extruded melanin metabolites into its medium. Scytalone and flaviolin obtained from cultures of the reddish brown mutant were identified by thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and UV spectra. Transmission electron microscopy showed an electron-dense granular material believed to be melanin in wild-type conidial cell walls, and this was absent in conidial walls of the albino mutant unless the albino was grown on a scytalone-amended medium. Melanized cells of wild-type S. schenckii and the albino grown on scytalone-amended medium were less susceptible to killing by chemically generated oxygen- and nitrogen-derived radicals and by UV light than were conidia of the mutant strains. Melanized conidia of the wild type and the scytalone-treated albino were also more resistant to phagocytosis and killing by human monocytes and murine macrophages than were unmelanized conidia of the two mutants. These results demonstrate that melanin protects S. schenckii against certain oxidative antimicrobial compounds and against attack by macrophages.

Synthesis of polymerized melanin by Cryptococcus neoformans in infected rodents

The ability of Cryptococcus neoformans to synthesize polymerized melanin in vitro has been associated with virulence, but it is unclear whether this fungus synthesizes polymerized melanin during infection. To study this question, we used two approaches: one involved the generation of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to melanin for use in immunohistochemical studies of C. neoformans-infected rodents, and the other sought to isolate fungal melanin from infected tissues. Digestion of in vitro-melanized C. neoformans cells with proteases, denaturant, and hot concentrated acid yields melanin particles that retain the shape of fungal cells and are therefore called melanin ghosts. BALB/c mice were immunized with melanin ghosts, and two immunoglobulin M MAbs to melanin were generated from the spleen of one mouse. Immunofluorescence analyses of lung and brain tissues of rodents infected with wild-type melanin-producing (Mel(+)) C. neoformans strains demonstrated binding of the MAbs to the fungal cell wall. No binding was observed when infections were performed with mutant albino (Mel(-)) C. neoformans strains. Particles with striking similarity to melanin ghosts were recovered after digestion of lung and brain tissues from Mel(+) C. neoformans-infected rodents and were reactive with the MAbs to melanin. No particles were recovered from tissues infected with Mel(-) C. neoformans. A Mel(+) C. neoformans strain grown on lung or brain homogenate agar became lightly pigmented and also yielded particles similar to melanin ghosts upon digestion, providing additional evidence that lung and brain tissues contain substrate for C. neoformans melanization. These results demonstrate that C. neoformans synthesizes polymerized melanin during infection, which has important implications for pathogenesis and antifungal drug development.

Comparative study of laser damage threshold energies in the artificial retina

Laser damage threshold energies produced from ultrashort (i.e., ⩽1 ns) laser pulses are investigated as a function of both pulse width and spot size for an artificial retina. A piece of film acts as the absorbing layer and is positioned at the focus of a variant on the Cain artificial eye [C. Cain, G. D. Noojin, D. X. Hammer, R. J. Thomas, and B. A. Rockwell, "Artificial eye for in vitro experiments of laser light interaction with aqueous media," J. Biomed. Opt.2, 88-94 (1997)]. Experiments were performed at the focal point and at two and ten Rayleigh ranges (RR) in front of the focus with the damage end point being the presence of a bubble imaged at the film plane. Pulse energy thresholds were determined for wavelengths of 1064, 580, and 532 nm with pulse durations ranging from the nanosecond (ns) to the femtosecond (fs) regime. For the at-focus data in the visible regime, the threshold dropped from 0.25 μJ for a 532 nm, 5 ns pulse to 0.11 μJ for a 580 nm, 100 fs pulse. The near-infrared (NIR) threshold changed from 5.5 μJ for a 5 ns pulse to 0.9 μJ for a 130 fs pulse at a distance two RR in front of the focus. The experiment was repeated using the same pulse widths and wavelengths, except the water path was removed to determine the impact of nonlinear self-focusing in water. A vertical microscope imaging system was employed in order to observe the threshold event. The NIR fluence threshold of 0.5 J/cm2 remained constant within an experimental uncertainty for all pulse widths, which corresponds to values in the literature [C. P. Lin and M. W. Kelly, "Ultrafast time-resolved imaging of stress transient and cavitation from short pulsed laser irradiated melanin particles," SPIE Laser-Tissue Interactions VI, Proc. SPIE2391, 294-299 (1995)]. The visible data also demonstrated a nearly constant fluence of 0.07 J/cm2. The disparity in thresholds between the two techniques arises from nonlinear optical phenomena related to propagation differences in the ocular fluid. © 1999 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers.

Melanization affects susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans to heat and cold

Cryptococcus neoformans can synthesize melanin from a variety of substrates, including L-dopa (L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine). Growth in minimal medium with L-dopa resulted in progressive accumulation of melanin in stationary phase cells. Melanized and non-melanized yeast cells were exposed to heat (42-47 degrees C) and cold (-20 degrees C), and the percentage of survival determined. Melanized cells were less susceptible to heat than non-melanized cells of the same age. Melanized cells from early stationary phase cultures were less susceptible to cold than non-melanized cells of the same age. However, melanized cells from late stationary phase cultures were more susceptible to cold than non-melanized cells of the same age. There was no statistical difference in susceptibility to heat and cold between melanin-deficient cells grown with and without L-dopa. These results suggest a role for melanin in protection against heat and cold.

Fungal melanins and their interactions with metals

Fungal melanins are dark brown or black pigments located in cell walls. They also exist as extracellular polymers. Melanized fungi possess increased virulence and resistance to microbial attack as well as enhanced survival while under environmental stress. Melanins contain various functional groups which provide an array of multiple nonequivalent binding sites for metal ions. Pigmented Cladosporium cladosporoides was shown to biosorb 2.5- to four-fold more Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb than albino Penicillium digitatum and at four- to six-fold higher rates. Metal desorption was significantly lower for extracellular melanin than from pigmented or albino biomass which indicated the strength of the melanin-metal bond. At equilibrium, tributyltin chloride (TBTC) concentrations of 2.5 mM, pigmented and albino Aureobasidium pullulans absorbed approximately 0.9 and 0.7 mumol TBTC mg -1 dry wt, respectively, whereas purified extracellular melanin exhibited uptake levels of approximately 22 mumol TBTC mg-1 dry wt at an equilibrium concentration of only 0.4 mM. Addition of melanin to the growth medium reduced the toxic effect of CuSO4 and TBTC due to melanin metal binding and sequestration.

Cryptococcus neoformans melanin and virulence: mechanism of action

Black melanin-like pigments are produced by several neurotropic fungi, including Cryptococcus neoformans. Pigment production is associated with virulence. In media containing phenolic substrates such as L-dopa, C. neoformans cells become black as a result of pigment accumulation. Pigmented and nonpigmented C. neoformans cells were studied with transmission electron microscopy and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. Transmission electron microscopy showed electron-dense cell walls, and ESR spectroscopy revealed a stable free-radical population in pigmented cells. The ESR signals of pigmented cells were increased by light, alkaline pH, and Zn2+ and decreased by acid pH, indicating that the black pigment was a type of melanin. A mutant deficient in melanin synthesis (mel) generated by UV radiation lacked ESR-detectable radicals, was less virulent for mice, was more susceptible to killing by nitrogen- and oxygen-derived radicals, and had 100-foldless phenoloxidase activity than the parent strain. The interaction of melanized C. neoformans, nonmelanized C. neoformans, and the hypomelanotic mel mutant with J774.16 murine macrophage-like cells was studied. Melanized cells were more resistant to antibody-mediated phagocytosis and the antifungal effects of murine macrophages than nonmelanized cells. Small increases in the intensity of the ESR signals of melanized cells in solutions containing chemically generated oxygen- and nitrogen-derived radicals indicated electron transfer to or from melanin. Melanin appears to contribute to virulence by protecting fungal cells against attack by immune effector cells.

Susceptibility of melanized and nonmelanized Cryptococcus neoformans to nitrogen- and oxygen-derived oxidants

Melanized Cryptococcus neoformans cells were less susceptible than nonmelanized cells to the fungicidal effects of nitrogen- and oxygen-derived oxidants. The results support the hypothesis that the phenoloxidase enzyme system contributes to virulence by protecting C. neoformans against nitrogen- and oxygen-derived oxidative antimicrobial molecules produced by immune effector cells.

Oxidation of ascorbic acid as an indicator of photooxidative stress in the eye

When whole retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) cells isolated from bovine eyes are incubated with 14C-labeled ascorbic acid and exposed to a visible laser, the ascorbic acid is oxidized to dehydro-L-ascorbic acid (DHA). The amount of ascorbic acid which is oxidized is proportional to the radiant exposure of the sample (i.e. the total amount of radiation per unit area delivered over the exposure time). Blue light is more effective than red light in driving the reaction. The amount of label appearing in the DHA fraction is increased if unlabeled DHA is present in the reaction mixture, indicating that some redox cycling of ascorbate is occurring in the RPE cells. The ascorbic acid oxidizing activity does not depend on intact cells, is not inactivated by heating the cells to 80 degrees C, and appears to reside mainly in the subcellular fraction which contains melanin pigment granules. The ascorbic acid oxidation may be caused by free radicals formed when melanin is illuminated with light. This reaction appears to be a useful method for quantifying the production of free radicals during photooxidative stress.

Phospholipid peroxidation induced by the catechol-Fe3+(Cu2+) complex: a possible mechanism of nigrostriatal cell damage

Ferric or cupric ions significantly promoted a peroxidative cleavage of unsaturated phospholipids in liposomes in vitro after coordinating with dopa and dopamine. Either alpha-tocopherol or desferrioxamine completely abolished the dopa-Fe3+ complex-induced phospholipid peroxidation, while superoxide dismutase, catalase, or sodium benzoate did not. A ferroxidase, ceruloplasmin, significantly inhibited the lipid peroxidation induced by the dopa-Fe3+ complex, indicating the importance of the reduction of the iron moiety in the complex for the lipid peroxidation. A possible mechanism of dopa-Fe3+ complex-induced phospholipid peroxidation is that oxene complexes, such as Fe(V) = O and Fe(IV) = O, produced abstract hydrogen atoms in unsaturated phospholipids to initiate lipid peroxidation.

Radicals in melanin biochemistry

Melanins are light-absorbant polymeric pigments found widely dispersed in nature. They possess many interesting physicochemical properties. One of these is the expression in the polymer of stable free radicals which appear to have a protective action in cells, probably by acting as a sink for diffusible free-radical species. Polymer formation is thought to occur by a free-radical process in which semiquinones are added to the chain. Semiquinones are formed by redox equilibration interactions between metabolic intermediates formed during the tyrosinase-catalyzed oxidation process. In the continued presence of substrate, steady-state concentrations of reactive species are predicted in the reaction system, and the melanogenic pathway may be considered as potentially hazardous for pigment-generating cells. This feature has been exploited by the use of analogue substrates to generate cytotoxic species as a possible rational approach to the treatment of malignant melanoma. One such substance is 4-hydroxyanisole, the oxidation of which gives rise to semiquinone radical species. The possibility that the anisyl semiquinone initiates a mechanism leading to cell damage has not been excluded. However, the current view is that the major cytotoxicity due to the oxidation products of this compound is the result of the action of the corresponding orthoquinone. A number of mechanisms exist for detoxifying quinones if they reach the cytosol such as O-methylation and the formation of thiol adducts with cysteine or glutathione, and these can be used as markers of melanogenesis. In general, however, only small amounts of reactive intermediates of melanogenesis escape from the confines of the melanosome, probably because of their limited lipid solubility. The selective toxic action of anisyl quinone in the treatment of melanoma may, in part, be due to membrane defects in the melanosomes of malignant melanocytes.

Iris pigmentation and behavioral inhibition

Two independent investigations of the association between the temperamental dimensions of inhibition and lack of inhibition to the unfamiliar, on the one hand, and the degree of pigmentation of the iris, on the other, revealed a statistically significant relation in Caucasian children between behavioral inhibition to the unfamiliar and blue irises and uninhibited behavior and brown irises. Several biochemical interpretations of this association were discussed and it was suggested that these behavioral styles might be influenced by biological factors that are partially marked by eye color in Caucasian populations.

The interaction of L-DOPA melanin with p-tert-butylcatechol

The interaction between the skin depigmenter 4-tert-butylcatechol (tBC) and L-DOPA melanin was qualitatively studied by means of spectroscopically monitoring the binding of tBC melanin as well as the oxidation of tBC in the presence and absence of melanin. Additionally, we assessed the quantitative effect of tBC on melanin's chemical reactivity by using the reduction of potassium ferricyanide as a redox marker. The kinetics of ferricyanide reduction in the ternary (melanin/tBC/ferricyanide) system are essentially different from those in each of the binary components (i.e., melanin/ferricyanide and tBC/ferricyanide). The experiments indicate that tBC can bind to melanin (KB = 3.8 X 10(3) M-1) and that melanin can act as a "catalyst-like" electron transfer agent which couples ferricyanide reduction with tBC oxidation (k' = 1.3 X 10(-6) mole min-1). These kinetic and thermodynamic parameters may provide a means of quantitatively comparing melanins obtained from different biological and pathological situations, and they may make possible an understanding of cutaneous depigmentation processes on the molecular level.

Inappropriate use of albino animals as models in research

Sensory-neural, biochemical-metabolic, and physiological anomalies occur in albino mammals. There are ontogenic and biochemical parallels between the senses, peripheral nervous system, endocrine glands, metabolism, and melanin pigmentation. All albino mammals examined have abnormal optic systems. Many drugs cannot be adequately evaluated in an albino model because of melanin's ability to bind and interact with some chemicals. There is evidence that a general reduction in melanin pigment is correlated with a paucity of amino acids necessary for normal chemical function of the brain. There is a high probability that enzyme levels indicative of metabolic performance are deficient in the liver and kidneys oif albinos. Congenital defects are associated with hypopigmentation in animal models and human syndromes. Melanin is found in abundance in the eye, inner ear, and midbrain where neural impulses are initiated indicating a possible role as an electrophysiologic mechanism. Microwave irradiation differentially affects albino and pigmented animals. Implications of these observations and other reports of anomalies associated with hypopigmentation suggest caution in the use of albino and other hypomelanotic animals as normal models in biological research.

Ocular accumulation and toxicity of certain systemically administered drugs

Certain polycyclic compounds with a coplanar ring structure (phenothiazines, thioxanthenes, 4-aminoquinolines, and amitriptyline), monocyclic sympathomimetic amines, and other drugs become concentrated in the eyes of animals following acute or chronic systemic administration. Some are known to cross the placental barrier and accumulate in the fetal eye. Following drug withdrawal, these substances disappear relatively slowly from ocular tissues compared with other tissues. The main reason for the accumulation of these compounds seem to be their affinity for the melanin of the uveal tract and pigment epithelium and they therefore do not accumulate in the eyes of albino animals. The mechanism of uptake by melanin probably involves a "charge transfer" reaction involving the transfer of an electron from drug to melanin, which acts as an "electron trap" and in consequence binds the donor compound firmly. The accumulation of a nontoxic drug in the eye is not necessarily of clinical significance, but ocular damage can occur in patients on long-term tricyclic agents when the amount, duration, and frequency of dosage are sufficiently high. The most serious form of ocular damage is pigmentary retinopathy, which, if caused by chloroquine, is irreversible. In contrast, phenothiazine retinopathy is reversible. Lesions may also be produced in anterior structures of the eye, usually the cornea and lens, by both chloroquine and the phenothiazines, but they are of a relatively minor nature. Possible mechanisms for the oculotoxicity of the phenothiazines and antimalarials are discussed, particularly in relation to melanin.