Trigeminal ganglionitis and encephalitis in calves intranasally inoculated with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus

Bovine herpesvirus-5 infection in a rabbit experimental model: immunohistochemical study of the cellular response in the CNS

Since little information is available regarding cellular antigen mapping and the involvement of non-neuronal cells in the pathogenesis of bovine herpesvirus type 5 (BHV-5) infection, it were determined the BHV-5 distribution, the astrocytic reactivity, the involvement of lymphocytes and the presence of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 in the brain of rabbits experimentally infected with BHV-5. Twelve New Zealand rabbits that were seronegative for BHV-5 were used for virus inoculation, and five rabbits were used as mock-infected controls. The rabbits were kept in separate areas and were inoculated intranasally with 500 μl of virus suspension (EVI 88 Brazilian isolate) into each nostril (virus titer, 10(7.5) TCID50). Control rabbits were inoculated with the same volume of minimum essential medium. Five days before virus inoculation, the rabbits were submitted to daily administration of dexamethasone. After virus inoculation, the rabbits were monitored clinically on a daily basis. Seven rabbits showed respiratory symptoms and four animals exhibited neurological symptoms. Tissue sections were collected for histological examination and immunohistochemistry to examine BHV-5 antigens, astrocytes, T and B lymphocytes and MMP-9. By means of immunohistochemical and PCR methods, BHV-5 was detected in the entire brain of the animals which presented with neurological symptoms, especially in the trigeminal ganglion and cerebral cortices. Furthermore, BHV-5 antigens were detected in neurons and/or other non-neural cells. In addition to the neurons, most infiltrating CD3 T lymphocytes observed in these areas were positive for MMP-9 and also for BHV-5 antigen. These infected cells might contribute to the spread of the virus to the rabbit brain along the trigeminal ganglia and olfactory nerve pathways.

Experimental intranasal infection of equine herpesvirus 9 (EHV-9) in suckling hamsters: kinetics of viral transmission and inflammation in the nasal cavity and brain

Equine herpesvirus 9 (EHV-9), the newest member of the equine herpesvirus family, is a highly neurotropic herpesvirus that induces encephalitis in a variety of animals. To access transmission of EHV-9 in the nasal cavity and brain, a suckling hamster model was developed so that precise sagittal sections of nasal and cranial cavities including the brain could be processed, which proved useful in detecting viral transmission as well as extension of pathological lesions. Suckling hamsters were inoculated intranasally with EHV-9, and were sacrificed at 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 60 h post inoculation (PI). Sagittal sections of the entire head, including nasal and cranial cavities including the brain, were made to assess viral kinetics and identify the progress of the neuropathological lesions. At 12 to 24 h PI the virus attached to and propagated in the olfactory epithelium, and infected adjacent epithelial cells. At 48 h PI, immunohistochemistry for EHV-9 viral antigen showed that virus had extended from the site of infection into the olfactory bulb and olfactory nerve. These results indicate that EHV-9 rapidly invades the brain via the olfactory route after experimental intranasal infection.

Study on the infectivity of equine herpesvirus 9 (EHV-9) by different routes of inoculation in hamsters

The infectivity and pathology of equine herpesvirus 9 (EHV-9), a new neurotropic equine herpesvirus isolated from gazelles, was studied in hamsters experimentally infected via nasal, ocular, oral, intravenous (IV), or peritoneal routes. Clinically, all animals inoculated by the nasal route and ~25% inoculated by the oral and peritoneal routes showed neurological signs on days 3, 6, and 9 postinoculation (PI), respectively. Neurological signs were not observed in animals administered EHV-9 by the IV and ocular routes. With the exception of animals administered EHV-9 by the IV route, all infected animals had lymphocytic meningoencephalitis. Although there were a number of differences in the severity and distribution of the lesions depending on the route of inoculation, the basic features of lymphocytic meningoencephalitis caused by EHV-9 were common. Lesions consisted of neuronal necrosis, perivascular aggregates of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and neutrophils, gliosis, intranuclear inclusion bodies, and diffuse lymphocytic infiltrates in the meninges. Viral antigen was detected in degenerated neurons in infected animals inoculated by the nasal, ocular, oral, and peritoneal routes. The distribution of EHV-9 antigen was somewhat dependent on inoculation route. There were no microscopic abnormalities or viral antigen in animals treated by the IV route. This study provides new data about experimental EHV-9 infection in hamsters through routes other than the IV route. These results suggest that in the animals infected by the oral, ocular, and peritoneal routes, EHV-9 might travel to the brain through nerves, other than by the olfactory route, after initial propagation at the site of viral entry.

O Herpesvírus bovino tipo 5 (BoHV-5) pode utilizar as rotas olfatória ou trigeminal para invadir o sistema nervoso central de coelhos, dependendo da via de inoculação

O herpesvírus bovino tipo 5 (BoHV-5) é um agente importante de meningoencefalite em bovinos. Após replicação na mucosa nasal, acredita-se que o vírus invada o cérebro principalmente pela via olfatória. Para investigar a importância dessa via na patogenia da infecção neurológica em um modelo animal, coelhos recém-desmamados (30 dias) foram submetidos à ablação cirúrgica dos bulbos olfatórios (BOs) e posteriormente inoculados pela via intranasal (IN) ou no saco conjuntival (IC) com uma cepa altamente neurovirulenta do BoHV-5 (SV-507). Após inoculação IN, 10/10 coelhos no Grupo Controle (com BOs) desenvolveram enfermidade neurológica, com início dos sinais clínicos entre os dias 5 e 10 pós-inoculação (pi) (média de 7,5 dias); em contraste, no grupo submetido à ablação dos BOs (n=11), apenas um animal (9,1%) desenvolveu doença neurológica (início no dia 17pi). Administração de dexametasona aos animais sobreviventes (n=10) no dia 50 pi resultou em excreção viral em secreções nasais e/ou oculares por oito destes, demonstrando que o vírus foi capaz de atingir o gânglio trigêmeo (TG) durante a infecção aguda. Esses resultados demonstram que a rota olfatória representa a via principal, mas não única, de acesso ao cérebro de coelhos após inoculação IN. Para investigar o papel de uma segunda possível via de acesso, grupos de coelhos controle (n=12) ou submetidos à ablação dos BOs (n=12) foram inoculados no saco conjuntival (IC), após o qual o vírus poderia utilizar o ramo oftálmico do nervo trigêmeo para invadir o cérebro. Dez coelhos controle (83,3 %) desenvolveram doença neurológica após inoculação IC, com início dos sinais entre os dias 11 e 20 (média 15,3 dias). A ablação prévia dos BOs não afetou a freqüência ou o curso da doença neurológica nesse grupo: 10/12 coelhos (83,3 %) sem os BOs desenvolveram a doença neurológica, com os sinais iniciando entre os dias 9 e 15pi (média 12,7 dias). Esses resultados demonstram que tanto a via olfatória como a trigeminal podem servir de acesso para o BoHV-5 invadir o cérebro de coelhos inoculados experimentalmente, dependendo da via de inoculação. Inoculação IN resulta em um transporte rápido e eficiente pela via olfatória; com a via trigeminal servindo de acesso mais lento e menos eficiente. Inoculação IC resulta em transporte e invasão eficientes, porém mais tardios, provavelmente pela via trigeminal.

Distribution of bovine herpesvirus type 5 DNA in the central nervous systems of latently, experimentally infected calves

Bovine herpesvirus type 5 (BHV-5) is an alphaherpesvirus associated with meningoencephalitis, a disease highly prevalent in South America. In this study, we investigated the distribution of BHV-5 DNA in the brains of latently, experimentally infected calves by using a PCR for the glycoprotein B gene. Twelve calves inoculated intranasally with a Brazilian BHV-5 isolate were divided into two groups: group A calves (n = 4) were euthanized 55 days postinoculation (p.i.) for tissue collection; group B calves (n = 8) were submitted to dexamethasone administration at day 60 p.i. for reactivation of latent infection and were euthanized 50 days later. Latent infection was reactivated in all group B calves, as demonstrated by virus isolation from nasal secretions and/or seroconversion. Three calves developed neurological disease and died or were euthanized in extremis. For group A calves, viral DNA was consistently detected in the trigeminal ganglia (4/4), midbrain (4/4), thalamus (4/4), and olfactory cortex (4/4) and less frequently in the pons (3/4), cerebellum (3/4), anterior cerebral cortex (2/4), and olfactory bulb (2/4). For calves previously submitted to reactivation (group B), viral DNA was detected with roughly the same frequency in the same areas as for the group A calves. In addition, viral DNA was detected in the posterior (5/5) and dorso-lateral cortex (3/5). All DNA-positive tissues were negative for infectivity and viral antigens. These results demonstrated that latent BHV-5 DNA is present in several areas of the brain during latent infection and that virus reactivation may result in the establishment of latent infection in additional sites of the brain.

Primary infection, latency, and reactivation of bovine herpesvirus type 5 in the bovine nervous system

Bovine herpesvirus type 5 (BHV-5) infection in calves causes meningoencephalitis, a fatal disease highly prevalent in South America. To study the pathogenesis of BHV-5 infection in cattle, 12 calves (group 1: acute infection) and 11 calves (group 2: latent infection) were intranasally inoculated with an Argentinean BHV-5 isolate at 10(8) and 10(4.7) tissue culture infective doses, respectively; six calves (control group) were mock infected. At 3 months postinoculation, all of the calves in group 2 and three calves in group 3 were given dexamethasone to reactivate the virus. The animals were euthanatized between days 6 and 17 postinoculation (group 1) and between days 6 and 16 postreactivation (group 2). Seventy-five percent and 91% of animals in groups 1 and 2, respectively, excreted BHV-5 in nasal and ocular discharges. Following dexamethasone administration, 45% of calves shed virus in both types of secretions. Spontaneous virus reactivation and shedding was observed in one calf. Neurologic signs consisting of circling, teeth grinding, ptyalism, jaw chomping, tongue protrusion, and apathy were observed in two animals in group 1 and, during the reactivation period, in four animals in group 2. Macroscopic findings consisted of softening of the cerebral tissue, meningeal hemorrhages and swelling, and edema and hemorrhages of prescapular, retropharyngeal and submandibular lymph nodes. Histologic lesions consisted of meningitis, mononuclear perivascular cuffing, neuronophagia, satellitosis, gliosis, hemorrhage, and necrosis and edema. Lesions in anterior cerebral cortex, medulla, and pons were consistently seen in all the animals of group 1. In the acutely infected animals, lesions in the diencephalon appeared at day 10 postinoculation, whereas in the latently infected calves these lesions were observed as early as at day 6 postreactivation. Latently infected animals developed lesions simultaneously in anterior cortex, medulla, pons, and diencephalon, showing a remarkable difference from the acutely infected group. Trigeminal ganglionitis appeared relatively early in animals of both groups (day 7 postinoculation in group 1 and day 8 postreactivation in group 2).

Invasion and spread of equine herpesvirus 9 in the olfactory pathway of pigs after intranasal inoculation

The neuropathogenesis of equine herpesvirus 9 (EHV-9) in pigs was investigated by intranasal inoculation of the virus together with intramuscular administration of dexamethasone (DM). All infected pigs developed characteristic meningo-encephalitis, accompanied by basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in the neuronal cells. One non-DM-treated and two DM-treated pigs had prominent malacic lesions in the rhinencephalon. Associated with the encephalitic lesions, there was invariably an increase in the number of nucleated cells in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). EHV-9 antigen was first detected in the nasal and olfactory epithelial cells in the nasal cavity, and in the neuroglial cells in the olfactory bulb. Subsequently it was demonstrated in the amygdaloid and caudate nuclei, and putamen. The virus was not isolated from the CSF. These results suggest that, after intranasal inoculation, EHV-9 replicates in the olfactory epithelial cells, spreading to the central nervous system via the olfactory pathway.

Brain lesions and transmission of experimental equine herpesvirus type 9 in pigs

We demonstrated that pigs are susceptible to acute infection by equine herpesvirus type 9 (EHV-9). Six 8-week-old SPF pigs were inoculated intranasally and four were inoculated orally with different doses of EHV-9, and observed for 6 days. Although neurological signs did not develop in any of the infected pigs, the six intranasally infected pigs and one of the orally infected pigs developed lesions of encephalitis consisting of neuronal necrosis, neuronophagia, and intranuclear inclusion bodies, distributed mainly in the rhinencephalon. EHV-9 antigen was localized in the necrotic neuronal cells and was closely associated with the presence of inclusion bodies. These findings clearly demonstrate that pigs are fully susceptible to EHV-9 infection following intranasal inoculation (but less so following oral inoculation), and that EHV-9 in pigs has a highly neurotropic nature.

Pneumonia induced byEndobronchial inoculation of calves with bovine herpesvirus 1

Each of six calves inoculated endobronchially with bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) by means of a bronchoscope developed viral pneumonia. Gross and histopathological lesions were mainly localized to the right diaphragmatic lobe (middle to caudal region) of the lung and were closely associated with the site of the deposition of the inoculum. The lesions were characterized by intranuclear inclusion bodies associated with focal necrosis of the epithelium in the lower respiratory tract. BHV-1 antigen and BHV particles were detected in the degenerating bronchial, bronchiolar and alveolar epithelial cells. After infection, the total cell count in the broncho-alveolar lavage (BAL) fluid increased. In addition, BHV-1 antigen and virus were detected in the desquamated cells and macrophages of BAL fluid from the right diaphragmatic lobe, but not from the left diaphragmatic lobe. It is concluded that examination of BAL fluid is valuable for immunohistopathological and virological confirmation of BHV-1 infection.

Establishment of a rabbit model for bovine herpesvirus type 5 neurological acute infection

This study was conducted to evaluate the suitability of the rabbit as a model for bovine, herpesvirus 5 (BHV-5) acute infection. In a preliminary experiment, a total of 24 one-month old New Zealand white rabbits were inoculated with BHV-5 or bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) by the intraconjunctival, intracerebral or intranasal routes. BHV-5 or BHV-1 inoculated in the conjunctiva induced virus proliferation in the eye mucosae and the nasal cavity of rabbits without meningo-encephalitis. On the other hand, only BHV-5 infection by intranasal or intracerebral routes produced a fatal meningo-encephalitis. The intranasal route was used in a further experiment for the establishment of a rabbit model for BHV-5 infection. A total of 45 rabbits were inoculated intranasally with BHV-5 or BHV-1. The results showed that intranasal inoculation of BHV-5 strain N569 in rabbits was followed by the development of a lethal meningo-encephalitis for 66% of rabbits while all BHV-1 infected rabbits remained healthy throughout this experiment (28 days). Analysis between the mortalities of rabbits infected with BHV-5 and BHV-1 were highly significant (p < 0.001). The presence of BHV-5 in the central nervous system (CNS) was confirmed by virus isolation (essentially the cerebrum, midbrain and pons) and by immunohistochemical staining of BHV-5 antigen (essentially in the neurons of the cerebrum) only in BHV-5 infected rabbits showing clinical signs of meningo-encephalitis. The findings obtained confirmed the suitability of a rabbit model for the establishment of BHV-5 neurological acute infection and also as a valuable tool for the comparative study of BHV-5 and BHV-1 neuropathogenicity.

Characterization of dexamethasone-induced reactivation of latent bovine herpesvirus 1

Synchronous reactivation of bovine herpesvirus type 1 in all latently infected rabbits was achieved following a single intravenous dose of dexamethasone. Reactivated latent virus was first present in ocular secretions between 48 and 72 h post-dexamethasone treatment (PT). Cell-free infectious virus, viral-antigen-containing neurons, and pathologic changes were detectable in trigeminal ganglia (TG) by 48 h PT. A shift from the viral transcriptional pattern characteristic of the latent state (latency-related RNA [LR RNA]) to one typical of that seen during acute infection was detected in a small number of neurons in latently infected TG between 15 and 18 h PT, with viral DNA first detectable by in situ hybridization at 18 to 21 h PT. The number of LR RNA-containing neurons in latently infected TG decreased significantly at 24 and 48 h PT but returned to near-normal levels by 72 h PT. Correlation of this decrease with viral reactivation suggests that altered regulation of LR RNA transcription is a significant event in the process of viral reactivation.

Immunohistological demonstration of spread of Aujeszky's disease virus via the olfactory pathway in HPCD pigs

The spread of Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV) from nasal mucosa via the olfactory pathway was studied in HPCD pigs. ADV antigen was detected in the epithelial cells, nasal gland cells, olfactory nerve cells and peripheral nerve fibres in the nasal cavity and in neuroglial cells in the olfactory bulb. Results indicate that the olfactory pathway is one of the most important neuronal pathways of ADV infection in pigs.

Demonstration of viral antigen and immunoglobulin (IgG and IgM) in brain tissue of pigs experimentally infected with haemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus

Haemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (HEV) was inoculated either orally or intranasally into ten 3-day-old gnotobiotic piglets. All infected pigs showed inappetence and listlessness, but there were no clinical signs of nervous disorder. Severe encephalomyelitis, characterized by neuronophagia, focal gliosis and perivascular cuffing, was observed in the brain stem and cerebral cortex. Nasally infected pigs, in particular, developed lesions in the area of the stria olfactoria and tractus olfactorius. Coincident with the encephalitic changes, HEV antigen was observed first in the trigeminal ganglion cells and then in degenerating neurones. Immunoglobulin (IgG and IgM)-containing cells were also found in perivascular cuffs and glial foci. They appeared at first on PID 7 and after that increased in number. These findings suggest that these encephalitic lesions are a specific immune response to HEV following its multiplication in the central nervous system.

Persistent infection with bovine herpesvirus type 1: rabbit model

Persistent infection with bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) was established in all rabbits after conjunctival inoculation of virus. Spontaneous reactivations of BHV-1 with and without the appearance of recurrent ocular lesions were observed in persistently infected rabbits. BHV-1 was reactivated predictably and shed from all persistently infected rabbits after the administration of dexamethasone. During all reactivations, BHV-1 isolation was restricted to the inoculated eye.