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Kusano T, Nishino T, Okamoto K, Hille R, Nishino T. The mechanism and significance of the conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase in mammalian secretory gland cells. Redox Biol 2022; 59:102573. [PMID: 36525890 PMCID: PMC9760657 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2022.102573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) to xanthine oxidase (XO) occurs only in mammalian species. In fresh bovine milk, the enzyme exists predominantly as the oxidase form, in contrast to various normal organs where it is found primarily as the dehydrogenase: the mechanism of conversion to the oxidase in milk remains obscure. A systematic search for the essential factors for conversion from XDH to XO has been performed within fresh bovine milk using the highly purified dehydrogenase form after removal endogenous oxidase form by fractionation analysis. We find that conversion to the oxidase form requires four components under air: lactoperoxidase (LPO), XDH, SCN-, and substrate hypoxanthine or xanthine; the contribution of sulfhydryl oxidase appears to be minor. Disulfide bond formation between Cys-535 and Cys-995 is principally involved in the conversion, consistent with the result obtained from previous work with transgenic mice. In vitro reconstitution of LPO and SCN- results in synergistic conversion of the dehydrogenase to the oxidase the presence of xanthine, indicating the conversion is autocatalytic. Milk from an LPO knockout mouse contains a significantly greater proportion of the dehydrogenase form of the enzyme, although some oxidase form is also present, indicating that LPO contributes principally to the conversion, but that sulfhydryl oxidase (SO) may also be involved to a minor extent. All the components XDH/LPO/SCN- are necessary to inhibit bacterial growth in the presence of xanthine through disulfide bond formation in bacterial protein(s) required for replication, as part of an innate immunity system in mammals. Human GTEx Data suggest that mRNA of XDH and LPO are highly co-expressed in the salivary gland, mammary gland, mucosa of the airway and lung alveoli, and we have confirmed these human GTEx Data experimentally in mice. We discuss the possible roles of these components in the propagation of SARS-CoV-2 in these human cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruo Kusano
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5, Sendagi, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoko Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5, Sendagi, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ken Okamoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5, Sendagi, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Russ Hille
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, USA
| | - Takeshi Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5, Sendagi, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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Association of Mutations Identified in Xanthinuria with the Function and Inhibition Mechanism of Xanthine Oxidoreductase. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9111723. [PMID: 34829959 PMCID: PMC8615798 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is an enzyme that catalyzes the two-step reaction from hypoxanthine to xanthine and from xanthine to uric acid in purine metabolism. XOR generally carries dehydrogenase activity (XDH) but is converted into an oxidase (XO) under various pathophysiologic conditions. The complex structure and enzymatic function of XOR have been well investigated by mutagenesis studies of mammalian XOR and structural analysis of XOR-inhibitor interactions. Three XOR inhibitors are currently used as hyperuricemia and gout therapeutics but are also expected to have potential effects other than uric acid reduction, such as suppressing XO-generating reactive oxygen species. Isolated XOR deficiency, xanthinuria type I, is a good model of the metabolic effects of XOR inhibitors. It is characterized by hypouricemia, markedly decreased uric acid excretion, and increased serum and urinary xanthine concentrations, with no clinically significant symptoms. The pathogenesis and relationship between mutations and XOR activity in xanthinuria are useful for elucidating the biological role of XOR and the details of the XOR reaction process. In this review, we aim to contribute to the basic science and clinical aspects of XOR by linking the mutations in xanthinuria to structural studies, in order to understand the function and reaction mechanism of XOR in vivo.
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Weissman D, Maack C. Redox signaling in heart failure and therapeutic implications. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 171:345-364. [PMID: 34019933 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Heart failure is a growing health burden worldwide characterized by alterations in excitation-contraction coupling, cardiac energetic deficit and oxidative stress. While current treatments are mostly limited to antagonization of neuroendocrine activation, more recent data suggest that also targeting metabolism may provide substantial prognostic benefit. However, although in a broad spectrum of preclinical models, oxidative stress plays a causal role for the development and progression of heart failure, no treatment that targets reactive oxygen species (ROS) directly has entered the clinical arena yet. In the heart, ROS derive from various sources, such as NADPH oxidases, xanthine oxidase, uncoupled nitric oxide synthase and mitochondria. While mitochondria are the primary source of ROS in the heart, communication between different ROS sources may be relevant for physiological signalling events as well as pathologically elevated ROS that deteriorate excitation-contraction coupling, induce hypertrophy and/or trigger cell death. Here, we review the sources of ROS in the heart, the modes of pathological activation of ROS formation as well as therapeutic approaches that may target ROS specifically in mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Weissman
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center (CHFC), University Clinic Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Maack
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center (CHFC), University Clinic Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; Department of Internal Medicine 1, University Clinic Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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Nakatani S, Ishimura E, Murase T, Nakamura T, Nakatani A, Toi N, Nishide K, Uedono H, Tsuda A, Kurajoh M, Yamada S, Mori K, Inaba M, Emoto M. Plasma Xanthine Oxidoreductase Activity Associated with Glycemic Control in Patients with Pre-Dialysis Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney Blood Press Res 2021; 46:475-483. [PMID: 34082427 DOI: 10.1159/000516610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) activity plays an important role as a pivotal source of reactive oxygen species, which is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) events. Patients with CKD have increased risk of CVD events. In the present study, factors associated with plasma XOR activity in pre-dialysis CKD patients were investigated. METHODS In this cross-sectional study, plasma XOR activity in 118 pre-dialysis CKD patients (age 68 [57-75] years; 64 males, 26 with diabetes mellitus [DM]) was determined using a newly established highly sensitive assay based on (13C2,15N2) xanthine and liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. RESULTS Plasma glucose, hemoglobin A1c, and estimated glomerular filtration (eGFR) were significantly and positively correlated with plasma logarithmically transformed XOR (ln-XOR) activity. In multiple regression analyses, eGFR and hemoglobin A1c or plasma glucose were significantly, independently, and positively associated with plasma ln-XOR activity after adjusting for several confounders. Plasma XOR activity was significantly higher in CKD patients with (n = 26) than in those without (n = 92) DM (62.7 [32.3-122] vs. 25.7 [13.4-45.8] pmol/h/mL, p < 0.001). A total of 38 patients were taking uric acid-lowering drugs. Multiple regression analysis of CKD patients not administered uric acid-lowering drugs (n = 80) showed no significant association between eGFR and plasma ln-XOR activity. In contrast, association between glycemic control and plasma ln-XOR activity was significant even in CKD patients without uric acid-lowering drug treatment. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate the importance of glycemic control in CKD patients in regard to decreased XOR, possibly leading to a decrease in CVD events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Nakatani
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Eiji Ishimura
- Department of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takayo Murase
- Mie Research Laboratories, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd., Inabe-shi, Japan
| | - Takashi Nakamura
- Mie Research Laboratories, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd., Inabe-shi, Japan
| | - Ayumi Nakatani
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Norikazu Toi
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kozo Nishide
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hideki Uedono
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akihiro Tsuda
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masafumi Kurajoh
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Yamada
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Katsuhito Mori
- Department of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masaaki Inaba
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masanori Emoto
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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Kurajoh M, Fukumoto S, Yoshida S, Akari S, Murase T, Nakamura T, Ishii H, Yoshida H, Nagata Y, Morioka T, Mori K, Imanishi Y, Hirata K, Emoto M. Uric acid shown to contribute to increased oxidative stress level independent of xanthine oxidoreductase activity in MedCity21 health examination registry. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7378. [PMID: 33795813 PMCID: PMC8016900 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86962-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Uric acid has both antioxidant and pro-oxidant properties in vitro by scavenging and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This cross-sectional study examined whether uric acid possesses effects on oxidative stress under physiological conditions independent of xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), which is involved in uric acid and ROS production. Serum uric acid level was measured, while plasma XOR activity was determined using our high-sensitive assay in 192 participants (91 males, 101 females) who underwent health examinations and were not taking an antihyperuricemic agent. For antioxidant potential and oxidative stress level, biological antioxidant potential (BAP) and derivative of reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs) in serum, respectively, were measured. Median uric acid level and plasma XOR activity were 5.6 mg/dL and 26.1 pmol/h/mL, respectively, and BAP and d-ROMs levels were 2112.8 μmol/L and 305.5 Carr U, respectively. Multivariable regression analyses revealed no significant association of serum uric acid level with BAP level, whereas serum uric acid level showed a significant association with d-ROMs level independent of plasma XOR activity (p = 0.045), which was prominent in females (p = 0.036; p for interaction = 0.148). Uric acid might contribute to increased oxidative stress independent of XOR activity by increasing ROS production, without affecting ROS scavenging, especially in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masafumi Kurajoh
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan.
| | - Shinya Fukumoto
- Department of Premier Preventive Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shio Yoshida
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | - Seigo Akari
- Department of Research and Development, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd., Aichi, Japan
| | - Takayo Murase
- Department of Research and Development, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd., Aichi, Japan
| | - Takashi Nakamura
- Department of Research and Development, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd., Aichi, Japan
| | - Haruka Ishii
- Department of Medical Statistics, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hisako Yoshida
- Department of Medical Statistics, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuki Nagata
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tomoaki Morioka
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | - Katsuhito Mori
- Department of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yasuo Imanishi
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | | | - Masanori Emoto
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
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Kurajoh M, Fukumoto S, Murase T, Nakamura T, Nagata Y, Nakatani S, Tsuda A, Yamada S, Morioka T, Mori K, Imanishi Y, Kawada N, Hirata K, Emoto M. Plasma xanthine oxidoreductase activity change over 12 months independently associated with change in serum uric acid level: MedCity21 health examination registry. Clin Chem Lab Med 2020; 59:e137-e140. [PMID: 32735550 DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2020-0563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Masafumi Kurajoh
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinya Fukumoto
- Department of Premier Preventive Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takayo Murase
- Mie Research Laboratories, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd.,Inabe, Mie, Japan
| | - Takashi Nakamura
- Mie Research Laboratories, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd.,Inabe, Mie, Japan
| | - Yuki Nagata
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinya Nakatani
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akihiro Tsuda
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Yamada
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tomoaki Morioka
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Katsuhito Mori
- Department of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yasuo Imanishi
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Norifumi Kawada
- Department of Hepatology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | | | - Masanori Emoto
- Department of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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7
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Independent association of plasma xanthine oxidoreductase activity with serum uric acid level based on stable isotope-labeled xanthine and liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry: MedCity21 health examination registry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 58:780-786. [DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2019-0199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundWe developed a novel high-sensitive assay for plasma xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) activity that is not affected by the original serum uric acid level. However, the association of plasma XOR activity with that level has not been fully examined.MethodsThis cross-sectional study included 191 subjects (91 males, 100 females) registered in the MedCity21 health examination registry. Plasma XOR activity was determined using our assay for plasma XOR activity with [13C2,15N2] xanthine and liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Serum levels of uric acid and adiponectin, and visceral fat area (VFA) obtained by computed tomography were measured, and insulin resistance was determined based on the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) index.ResultsThe median values for uric acid and plasma XOR activity were 333 μmol/L and 26.1 pmol/h/mL, respectively. Multivariable linear regression analysis showed a significant and positive association of serum uric acid level (coefficient: 26.503; 95% confidence interval: 2.06, 50.945; p = 0.035) with plasma XOR activity independent of VFA and HOMA-IR, and also age, gender, alcohol drinking habit, systolic blood pressure, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), glycated hemoglobin A1c, triglyceride, and adiponectin levels. The “gender*XOR activity” interaction was not significant (p = 0.91), providing no evidence that gender modifies the relationship between plasma XOR activity and serum uric acid level.ConclusionsPlasma XOR activity was found to be positively associated with serum uric acid level independent of other known confounding factors affecting that level, including gender difference, eGFR, adiponectin level, VFA, and HOMA-IR.
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8
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Targeted knock-in mice expressing the oxidase-fixed form of xanthine oxidoreductase favor tumor growth. Nat Commun 2019; 10:4904. [PMID: 31659168 PMCID: PMC6817904 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12565-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase has been implicated in cancer. Nonetheless, the role played by its two convertible forms, xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) and oxidase (XO) during tumorigenesis is not understood. Here we produce XDH-stable and XO-locked knock-in (ki) mice to address this question. After tumor transfer, XO ki mice show strongly increased tumor growth compared to wild type (WT) and XDH ki mice. Hematopoietic XO expression is responsible for this effect. After macrophage depletion, tumor growth is reduced. Adoptive transfer of XO-ki macrophages in WT mice increases tumor growth. In vitro, XO ki macrophages produce higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) responsible for the increased Tregs observed in the tumors. Blocking ROS in vivo slows down tumor growth. Collectively, these results indicate that the balance of XO/XDH plays an important role in immune surveillance of tumor development. Strategies that inhibit the XO form specifically may be valuable in controlling cancer growth. The roles of the convertible forms, xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) and xanthine oxidase (XO) during tumorigenesis is not known. Here, the authors develop XDH-stable and XO-locked knock-in (ki) mice and show increased tumor growth in XO ki mice, via macrophage-mediated immunoregulatory responses.
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9
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Zemskov EA, Lu Q, Ornatowski W, Klinger CN, Desai AA, Maltepe E, Yuan JXJ, Wang T, Fineman JR, Black SM. Biomechanical Forces and Oxidative Stress: Implications for Pulmonary Vascular Disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 31:819-842. [PMID: 30623676 PMCID: PMC6751394 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2018.7720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Significance: Oxidative stress in the cell is characterized by excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Superoxide (O2-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are the main ROS involved in the regulation of cellular metabolism. As our fundamental understanding of the underlying causes of lung disease has increased it has become evident that oxidative stress plays a critical role. Recent Advances: A number of cells in the lung both produce, and respond to, ROS. These include vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, and epithelial cells as well as the cells involved in the inflammatory response, including macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils. The redox system is involved in multiple aspects of cell metabolism and cell homeostasis. Critical Issues: Dysregulation of the cellular redox system has consequential effects on cell signaling pathways that are intimately involved in disease progression. The lung is exposed to biomechanical forces (fluid shear stress, cyclic stretch, and pressure) due to the passage of blood through the pulmonary vessels and the distension of the lungs during the breathing cycle. Cells within the lung respond to these forces by activating signal transduction pathways that alter their redox state with both physiologic and pathologic consequences. Future Directions: Here, we will discuss the intimate relationship between biomechanical forces and redox signaling and its role in the development of pulmonary disease. An understanding of the molecular mechanisms induced by biomechanical forces in the pulmonary vasculature is necessary for the development of new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeny A Zemskov
- Department of Medicine, The University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Qing Lu
- Department of Medicine, The University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Wojciech Ornatowski
- Department of Medicine, The University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Christina N Klinger
- Department of Medicine, The University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Ankit A Desai
- Department of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Emin Maltepe
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Jason X-J Yuan
- Department of Medicine, The University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Ting Wang
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Arizona Health Sciences, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Jeffrey R Fineman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Stephen M Black
- Department of Medicine, The University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona
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10
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AHMANE N, ATMANI-KILANI D, CHAHER N, AYOUNI K, RAHMANI-BERBOUCHA M, DA COSTA G, DEBBACHE-BENAIDA N, RICHARD T, ATMANI D. Identification of bioactive compounds from Fraxinus angustifolia extracts with anti- NADH oxidase activity of bovine milk xanthine oxidoreductase. Turk J Biol 2019; 43:133-147. [PMID: 31410081 PMCID: PMC6667094 DOI: 10.3906/biy-1810-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Fraxinus angustifolia leaves and bark are used in traditional medicine against various inflammatory-related pathologies incumbent to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by the NADH oxidase activity of enzymes such as xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR). This study was designed to investigate the in vitro and in vivo inhibitory activities of this enzyme by Fraxinus angustifolia extracts. The leaf organic phase of ethyl acetate (LFA) and its bark aqueous counterpart (BFA) showed the strongest anti-NADH oxidase activity in vitro (IC50 = 38.51 and 42.04 µg mL-1, respectively). They consequently suppressed superoxide generation both enzymatically (53% and 19%, respectively) and nonenzymatically (34% and 19%, respectively). These results were corroborated in vivo, with high antiNADH oxidase potential of the leaves and bark extracts (75.32% and 51.32%, respectively) concomitant with moderate hypouricemic activities (36.84% and 38.59%, respectively). Bio-guided fractionation led to the identification, by LC-DAD-MS/MS, of esculin and calcelarioside in bark and kaempferol glucoside in leaves as the main compounds responsible for the anti-NADH oxidase activity of XOR. These results plead in favor of the use of F. angustifolia as a source of potentially interesting therapeutic substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadjia AHMANE
- Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Béjaïa
,
06000
,
Algeria
| | - Dina ATMANI-KILANI
- Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Béjaïa
,
06000
,
Algeria
| | - Nassima CHAHER
- Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Béjaïa
,
06000
,
Algeria
| | - Karima AYOUNI
- Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Béjaïa
,
06000
,
Algeria
| | - Meriem RAHMANI-BERBOUCHA
- Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Béjaïa
,
06000
,
Algeria
| | - Grégory DA COSTA
- University of Bordeaux, Research Unit of Oenology
,
Villenave d'Ornon
,
France
| | - Nadjet DEBBACHE-BENAIDA
- Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Béjaïa
,
06000
,
Algeria
| | - Tristan RICHARD
- University of Bordeaux, Research Unit of Oenology
,
Villenave d'Ornon
,
France
| | - Djebbar ATMANI
- Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Béjaïa
,
06000
,
Algeria
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11
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Kellner M, Noonepalle S, Lu Q, Srivastava A, Zemskov E, Black SM. ROS Signaling in the Pathogenesis of Acute Lung Injury (ALI) and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS). ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 967:105-137. [PMID: 29047084 PMCID: PMC7120947 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-63245-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays an important role for the maintenance of cellular processes and functions in the body. However, the excessive generation of oxygen radicals under pathological conditions such as acute lung injury (ALI) and its most severe form acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) leads to increased endothelial permeability. Within this hallmark of ALI and ARDS, vascular microvessels lose their junctional integrity and show increased myosin contractions that promote the migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) and the transition of solutes and fluids in the alveolar lumen. These processes all have a redox component, and this chapter focuses on the role played by ROS during the development of ALI/ARDS. We discuss the origins of ROS within the cell, cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative damage, the role of ROS in the development of endothelial permeability, and potential therapies targeted at oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Kellner
- Department of Medicine, Center for Lung Vascular Pathobiology, University of Arizona, 1501 N Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Satish Noonepalle
- Department of Medicine, Center for Lung Vascular Pathobiology, University of Arizona, 1501 N Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Qing Lu
- Department of Medicine, Center for Lung Vascular Pathobiology, University of Arizona, 1501 N Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Anup Srivastava
- Department of Medicine, Center for Lung Vascular Pathobiology, University of Arizona, 1501 N Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Evgeny Zemskov
- Department of Medicine, Center for Lung Vascular Pathobiology, University of Arizona, 1501 N Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Stephen M Black
- Department of Medicine, Center for Lung Vascular Pathobiology, University of Arizona, 1501 N Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA.
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Nakatani A, Nakatani S, Ishimura E, Murase T, Nakamura T, Sakura M, Tateishi Y, Tsuda A, Kurajoh M, Mori K, Emoto M, Inaba M. Xanthine oxidoreductase activity is associated with serum uric acid and glycemic control in hemodialysis patients. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15416. [PMID: 29133805 PMCID: PMC5684129 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15419-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase activity (XOR-a) plays an important role as a pivotal source of reactive oxygen species. In the present study, we investigated factors associated with plasma XOR-a in 163 hemodialysis patients (age 67.3 ± 10.9 years; 89 males and 74 females), using a newly established, highly-sensitive assay based on [13C2,15N2] xanthine and liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Plasma glucose and serum uric acid levels correlated significantly and positively with plasma XOR-a. In multiple regression analyses, the presence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and plasma glucose were associated significantly, independently, and positively with plasma XOR-a. While serum uric acid correlated significantly and positively with plasma XOR-a in hemodialysis patients without T2DM, plasma glucose and serum glycated albumin, a new marker of glycemic control in diabetic hemodialysis patients, correlated significantly and positively with plasma XOR-a in those with T2DM. Multivariate analyses in those with T2DM revealed that plasma glucose and serum glycated albumin were associated significantly and independently with plasma XOR-a, and that serum uric acid was associated significantly and independently with XOR-a in those without T2DM. Our results suggested that glycemic control in hemodialysis patients may be important in regard to a decrease in ROS induced by XOR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayumi Nakatani
- Departments of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinya Nakatani
- Departments of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.,Departments of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.,Departments of Nephrology, Ishikiriseiki Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Eiji Ishimura
- Departments of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Takayo Murase
- Departments of Radioisotope and Chemical Analysis Center, Laboratory Management, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Takashi Nakamura
- Department Pharmacological Study Group, Pharmaceutical Research Laboratories, Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co., Ltd, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Mari Sakura
- Departments of Nephrology, Ishikiriseiki Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yu Tateishi
- Departments of Nephrology, Ishikiriseiki Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akihiro Tsuda
- Departments of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masafumi Kurajoh
- Departments of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Katsuhito Mori
- Departments of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masanori Emoto
- Departments of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masaaki Inaba
- Departments of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Molecular Medicine, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.,Departments of Nephrology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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Panoutsopoulos GI. Phenylacetaldehyde Oxidation by Freshly Prepared and Cryopreserved Guinea Pig Liver Slices: The Role of Aldehyde Oxidase. Int J Toxicol 2016; 24:103-9. [PMID: 16036769 DOI: 10.1080/10915810590936373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Phenylacetaldehyde is formed when the xenobiotic and biogenic amine 2-phenylethylamine is inactivated by a monoamine oxidase–catalyzed oxidative deamination. Exogenous phenylacetaldehyde is found in certain foodstuffs such as honey, cheese, tomatoes, and wines. 2-Phenylethylamine can trigger migraine attacks in susceptible individuals and can become fairly toxic at high intakes from foods. It may also function as a potentiator that enhances the toxicity of histamine and tyramine. The present investigation examines the metabolism of phenylacetaldehyde to phenylacetic acid in freshly prepared and in cryopreserved guinea pig liver slices. In addition, it compares the relative contribution of aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde dehydrogenase in the oxidation of phenylacetaldehyde using specific inhibitors for each oxidizing enzyme. The inhibitors used were isovanillin for aldehyde oxidase, allopurinol for xanthine oxidase, and disulfiram for aldehyde dehydrogenase. In freshly prepared liver slices, phenylacetaldehyde was converted mainly to phenylacetic acid, with traces of 2-phenylethanol being present. Disulfiram inhibited phenylacetic acid formation by 80% to 85%, whereas isovanillin inhibited acid formation to a lesser extent (50% to 55%) and allopurinol had little or no effect. In cryopreserved liver slices, phenylacetic acid was also the main metabolite, whereas the 2-phenylethanol production was more pronounced than that in freshly prepared liver slices. Isovanillin inhibited phenylacetic acid formation by 85%, whereas disulfiram inhibited acid formation to a lesser extent (55% to 60%) and allopurinol had no effect. The results in this study have shown that, in freshly prepared and cryopreserved liver slices, phenylacetaldehyde is converted to phenylacetic acid by both aldehyde dehydrogenase and aldehyde oxidase, with no contribution from xanthine oxidase. Therefore, aldehyde dehydrogenase is not the only enzyme responsible in the metabolism of phenylacetaldehyde, but aldehyde oxidase may also be important and thus its role should not be ignored.
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Murase T, Nampei M, Oka M, Miyachi A, Nakamura T. A highly sensitive assay of human plasma xanthine oxidoreductase activity using stable isotope-labeled xanthine and LC/TQMS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2016; 1039:51-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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15
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Ohri SK, Abel PD. Review article : The pathophysiology of nephrourological complications following cardiopulmonary bypass. Perfusion 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/026765919100600202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- SK Ohri
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Hammersmith Hospital, Royal Postgraduate Medical School
| | - PD Abel
- Department of Urology, Hammersmith Hospital, Royal Postgraduate Medical School, London
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16
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Nishino T, Okamoto K, Kawaguchi Y, Matsumura T, Eger BT, Pai EF, Nishino T. The C-terminal peptide plays a role in the formation of an intermediate form during the transition between xanthine dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase. FEBS J 2015; 282:3075-90. [PMID: 25817260 PMCID: PMC4832347 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mammalian xanthine oxidoreductase can exist in both dehydrogenase and oxidase forms. Conversion between the two is implicated in such diverse processes as lactation, anti-bacterial activity, reperfusion injury and a growing number of diseases. We have constructed a variant of the rat liver enzyme that lacks the carboxy-terminal amino acids 1316-1331; it appears to assume an intermediate form, exhibiting a mixture of dehydrogenase and oxidase activities. The purified variant protein retained ~ 50-70% of oxidase activity even after prolonged dithiothreitol treatment, supporting a previous prediction that the C-terminal region plays a role in the dehydrogenase to oxidase conversion. In the crystal structure of the protein variant, most of the enzyme stays in an oxidase conformation. After 15 min of incubation with a high concentration of NADH, however, the corresponding X-ray structures showed a dehydrogenase-type conformation. On the other hand, disulfide formation between Cys535 and Cys992, which can clearly be seen in the electron density map of the crystal structure of the variant after removal of dithiothreitol, goes in parallel with the complete conversion to oxidase, resulting in structural changes identical to those observed upon proteolytic cleavage of the linker peptide. These results indicate that the dehydrogenase-oxidase transformation occurs rather readily and the insertion of the C-terminal peptide into the active site cavity of its subunit stabilizes the dehydrogenase form. We propose that the intermediate form can be generated (e.g. in endothelial cells) upon interaction of the C-terminal peptide portion of the enzyme with other proteins or the cell membrane. DATABASE Coordinate sets and structure factors for the four crystal structures reported in the present study have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank under the identification numbers 4YRW, 4YTZ, 4YSW, and 4YTY.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ken Okamoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuko Kawaguchi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Matsumura
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Bryan T Eger
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Emil F Pai
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, ON, Canada
- Departments of Medical Biophysics and Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, ON, Canada
- Campbell Family Institute for Cancer Research, Ontario Cancer Institute/University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Takeshi Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
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17
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Nishino T, Okamoto K. Mechanistic insights into xanthine oxidoreductase from development studies of candidate drugs to treat hyperuricemia and gout. J Biol Inorg Chem 2015; 20:195-207. [PMID: 25501928 PMCID: PMC4334109 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-014-1210-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), which is widely distributed from humans to bacteria, has a key role in purine catabolism, catalyzing two steps of sequential hydroxylation from hypoxanthine to xanthine and from xanthine to urate at its molybdenum cofactor (Moco). Human XOR is considered to be a target of drugs not only for therapy of hyperuricemia and gout, but also potentially for a wide variety of other diseases. In this review, we focus on studies of XOR inhibitors and their implications for understanding the chemical nature and reaction mechanism of the Moco active site of XOR. We also discuss further experimental or clinical studies that would be helpful to clarify remaining issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyou-ku, Tokyo, 113-8602, Japan,
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18
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Ujor V, Agu CV, Gopalan V, Ezeji TC. Allopurinol-mediated lignocellulose-derived microbial inhibitor tolerance by Clostridium beijerinckii during acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:3729-40. [PMID: 25690312 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6450-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In addition to glucans, xylans, and arabinans, lignocellulosic biomass hydrolysates contain significant levels of nonsugar components that are toxic to the microbes that are typically used to convert biomass to biofuels and chemicals. To enhance the tolerance of acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE)-generating Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052 to these lignocellulose-derived microbial inhibitory compounds (LDMICs; e.g., furfural), we have been examining different metabolic perturbation strategies to increase the cellular reductant pools and thereby facilitate detoxification of LDMICs. As part of these efforts, we evaluated the effect of allopurinol, an inhibitor of NAD(P)H-generating xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH), on C. beijerinckii grown in furfural-supplemented medium and found that it unexpectedly increased the rate of detoxification of furfural by 1.4-fold and promoted growth, butanol, and ABE production by 1.2-, 2.5-, and 2-fold, respectively. Since NAD(P)H/NAD(P)(+) levels in C. beijerinckii were largely unchanged upon allopurinol treatment, we postulated and validated a possible basis in DNA repair to account for the solventogenic gains with allopurinol. Following the observation that supplementation of allopurinol in the C. beijerinckii growth media mitigates the toxic effects of nalidixic acid, a DNA-damaging antibiotic, we found that allopurinol elicited 2.4- and 6.7-fold increase in the messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of xanthine and hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferases, key purine-salvage enzymes. Consistent with this finding, addition of inosine (a precursor of hypoxanthine) and xanthine led to 1.4- and 1.7-fold increase in butanol production in furfural-challenged cultures of C. beijerinckii. Taken together, our results provide a purine salvage-based rationale for the unanticipated effect of allopurinol in improving furfural tolerance of the ABE-fermenting C. beijerinckii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Ujor
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University, and Ohio State Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC), 305 Gerlaugh Hall, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH, 44691, USA
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19
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Nitrite reduction by molybdoenzymes: a new class of nitric oxide-forming nitrite reductases. J Biol Inorg Chem 2015; 20:403-33. [DOI: 10.1007/s00775-014-1234-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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20
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa B. Maia
- REQUIMTE/CQFB, Departamento
de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - José J. G. Moura
- REQUIMTE/CQFB, Departamento
de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
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21
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Jankowska D, Trautwein-Schult A, Cordes A, Hoferichter P, Klein C, Bode R, Baronian K, Kunze G. Arxula adeninivorans
xanthine oxidoreductase and its application in the production of food with low purine content. J Appl Microbiol 2013; 115:796-807. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D.A. Jankowska
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK); Gatersleben Germany
| | - A. Trautwein-Schult
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK); Gatersleben Germany
| | - A. Cordes
- ASA Spezialenzyme GmbH; Am Exer 19c; Wolfenbüttel Germany
| | - P. Hoferichter
- ASA Spezialenzyme GmbH; Am Exer 19c; Wolfenbüttel Germany
| | - C. Klein
- ASA Spezialenzyme GmbH; Am Exer 19c; Wolfenbüttel Germany
| | - R. Bode
- Institute of Biochemistry; University of Greifswald; Greifswald Germany
| | - K. Baronian
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Canterbury; Christchurch New Zealand
| | - G. Kunze
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK); Gatersleben Germany
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22
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Al-Abbasi FA. Acrylonitrile-induced gastric toxicity in rats: the role of xanthine oxidase. Med Sci Monit 2012; 18:BR208-14. [PMID: 22648241 PMCID: PMC3560737 DOI: 10.12659/msm.882896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acrylonitrile (ACN) is an extensively produced aliphatic nitrile. The gastrointestinal tract is an important target organ for ACN toxicity. The objective of the present study was to investigate the role of xanthine oxidase (XO) in ACN-induced gastric toxicity in rats. MATERIAL/METHODS We assessed the effect of ACN on oxidative stress parameters as xanthine oxidase (XO) and total xanthine dehydrogenase (XD)/ XO activity, superoxide anion (O(2)(.-)) production, reduced glutathione (GSH) levels and lipid peroxidation in gastric tissues. RESULTS A single oral dose of ACN (25 mg/kg) caused a significant enhancement in XO activity. ACN also caused a significant depletion of GSH levels, enhanced O(2)(.-) production and increased lipid peroxidation in the time-course experiment. In the dose-response experiment, ACN accelerated the conversion of XD to XO, with a significant depletion of gastric GSH in a dose-related manner. A strong negative correlation existed between the levels of GSH and the percentage enhancement in XO activity (r =-0.997). (O(2)(.-)) production and malondialdehyde (MDA) formation were significantly elevated in a dose-related manner. Pretreatment with allopurinol (50 mg/kg) significantly protected against ACN-induced rise in XO activity, depletion of GSH, and elevated production of (O(2)(.-)). However, pretreatment with diethyl maleate (DEM; 100 mg/kg) significantly aggravated the ACN-induced GSH depletion and rise in XO activity. Furthermore, DEM significantly enhanced (O(2)(.-)) and MDA production. CONCLUSIONS The present study indicates that enhancement of XO activity could be implicated in ACN-induced gastric damage in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad A Al-Abbasi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
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23
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Azab KS, Mostafa AHA, Ali EMM, Abdel-Aziz MAS. Cinnamon extract ameliorates ionizing radiation-induced cellular injury in rats. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2011; 74:2324-2329. [PMID: 21782243 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2011] [Revised: 06/12/2011] [Accepted: 06/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the protective role of cinnamon extract against inflammatory and oxidative injuries in gamma irradiated rats. Rats were subjected to fractionated doses of gamma radiation. Cinnamon extract were daily administrated before starting irradiation and continued after radiation exposure. The results obtained revealed that the administration of cinnamon extract to irradiated rats significantly ameliorated the changes induced in liver antioxidant system; catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities as well as reduced glutathione concentration. The liver's lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation indices were significantly decreased when compared with their equivalent values in irradiated rats. Furthermore, the changes induces in xanthine oxidoreductase system were significantly diminished. In addition, the changes in liver nitric oxide contents, serum tumor necrosis factor alpha and C-reactive protein levels were markedly improved. In conclusion, the administration of cinnamon extract might provide substantial protection against radiation-induced oxidative and inflammatory damages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled Sh Azab
- Radiation Biology Department, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt.
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24
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Tok A, Sener E, Albayrak A, Cetin N, Polat B, Suleyman B, Akcay F, Suleyman H. Effect of Mirtazapine on Oxidative Stress Created in Rat Kidneys by Ischemia-Reperfusion. Ren Fail 2011; 34:103-10. [DOI: 10.3109/0886022x.2011.623499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Agarwal A, Banerjee A, Banerjee UC. Xanthine oxidoreductase: a journey from purine metabolism to cardiovascular excitation-contraction coupling. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2011; 31:264-80. [PMID: 21774633 DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2010.527823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is a ubiquitous complex cytosolic molybdoflavoprotein which controls the rate limiting step of purine catabolism by converting xanthine to uric acid. It is known that optimum concentrations of uric acid (UA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are necessary for normal functioning of the body. The ability of XOR to perform detoxification reactions, and to synthesize UA and reactive oxygen species (ROS) makes it a versatile intra- and extra-cellular protective "housekeeping enzyme". It is also an important component of the innate immune system. The enzyme is a target of drugs against gout and hyperuricemia and the protein is of major interest as it is associated with ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury, vascular disorders in diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, adipogenesis, metabolic syndrome, cancer, and many other disease conditions. Xanthine oxidoreductase in conjugation with antibodies has been shown to have an anti-tumor effect due to its ability to produce ROS, which in turn reduces the growth of cancer tissues. Apart from this, XOR in association with nitric oxide synthase also participates in myocardial excitation-contraction coupling. Although XOR was discovered over 100 years ago, its physiological and pathophysiological roles are still not clearly elucidated. In this review, various physiological and pathophysiological functional aspects of XOR and its association with various forms of cancer are discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology (Biotechnology), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Punjab, India
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26
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Abstract
Recent progress in our understanding of the structural and catalytic properties of molybdenum-containing enzymes in eukaryotes is reviewed, along with aspects of the biosynthesis of the cofactor and its insertion into apoprotein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russ Hille
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - Takeshi Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan and Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - Florian Bittner
- Department of Plant Biology, Technical University of Braunschweig, 38023 Braunschweig, Germany
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Taibi G, Carruba G, Miceli V, Cocciadiferro L, Nicotra CMA. Estradiol decreases xanthine dehydrogenase enzyme activity and protein expression in non-tumorigenic and malignant human mammary epithelial cells. J Cell Biochem 2009; 108:688-92. [PMID: 19693777 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The retinoic acid deficiency in breast tumour epithelial cells has been ascribed to an insufficient expression of either the enzyme(s) involved in its biosynthesis or the cellular retinol binding protein (CRBP) or both. In an attempt to define the mechanisms underpinning retinoic acid deficiency in these cell model systems, we have investigated the potential regulatory effect of oestrogen (17beta-estradiol) on one key player in retinoic acid biosynthesis, the xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH). This enzyme is consistently expressed and very active in non-malignant human mammary epithelial cells (HMEC), as opposed to tumour MDA-MB231 and MCF7 cells. In these latter two cell lines, as opposed to HMEC cells, we observe a residual ability of XDH to produce retinoic acid from retinaldehyde and the inability to use retinol, as a consequence of a deficit in CRBP. In addition, estradiol treatment of MDA-MB231 and MCF7 cells decreases protein expression and activity of the enzyme, with no modification of the mRNA transcript levels, eventually leading to deteriorate further retinoic acid production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gennaro Taibi
- Department of Experimental Oncology and Clinical Applications, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
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28
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Tsujii A, Nishino T. Mechanism of transition from xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase: effect of guanidine-HCL or urea on the activity. NUCLEOSIDES NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS 2008; 27:881-7. [PMID: 18600557 DOI: 10.1080/15257770802146569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian xanthine oxidoreductase can be converted from the dehydrogenase to the oxidase form, either reversibly by formation of disulfide bridges or irreversibly by proteolytic cleavage within the xanthine oxidoreductase protein molecule. A tightly packed amino acid cluster stabilizes the dehydrogenase form, and disruption of this cluster is accompanied with rearrangement of the active site loop. Here, we show that the conversion occurs in the presence of guanidine-HCl or urea. We propose that xanthine dehydrogenase and oxidase are in a thermodynamic equilibrium that can be shifted by disruption of the amino acid cluster with a denaturant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsuko Tsujii
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
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29
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Taibi G, Di Gaudio F, Nicotra CMA. Xanthine dehydrogenase processes retinol to retinoic acid in human mammary epithelial cells. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2008; 23:317-27. [PMID: 18569334 DOI: 10.1080/14756360701584539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinoic acid is considered to be the active metabolite of retinol, able to control differentiation and proliferation of epithelia. Retinoic acid biosynthesis has been widely described with the implication of multiple enzymatic activities. However, our understanding of the cell biological function and regulation of this process is limited. In a recent study we evidenced that milk xanthine oxidase (E.C. 1.17.3.2.) is capable to oxidize all-trans-retinol bound to CRBP (holo-CRBP) to all-trans-retinaldehyde and then to all-trans-retinoic acid. To get further knowledge regarding this process we have evaluated the biosynthetic pathway of retinoic acid in a human mammary epithelial cell line (HMEC) in which xanthine dehydrogenase (E.C. 1.17.1.4.), the native form of xanthine oxidase, is expressed. Here we report the demonstration of a novel retinol oxidation pathway that in the HMEC cytoplasm directly conduces to retinoic acid. After isolation and immunoassay of the cytosolic protein showing retinol oxidizing activity we identified it with the well-known enzyme xanthine dehydrogenase. The NAD+ dependent retinol oxidation catalyzed by xanthine dehydrogenase is strictly dependent on cellular retinol binding proteins and is inhibited by oxypurinol. In this work, a new insight into the biological role of xanthine dehydrogenase is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gennaro Taibi
- Dipartimento di Oncologia Sperimentale e Applicazioni Cliniche, Universita di Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
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Nishino T, Okamoto K, Eger BT, Pai EF, Nishino T. Mammalian xanthine oxidoreductase - mechanism of transition from xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase. FEBS J 2008; 275:3278-89. [PMID: 18513323 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06489.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species are generated by various biological systems, including NADPH oxidases, xanthine oxidoreductase, and mitochondrial respiratory enzymes, and contribute to many physiological and pathological phenomena. Mammalian xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) can be converted to xanthine oxidase (XO), which produces both superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide. Recent X-ray crystallographic and site-directed mutagenesis studies have revealed a highly sophisticated mechanism of conversion from XDH to XO, suggesting that the conversion is not a simple artefact, but rather has a function in mammalian organisms. Furthermore, this transition seems to involve a thermodynamic equilibrium between XDH and XO; disulfide bond formation or proteolysis can then lock the enzyme in the XO form. In this review, we focus on recent advances in our understanding of the mechanism of conversion from XDH to XO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
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Maia L, Duarte RO, Ponces-Freire A, Moura JJG, Mira L. NADH oxidase activity of rat and human liver xanthine oxidoreductase: potential role in superoxide production. J Biol Inorg Chem 2007; 12:777-87. [PMID: 17440754 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-007-0229-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2007] [Accepted: 03/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To characterise the NADH oxidase activity of both xanthine dehydrogenase (XD) and xanthine oxidase (XO) forms of rat liver xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) and to evaluate the potential role of this mammalian enzyme as an O2*- source, kinetics and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopic studies were performed. A steady-state kinetics study of XD showed that it catalyses NADH oxidation, leading to the formation of one O2*- molecule and half a H(2)O(2) molecule per NADH molecule, at rates 3 times those observed for XO (29.2 +/- 1.6 and 9.38 +/- 0.31 min(-1), respectively). EPR spectra of NADH-reduced XD and XO were qualitatively similar, but they were quantitatively quite different. While NADH efficiently reduced XD, only a great excess of NADH reduced XO. In agreement with reductive titration data, the XD specificity constant for NADH (8.73 +/- 1.36 microM(-1) min(-1)) was found to be higher than that of the XO specificity constant (1.07 +/- 0.09 microM(-1) min(-1)). It was confirmed that, for the reducing substrate xanthine, rat liver XD is also a better O2*- source than XO. These data show that the dehydrogenase form of liver XOR is, thus, intrinsically more efficient at generating O2*- than the oxidase form, independently of the reducing substrate. Most importantly, for comparative purposes, human liver XO activity towards NADH oxidation was also studied, and the kinetics parameters obtained were found to be very similar to those of the XO form of rat liver XOR, foreseeing potential applications of rat liver XOR as a model of the human liver enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Maia
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
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Stoffels F, Lohöfener F, Beisenhirtz M, Lisdat F, Büttemeyer R. Concentration decrease of nitric oxide in the postischemic muscle is not only caused by the generation of O2−. Microsurgery 2007; 27:565-8. [PMID: 17705285 DOI: 10.1002/micr.20403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Reperfusion of ischemic skeletal muscle is associated with an alteration of the concentrations of O(2) (-) and NO. In this study, the influence of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a known radical scavenger, on the balance of O(2) (-) and NO has been measured online in the skeletal muscle of Wistar rats. The hind limb of 14 male rats had been exposed to ischemic stress for 2 h. Seven rats received an infusion of 1.5 micromol EGCG/kg 5 min before reperfusion. O(2) (-), NO, and temperature were measured during reperfusion. The concentration of O(2) (-) declined under the influence of EGCG from 156.5 to 72.2 nmol/l (P = 0.01). The level of NO was found to decrease; this decrease was not significantly changed by EGCG (-175 nmol/l vs. - 227 nmol/l; P = 0.33). Thus the different superoxide concentrations did not correspond to different levels of NO, and the interaction of both radicals is not the only reason for the concentration decrease of NO in the reperfusion period. We conclude that EGCG protects skeletal muscle from I/R-injury without influencing the NO concentration profile to a large extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Stoffels
- Universitätsklinikum für Allgemein-, Viszeral-, Gefäss- und Thoraxchirurgie, Charité, Berlin, Germany
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KUROSE IWAO, GRANGER DNEIL. Evidence Implicating Xanthine Oxidase and Neutrophils in Reperfusion-Induced Microvascular Dysfunction a. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1994.tb36724.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Galbusera C, Orth P, Fedida D, Spector T. Superoxide radical production by allopurinol and xanthine oxidase. Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 71:1747-52. [PMID: 16650385 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2006.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2005] [Revised: 02/06/2006] [Accepted: 02/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Oxypurinol, an inhibitor of xanthine oxidase (XO), is being studied to block XO-catalyzed superoxide radical formation and thereby treat and protect failing heart tissue. Allopurinol, a prodrug that is converted to oxypurinol by xanthine oxidase, is also being studied for similar purposes. Because allopurinol, itself, may be generating superoxide radicals, we currently studied the reaction of allopurinol with xanthine oxidase and confirmed that allopurinol does produce superoxide radicals during its conversion to oxypurinol. At pH 6.8 and 25 degrees C in the presence of 0.02 U/ml of XO, 10 and 20 microM allopurinol both produced 10 microM oxypurinol and 2.8 microM superoxide radical (determined by cytochrome C reduction). The 10 microM allopurinol was completely converted to oxypurinol, while the 20 microM allopurinol required a second addition of xanthine oxidase to complete the conversion. Fourteen percent of the reducing equivalents donated from allopurinol or xanthine reacted with oxygen to form superoxide radicals. Superoxide dismutase prevented the reduction of cytochrome C by these substrates. At higher xanthine oxidase concentrations, or at lower temperatures, more of the 20 microM allopurinol was converted to oxypurinol during the initial reaction. At lower xanthine oxidase concentrations, or higher temperatures, less conversion occurred. At pH 7.8, the amount of superoxide radicals produced from allopurinol and xanthine was nearly doubled. These results indicate that allopurinol is a conventional substrate that generates superoxide radicals during its oxidation by xanthine oxidase. Oxypurinol did not produce superoxide radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Galbusera
- Cardiome Pharma Corp., 6190 Agronomy Rd., Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3.
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35
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Bernhardt PV, Honeychurch MJ, McEwan AG. Direct electrochemically driven catalysis of bovine milk xanthine oxidase. Electrochem commun 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2005.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Nishino T, Okamoto K, Kawaguchi Y, Hori H, Matsumura T, Eger BT, Pai EF, Nishino T. Mechanism of the conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase: identification of the two cysteine disulfide bonds and crystal structure of a non-convertible rat liver xanthine dehydrogenase mutant. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:24888-94. [PMID: 15878860 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m501830200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian xanthine dehydrogenase can be converted to xanthine oxidase by modification of cysteine residues or by proteolysis of the enzyme polypeptide chain. Here we present evidence that the Cys(535) and Cys(992) residues of rat liver enzyme are indeed involved in the rapid conversion from the dehydrogenase to the oxidase. The purified mutants C535A and/or C992R were significantly resistant to conversion by incubation with 4,4'-dithiodipyridine, whereas the recombinant wild-type enzyme converted readily to the oxidase type, indicating that these residues are responsible for the rapid conversion. The C535A/C992R mutant, however, converted very slowly during prolonged incubation with 4,4'-dithiodipyridine, and this slow conversion was blocked by the addition of NADH, suggesting that another cysteine couple located near the NAD(+) binding site is responsible for the slower conversion. On the other hand, the C535A/C992R/C1316S and C535A/C992R/C1324S mutants were completely resistant to conversion, even on prolonged incubation with 4,4'-dithiodipyridine, indicating that Cys(1316) and Cys(1324) are responsible for the slow conversion. The crystal structure of the C535A/C992R/C1324S mutant was determined in its demolybdo form, confirming its dehydrogenase conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Nishino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8602, Japan.
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Bonaventura J, Gow A. NO and superoxide: opposite ends of the seesaw in cardiac contractility. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:16403-4. [PMID: 15546989 PMCID: PMC534506 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0405859101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Bonaventura
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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Panoutsopoulos GI, Kouretas D, Gounaris EG, Beedham C. Metabolism of 2-phenylethylamine and phenylacetaldehyde by precision-cut guinea pig fresh liver slices. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2004; 29:111-8. [PMID: 15230339 DOI: 10.1007/bf03190585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
2-Phenylethylamine is an endogenous constituent of human brain and is implicated in cerebral transmission. It is also found in certain foodstuffs and may cause toxic side-effects in susceptible individuals. Metabolism of 2-phenylethylamine to phenylacetaldehyde is catalyzed by monoamine oxidase and the oxidation of the reactive aldehyde to its acid derivative is catalyzed mainly by aldehyde dehydrogenase and perhaps aldehyde oxidase, with xanthine oxidase having minimal transformation. The present investigation examines the metabolism of 2-phenylethylamine to phenylacetaldehyde in liver slices and compares the relative contribution of aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase activity in the oxidation of phenylacetaldehyde with precision-cut fresh liver slices in the presence/absence of specific inhibitors of each enzyme. In liver slices, phenylacetaldehyde was rapidly converted to phenylacetic acid. Phenylacetic acid was the main metabolite of 2-phenylethylamine, via the intermediate phenylacetaldehyde. Phenylacetic acid formation was completely inhibited by disulfiram (specific inhibitor of aldehyde dehydrogenase), whereas isovanillin (specific inhibitor of aldehyde oxidase) inhibited acid formation to a lesser extent and allopurinol (specific inhibitor of xanthine oxidase) had little or no effect. Therefore, in liver slices, phenylacetaldehyde is rapidly oxidized by aldehyde dehydrogenase and aldehyde oxidase with little or no contribution from xanthine oxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios I Panoutsopoulos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK
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39
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Berry CE, Hare JM. Xanthine oxidoreductase and cardiovascular disease: molecular mechanisms and pathophysiological implications. J Physiol 2003; 555:589-606. [PMID: 14694147 PMCID: PMC1664875 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2003.055913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 610] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is substantial evidence that oxidative stress participates in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease. Biochemical, molecular and pharmacological studies further implicate xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) as a source of reactive oxygen species in the cardiovascular system. XOR is a member of the molybdoenzyme family and is best known for its catalytic role in purine degradation, metabolizing hypoxanthine and xanthine to uric acid with concomitant generation of superoxide. Gene expression of XOR is regulated by oxygen tension, cytokines and glucocorticoids. XOR requires molybdopterin, iron-sulphur centres, and FAD as cofactors and has two interconvertible forms, xanthine oxidase and xanthine dehydrogenase, which transfer electrons from xanthine to oxygen and NAD(+), respectively, yielding superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and NADH. Additionally, XOR can generate superoxide via NADH oxidase activity and can produce nitric oxide via nitrate and nitrite reductase activities. While a role for XOR beyond purine metabolism was first suggested in ischaemia-reperfusion injury, there is growing awareness that it also participates in endothelial dysfunction, hypertension and heart failure. Importantly, the XOR inhibitors allopurinol and oxypurinol attenuate dysfunction caused by XOR in these disease states. Attention to the broader range of XOR bioactivity in the cardiovascular system has prompted initiation of several randomised clinical outcome trials, particularly for congestive heart failure. Here we review XOR gene structure and regulation, protein structure, enzymology, tissue distribution and pathophysiological role in cardiovascular disease with an emphasis on heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristine E Berry
- The Johns Hopkins Hospital School of Medicine, Cardiology Division, 600 N Wolfe Street, Carnegie 568, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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40
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Linder N, Martelin E, Lapatto R, Raivio KO. Posttranslational inactivation of human xanthine oxidoreductase by oxygen under standard cell culture conditions. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2003; 285:C48-55. [PMID: 12637268 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00561.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) catalyzes the final reactions of purine catabolism and may account for cell damage by producing reactive oxygen metabolites in cells reoxygenated after hypoxia. We found a three- to eightfold higher XOR activity in cultured human bronchial epithelial cells exposed to hypoxia (0.5-3% O2) compared with cells grown in normoxia (21% O2) but no difference in XOR protein or mRNA. XOR promoter constructs failed to respond to hypoxia. The cellular XOR activity at 3% O2 returned to basal levels when the cells were returned to 21% O2, and hyperoxia (95% O2) abolished enzyme activity with no change in XOR protein. Our data suggest reversible enzyme inactivation by oxygen or its metabolites. NADH was normally oxidized by the oxygen-inactivated enzyme, which rules out damage to the flavin adenine dinucleotide cofactor. Hydrogen peroxide partially inactivated the molybdenum center of XOR, as shown by a parallel decrease in XOR-catalyzed xanthine oxidation and dichlorophenolindophenol reduction. We conclude that the transcription or translation of XOR is not influenced by hypoxia or hyperoxia. Instead, the molybdenum center of XOR is posttranslationally inactivated by oxygen metabolites in "normal" (21% O2) cell culture atmosphere. This inactivation is reversed in hypoxia and accounts for the apparent induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Linder
- Research Program for Developmental and Reproductive Biology, University of Helsinki, Biomedicum Helsinki, 00290, Helsinki, Finland.
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Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is a complex molybdoflavoenzyme, present in milk and many other tissues, which has been studied for over 100 years. While it is generally recognized as a key enzyme in purine catabolism, its structural complexity and specialized tissue distribution suggest other functions that have never been fully identified. The publication, just over 20 years ago, of a hypothesis implicating XOR in ischemia-reperfusion injury focused research attention on the enzyme and its ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). Since that time a great deal more information has been obtained concerning the tissue distribution, structure, and enzymology of XOR, particularly the human enzyme. XOR is subject to both pre- and post-translational control by a range of mechanisms in response to hormones, cytokines, and oxygen tension. Of special interest has been the finding that XOR can catalyze the reduction of nitrates and nitrites to nitric oxide (NO), acting as a source of both NO and peroxynitrite. The concept of a widely distributed and highly regulated enzyme capable of generating both ROS and NO is intriguing in both physiological and pathological contexts. The details of these recent findings, their pathophysiological implications, and the requirements for future research are addressed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Harrison
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
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McManaman JL, Bain DL. Structural and conformational analysis of the oxidase to dehydrogenase conversion of xanthine oxidoreductase. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:21261-8. [PMID: 11914370 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m200828200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is a 300-kDa homodimer that can exist as an NAD+-dependent dehydrogenase (XD) or as an O2-dependent oxidase (XO) depending on the oxidation state of its cysteine thiols. Both XD and XO undergo limited cleavage by chymotrypsin and trypsin. Trypsin selectively cleaved both enzyme forms at Lys184, while chymotrypsin cleaved XD primarily at Met181 but cleaved XO at Met181 and at Phe560. Chymotrypsin, but not trypsin, cleavage also prevented the reductive conversion of XO to XD; thus the region surrounding Phe560 appears to be important in the interconversion of the two forms. Size exclusion chromatography showed that disulfide bond formation reduced the hydrodynamic volume of the enzyme, and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of chymotrypsin-digested XO showed significant, disulfide bond-mediated, conformational heterogeneity in the N-terminal third of the enzyme but no evidence of disulfide bonds between the N-terminal and C-terminal regions or between XOR subunits. These results indicate that intrasubunit disulfide bond formation leads to a global conformational change in XOR that results in the exposure of the region surrounding Phe560. Conformational changes within this region in turn appear to play a critical role in the interconversion between the XD and XO forms of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L McManaman
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA.
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Maia L, Mira L. Xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase: a simple procedure for the simultaneous purification from rat liver. Arch Biochem Biophys 2002; 400:48-53. [PMID: 11913970 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2002.2781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) and xanthine oxidase (XO) are cytosolic enzymes that have been involved in some pathological conditions and play an important role in the biotransformation of drugs and xenobiotics. The increasing interest in these enzymes demands for a simple and rapid procedure for their purification. This paper describes for the first time a method that allows simultaneous purification of both enzymes from the same batch of rat livers. It involves few steps, is reproducible and offers high enzyme yields with high specific activities. The rat liver homogenate was fractionated by heat denaturation and by ammonium sulphate precipitation to give a crude extract containing both enzymes. This extract was chromatographed on an Hydroxyapatite column that completely separated AO from XO. Further purification of XO by anion exchange chromatography on a Q-Sepharose Fast Flow column resulted in a highly purified (1200-fold) preparation, with a specific activity of 3.64 U/mg and with a 20% yield. AO was purified about 1000-fold at a yield of 15%, with a specific activity of 3.48 U/mg, by affinity chromatography on Benzamidine-Sepharose 6B. The purified enzymes gave single bands of approximately 300 kDa on a polyacrylamide gel gradient electrophoresis and displayed the characteristic absorption spectra of highly purified enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Maia
- Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
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Truglio JJ, Theis K, Leimkühler S, Rappa R, Rajagopalan KV, Kisker C. Crystal structures of the active and alloxanthine-inhibited forms of xanthine dehydrogenase from Rhodobacter capsulatus. Structure 2002; 10:115-25. [PMID: 11796116 DOI: 10.1016/s0969-2126(01)00697-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH), a complex molybdo/iron-sulfur/flavoprotein, catalyzes the oxidation of hypoxanthine to xanthine followed by oxidation of xanthine to uric acid with concomitant reduction of NAD+. The 2.7 A resolution structure of Rhodobacter capsulatus XDH reveals that the bacterial and bovine XDH have highly similar folds despite differences in subunit composition. The NAD+ binding pocket of the bacterial XDH resembles that of the dehydrogenase form of the bovine enzyme rather than that of the oxidase form, which reduces O(2) instead of NAD+. The drug allopurinol is used to treat XDH-catalyzed uric acid build-up occurring in gout or during cancer chemotherapy. As a hypoxanthine analog, it is oxidized to alloxanthine, which cannot be further oxidized but acts as a tight binding inhibitor of XDH. The 3.0 A resolution structure of the XDH-alloxanthine complex shows direct coordination of alloxanthine to the molybdenum via a nitrogen atom. These results provide a starting point for the rational design of new XDH inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Truglio
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Center for Structural Biology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
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McManaman JL, Hanson L, Neville MC, Wright RM. Lactogenic hormones regulate xanthine oxidoreductase and beta-casein levels in mammary epithelial cells by distinct mechanisms. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000; 373:318-27. [PMID: 10620355 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.1999.1573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is a prominent component of the milk lipid globule, whose concentration is selectively increased in mammary epithelial cells during the transition from pregnancy to lactation. To understand how XOR expression is controlled in the mammary gland, we investigated its properties and regulation by lactogenic hormones in cultured HC11 mammary epithelial cells. XOR was purified as the NAD(+)-dependent dehydrogenase by benzamidine-Sepharose chromatography and was shown to be intact and to have biochemical properties similar to those of enzyme from other sources. Treating confluent HC11 cells with prolactin and cortisol produced a progressive, four- to fivefold, increase in XOR activity, while XOR activity in control cells remained constant. Elevated cellular XOR activity was correlated with increased XOR protein and was due to both increased synthesis and decreased degradation of XOR. Prolactin and cortisol increased XOR protein and mRNA in the presence of epidermal growth factor, which blocked the stimulation of beta-casein synthesis by these hormones. Further, hormonal stimulation of XOR was inhibited by genistein (a protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor) and by PD 98059 (a specific inhibitor of the MAP kinase cascade). These findings indicate that lactogenic hormones stimulate XOR and beta-casein expression via distinct pathways and suggest that a MAP kinase pathway mediates their effects on XOR. Our results provide evidence that lactogenic hormones regulate milk protein synthesis by multiple signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L McManaman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA
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Anup R, Aparna V, Pulimood A, Balasubramanian KA. Surgical stress and the small intestine: role of oxygen free radicals. Surgery 1999. [PMID: 10330946 DOI: 10.1016/s0039-6060(99)70209-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Any surgical procedure can be associated with altered intestinal function. The mechanism involved in these changes at the cellular level during surgical stress has not been worked out. This study looked at the biochemical and functional alterations, along with ultrastructural changes, in the intestine during surgical stress in a simple rat model. METHODS Surgical stress was induced by opening the abdominal wall and handling the intestine as during laparotomy. The effect of oxidative stress on the enterocyte and altered intestinal permeability as well as the ultrastructural changes to the mucosa were studied. RESULTS Surgical stress results in oxidative stress on enterocytes, as evidenced by increased xanthine oxidase and decreased catalase activity along with altered thiol redox status. This was associated with increased intestinal permeability and widened intercellular spaces. These changes were prominent at 60 minutes after laparotomy and returned to normal by 24 hours. CONCLUSIONS Mild intestinal handling is capable of inducing oxidative stress in enterocytes; this could be one of the mechanisms by which intestinal mucosal alterations occur during surgical stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Anup
- Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College and Hospital, Vellore, India
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47
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Wright RM, Clayton DA, Riley MG, McManaman JL, Repine JE. cDNA cloning, sequencing, and characterization of male and female rat liver aldehyde oxidase (rAOX1). Differences in redox status may distinguish male and female forms of hepatic APX. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:3878-86. [PMID: 9920943 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.6.3878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular characterization of male and female rat liver aldehyde oxidase is reported. As described for the mouse liver, male and female rat liver expressed kinetically distinct forms of aldehyde oxidase. Our data suggest that the two forms arise as a result of differences in redox state and are most simply explained by expression of a single gene encoding aldehyde oxidase in rats. In support of this argument we have sequenced cDNAs from male and female rat liver. We examined mRNA expression by Northern blot analysis with RNA from males and females, from several tissues, and following androgen induction. Purified rat liver enzyme from males or females revealed a single 150-kDa species consistent with cDNA sequence analysis. Both male and female forms were reactive to the same carboxyl-terminal directed antisera. Km(app) values obtained in crude extracts of male or female rat liver and post-benzamidine-purified aldehyde oxidase differed substantially from each other but could be interconverted by chemical reduction with dithiothreitol or oxidation with 4,4'-dithiodipyridine. Our data indicate that a single gene is most likely expressed in male or female rat liver and that the kinetic differences between male and female rat liver aldehyde oxidases are sensitive to redox manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Wright
- The Webb-Waring Antioxidant Research Institute, Department of Medicine, The University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA.
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48
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Saksela M, Lapatto R, Raivio KO. Irreversible conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase into xanthine oxidase by a mitochondrial protease. FEBS Lett 1999; 443:117-20. [PMID: 9989587 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(98)01686-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Irreversible conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) to its oxygen free radical producing oxidase (XO) form occurs through an uncharacterized proteolytic process, which was studied in human liver. Upon incubation of fresh unfrozen liver cytosol, XDH remained intact. When recombinant human XDH was coincubated with subcellular fractions of human liver, the mitochondrial intermembrane space was shown to contain a heat-labile activity that converted XDH irreversibly to XO. This activity is resistant to inhibitors of all major groups of proteases. We postulate that this novel type of proteolytic enzyme is released into the cytosol upon mitochondrial damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Saksela
- Hospital for Children and Adolescents, Research Laboratory, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase is a complex enzyme found in a wide range of organisms. Recent interest in this enzyme stems from its ability to produce reactive oxygen species under a range of conditions. It is found as a homodimer, each unit containing a molybdopterin cofactor, two iron sulfur centers, and FAD. The enzyme can exist in two forms that differ primarily in their oxidizing substrate specificity. The dehydrogenase form preferentially utilizes NAD+ as an electron acceptor but is able to donate electrons to molecular oxygen. Xanthine dehydrogenase from mammalian sources can be converted to an oxidase form that readily donates electrons to molecular oxygen, but does not reduce NAD+. The catalytic mechanism of both forms of the enzyme can be described in terms of a rapid equilibrium model in which reducing equivalents are distributed rapidly between the different redox centers of the enzyme on the basis of their midpoint potentials. The present commentary gives a brief overview of the literature concerning the rapid equilibrium model and the differences between the two enzyme forms. NADH is also discussed in terms of an alternative to xanthine or hypoxanthine as an electron donor.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Sanders
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-0606, USA
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Vickers S, Schiller HJ, Hildreth JE, Bulkley GB. Immunoaffinity localization of the enzyme xanthine oxidase on the outside surface of the endothelial cell plasma membrane. Surgery 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0039-6060(98)70102-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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