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Ahari H, Nowruzi B, Anvar AA, Porzani SJ. The Toxicity Testing of Cyanobacterial Toxins In Vivo and In Vitro by Mouse Bioassay: A Review. Mini Rev Med Chem 2021; 22:1131-1151. [PMID: 34720080 DOI: 10.2174/1389557521666211101162030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Different biological methods based on bioactivity are available to detect cyanotoxins, including neurotoxicity, immunological interactions, hepatotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and enzymatic activity. The mouse bioassay is the first test employed in laboratory cultures, cell extracts, and water bloom materials to detect toxins. It is also used as a traditional method to estimate the LD50. Concerning the ease of access and low cost, it is the most common method for this purpose. In this method, a sample is injected intraperitoneally into adult mice, and accordingly, they are assayed and monitored for about 24 hours for toxic symptoms. The toxin can be detected using this method from minutes to a few hours; its type, e.g., hepatotoxin, neurotoxin, etc., can also be determined. However, this method is nonspecific, fails to detect low amounts, and cannot distinguish between homologues. Although the mouse bioassay is gradually replaced with new chemical and immunological methods, it is still the main technique to detect the bioactivity and efficacy of cyanotoxins using LD50 determined based on the survival time of animals exposed to the toxin. In addition, some countries oppose animal use in toxicity studies. However, high cost, ethical considerations, low-sensitivity, non-specificity, and prolonged processes persuade researchers to employ chemical and functional analysis techniques. The qualitative and quantitative analyses, as well as high specificity and sensitivity, are among the advantages of cytotoxicity tests to investigate cyanotoxins. The present study aimed at reviewing the results obtained from in-vitro and in-vivo investigations of the mouse bioassay to detect cyanotoxins, including microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Ahari
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
| | - Bahareh Nowruzi
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
| | - Amir Ali Anvar
- Department of Food Hygiene, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
| | - Samaneh Jafari Porzani
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
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Tonon MC, Vaudry H, Chuquet J, Guillebaud F, Fan J, Masmoudi-Kouki O, Vaudry D, Lanfray D, Morin F, Prevot V, Papadopoulos V, Troadec JD, Leprince J. Endozepines and their receptors: Structure, functions and pathophysiological significance. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 208:107386. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Cell membrane fatty acid and pigment composition of the psychrotolerant cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena CHS1 isolated from Hopar glacier, Pakistan. Extremophiles 2019; 24:135-145. [PMID: 31655895 DOI: 10.1007/s00792-019-01141-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, cyanobacterium isolate CHS1 isolated from Hopar glacier, Pakistan, was analyzed for the first time for cell membrane fatty acids and production of pigments. Sequencing of the 16-23S intergenetic region confirmed identification of the isolate CHS1 as Nodularia spumigena. All chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography and experiments to test tolerance against a range of physico-chemical conditions were conducted. Likewise, the fatty acid profile of the cell membrane CHS1 was analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy. The cyanobacterium isolate CHS1 demonstrated tolerance to 8 g/L% NaCl, 35°C and pH 5-9. The characteristic polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) of isolate CHS1, C18:4, was observed in fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) extracted from the cell membrane. CHS1 was capable of producing saturated fatty acids (SFA) (e.g., C16:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (e.g., C18:1) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g., C20:5) in the cell membrane. In this study, we hypothesize that one mechanism of cold adaptation displayed by isolate CHS1 is the accumulation of high amounts of PUFA in the cell membrane.
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Buratti FM, Manganelli M, Vichi S, Stefanelli M, Scardala S, Testai E, Funari E. Cyanotoxins: producing organisms, occurrence, toxicity, mechanism of action and human health toxicological risk evaluation. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:1049-1130. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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5
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Chen Y, Shen D, Fang D. Nodularins in poisoning. Clin Chim Acta 2013; 425:18-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2013.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Revised: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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A liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of nodularin-R in human plasma and its preliminary clinical application. Clin Chim Acta 2012; 413:894-900. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2012.01.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Revised: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Simola O, Wiberg M, Jokela J, Wahlsten M, Sivonen K, Syrjä P. Pathologic findings and toxin identification in cyanobacterial (Nodularia spumigena) intoxication in a dog. Vet Pathol 2011; 49:755-9. [PMID: 21825312 DOI: 10.1177/0300985811415703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A 3-year-old Cairn Terrier dog that had been in contact with sea water containing cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) was euthanized because of acute hepatic failure and anuria after a 5-day illness. Histologic findings included lytic and hemorrhagic centrilobular hepatocellular necrosis and renal tubular necrosis. The cyanotoxin nodularin was detected in liver and kidney by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Nodularin is a potent hepatotoxin produced by the algal species Nodularia spumigena. The intensity of algal blooms has increased during the past decades in the Baltic Sea region, thus increasing the risk for intoxications in domestic and wild animals. The authors describe the pathologic findings of cyanobacterial toxicosis in a dog with direct identification of the toxin from organ samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Simola
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 66, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
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More and more toxins around–analysis of cyanobacterial strains isolated from Lake Chao (Anhui Province, China). Toxicon 2010; 56:1520-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2010] [Revised: 09/06/2010] [Accepted: 09/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Lehtimaki J, Moisander P, Sivonen K, Kononen K. Growth, nitrogen fixation, and nodularin production by two baltic sea cyanobacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 63:1647-56. [PMID: 16535588 PMCID: PMC1389143 DOI: 10.1128/aem.63.5.1647-1656.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In late summer, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae form blooms in the open Baltic Sea. N. spumigena has caused several animal poisonings, but Baltic A. flos-aquae is not known to be toxic. In this laboratory study, performed with batch cultures, the influences of environmental conditions on the biomass and nitrogen fixation rate of N. spumigena and A. flos-aquae were compared and the toxin (nodularin) concentration produced by N. spumigena was measured. Several differences in the biomasses and nitrogen fixation rates of N. spumigena and A. flos-aquae were observed. A. flos-aquae preferred lower irradiances, salinities, and temperatures than N. spumigena. The biomass of both species increased with high phosphate concentrations and with accompanying bacteria and decreased with unnaturally high inorganic nitrogen concentrations. Nodularin concentrations in cells and growth media, as well as nitrogen fixation rates, were generally highest under the conditions that promoted growth. Intracellular nodularin concentrations increased with high temperature, high irradiance, and high phosphate concentration and decreased with low and high salinities and high inorganic nitrogen concentrations. Nodularin concentrations in growth media increased with incubation time, indicating that intracellular nodularin was released when cells lysed. The different responses of A. flos-aquae and N. spumigena to changes in salinity, irradiance, and temperature may explain the different spatial and temporal distribution of these species in the Baltic Sea. According to the results, toxic N. spumigena blooms may be expected in late summer in areas of the Baltic Sea with high phosphorus concentrations and moderate salinity.
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Nimptsch J, Wiegand C, Pflugmacher S. Cyanobacterial toxin elimination via bioaccumulation of MC-LR in aquatic macrophytes: an application of the "Green Liver Concept". ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:8552-8557. [PMID: 19068847 DOI: 10.1021/es8010404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms and their corresponding toxins are a major concern to human health when surface waters of eutrophicated lakes are the only source for drinking water supply. The aim of the study was to test effective methods for cyanotoxin elimination by using the bioaccumulation potential of aquatic macrophytes in order to reduce microcystin LR (MC-LR) concentrations from raw lake surface water before entering the drinking water plant for further processing. Laboratory assays with aquatic macrophytes were performed in order to assess the most favorable species and optimal biomass for cyanotoxin elimination, where Lemna sp., Myriophyllum sp., and Hydrilla sp. were shown to be the most efficient macrophytes. In a second phase a pilot scale pond system (e.g. replica of the outdoor pond system) was constructed to assess the toxin elimination efficiency of 5.0 g L(-1) biomass of combined macrophytes. The applied macrophytic biomass reduced an initial MC-LR concentration of 12.1 and 9.2 microg L(-1) to values below the WHO guidelines for drinking water of 1.0 microg L(-1) (MC-LR) in only three days. Applying these results in a specially constructed outdoor pond system resulted in > 84% of toxin elimination at an initial concentration of 1.1 microg L(-1) MC-LR within the raw lake water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Nimptsch
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 301, D-12587 Berlin, Germany
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Solstad T, Fismen L, Garberg H, Fladmark KE. Identification of a novel phosphorylation site of acyl-CoA binding protein (ACBP) in nodularin-induced apoptotic hepatocytes. Exp Cell Res 2008; 314:2141-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2008.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2008] [Revised: 03/06/2008] [Accepted: 03/19/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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12
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Luckas B, Dahlmann J, Erler K, Gerdts G, Wasmund N, Hummert C, Hansen PD. Overview of key phytoplankton toxins and their recent occurrence in the North and Baltic Seas. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:1-17. [PMID: 15712332 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The frequency and intensity of harmful algal blooms (HABs) appear to be on the rise globally. There is also evidence of the geographic spreading of toxic strains of these algae. Consequently, methods had to be established and new ones are still needed for the evaluation of possible hazards caused by increased algal toxin production in the marine food chain. Different clinical effects of algae-related poisoning have attracted scientific attention; paralytic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and amnesic shellfish poisoning are among the most common. Additionally, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in brackish waters often produce neurotoxic and hepatotoxic substances. Bioassays with mice or rats are common methods to determine algal and cyanobacterial toxins. However, biological tests are not really satisfactory because of their low sensitivity. In addition, there is growing public opposition to animal testing. Therefore, there has been increasing effort to determine algal toxins by chemical methods. Plankton samples from different European marine and brackish waters were taken during research cruises and analyzed on board directly. The ship routes covered marine areas in the northwest Atlantic, Orkney Islands, east coast of Scotland, and the North and Baltic seas. The first results on the occurrence and frequency of harmful algal species were obtained in 1997 and 1998. During the 2000 cruise an HPLC/MS coupling was established on board, and algal toxins were measured directly after extraction of the plankton samples. In contrast to earlier cruises, the sampling areas were changed in 2000 to focusing on coastal zones. The occurrence of toxic algae in these areas was compared to toxin formation during HABs in the open sea. It was found that the toxicity of the algal blooms depended on the prevailing local conditions. This observation was also confirmed by monitoring cyanobacterial blooms in the Baltic Sea. Optimal weather conditions, for example, during the summers of 1997 and 2003, favored blooms of cyanobacteria in all regions of the Baltic. The dominant species regarding the HABs in the Baltic was Nodularia spumigena. However, in addition to high concentrations of Nodularia spumigena in coastal zones, other blue-green algae are involved in bloom formation, with changes in plankton communities influencing both toxin profiles and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Luckas
- Institute of Nutrition, University of Jena, Jena, Germany
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Hoeger SJ, Shaw G, Hitzfeld BC, Dietrich DR. Occurrence and elimination of cyanobacterial toxins in two Australian drinking water treatment plants. Toxicon 2004; 43:639-49. [PMID: 15109885 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2003] [Accepted: 02/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In Australian freshwaters, Anabaena circinalis, Microcystis spp. and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii are the dominant toxic cyanobacteria. Many of these surface waters are used as drinking water resources. Therefore, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia set a guideline for MC-LR toxicity equivalents of 1.3 microg/l drinking water. However, due to lack of adequate data, no guideline values for paralytic shellfish poisons (PSPs) (e.g. saxitoxins) or cylindrospermopsin (CYN) have been set. In this spot check, the concentration of microcystins (MCs), PSPs and CYN were determined by ADDA-ELISA, cPPA, HPLC-DAD and/or HPLC-MS/MS, respectively, in two water treatment plants in Queensland/Australia and compared to phytoplankton data collected by Queensland Health, Brisbane. Depending on the predominant cyanobacterial species in a bloom, concentrations of up to 8.0, 17.0 and 1.3 microg/l were found for MCs, PSPs and CYN, respectively. However, only traces (<1.0 microg/l) of these toxins were detected in final water (final product of the drinking water treatment plant) and tap water (household sample). Despite the low concentrations of toxins detected in drinking water, a further reduction of cyanobacterial toxins is recommended to guarantee public safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan J Hoeger
- Environmental Toxicology, University of Konstanz, P.O. Box X918, 78457 Konstanz, Germany.
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Towner RA, Sturgeon SA, Khan N, Hou H, Swartz HM. In vivo assessment of nodularin-induced hepatotoxicity in the rat using magnetic resonance techniques (MRI, MRS and EPR oximetry). Chem Biol Interact 2002; 139:231-50. [PMID: 11879814 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Acute nodularin-induced hepatotoxicity was assessed in vivo, in rats using magnetic resonance (MR) techniques, including MR imaging (MRI), MR spectroscopy (MRS), and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) oximetry. Nodularin is a cyclic hepatotoxin isolated from the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena. Three hours following the intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of nodularin (LD50), a region of 'damage', characterized by an increase in signal intensity, was observed proximal to the porta hepatis (PH) region in T2-weighted MR images of rat liver. Image analysis of these regions of apparent 'damage' indicated a statistically significant increase in signal intensity around the PH region following nodularin administration, in comparison with controls and regions peripheral to the PH region. An increase in signal intensity was also observed proximal to the PH region in water chemical shift selective images (CSSI) of nodularin-treated rat livers, indicating that the increased signal observed by MRI is an oedematous response to the toxin. Microscopic assessment (histology and electron microscopy) and serum liver enzyme function tests (aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate ALT (AST)) confirmed the nodularin-induced tissue injury observed by MRI. In vivo and in vitro MRS was used to detect alterations in metabolites, such as lipids, Glu+Gln, and choline, during the hepatotoxic response (2-3 h post-exposure). Biochemical assessment of perchloric acid extracts of nodularin-treated rat livers were used to confirm the MRS results. In vivo EPR oximetry was used to monitor decreasing hepatic pO2 (approximately 2-fold from controls) 2-3 h following nodularin exposure. In vivo MR techniques (MRI, MRS and EPR oximetry) are able to highlight effects that may not have been evident in single end point studies, and are ideal methods to follow tissue injury progression in longitudinally, increasing the power of a study through repeated measures, and decreasing the number of animals to perform a similar study using histological or biochemical techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rheal A Towner
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, North Queensland Magnetic Resonance Centre, School of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, James Cook University, Molecular Sciences Building, Townsville, Qld., Australia.
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Dahlmann J, Rühl A, Hummert C, Liebezeit G, Carlsson P, Granéli E. Different methods for toxin analysis in the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena (Cyanophyceae). Toxicon 2001; 39:1183-90. [PMID: 11306128 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(00)00256-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The brackish water cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena produce the hepatotoxic cyclic pentapeptide nodularin. Intoxications for both human as well as animal may arise when water reservoirs are contaminated with potentially toxic Nodularia species. Here, results of three independent methods for the determination of nodularin in different strains of N. spumigena are presented. The results obtained with a protein phosphatase assay and a HPLC/UV/MS method are compared with the results obtained with a bioluminescence assay, which is successfully introduced here for nodularin determination. Statistical evaluation of the three applied methods revealed a good comparability towards the detected toxin content. The methods were evaluated taking into consideration the parameters: handling, efficiency, sensitivity and selectivity. The detection limit in the protein phosphatase assay is highest (0.05ng nodularin) and lowest (250ng nodularin) in the bioluminescence assay- it was determined with 5ng (MS) and 25ng (UV) for the HPLC/UV/MS methods. The different selectivities and sensitivities are critically discussed and an analytical pathway for the determination of the biotoxin nodularin from Nodularia samples is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Dahlmann
- University of Jena, Institute for Nutrition, Dornburger Str. 25, 07743, Jena, Germany.
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Duy TN, Lam PK, Shaw GR, Connell DW. Toxicology and risk assessment of freshwater cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) toxins in water. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2000; 163:113-185. [PMID: 10771585 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-6429-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins affects aquatic organisms, terrestrial animals (both wild and domestic), and humans. Detrimental effects have been documented in the scientific literature during the past 50 years. Possible guideline values of some cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, and anatoxin-a) are estimated, and they show that children and infants are more susceptible to cyanobacterial toxins than adults. Therefore, particular attention should be paid when cyanobacterial blooms occur, even at relatively low cell counts, to protect children and infants from possible risks. Based on these guideline values and the occurrence of the toxins, it can be concluded that chronic and subchronic exposure to cyanobacterial toxins does occur in some populations, particularly in developing countries where high proportions of the population consume untreated surface water directly, such as pond, ditch, river, or reservoir water. Because wildlife and domestic animals consume a large amount of untreated water daily, they are at higher risk than humans from cyanobacterial toxins. Calculated guideline values in Section X show that a relatively high risk posed by the toxins to these animals is likely to occur, even at low cell densities.
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Affiliation(s)
- T N Duy
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
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Park HD, Watanabe MF, Harda K, Nagai H, Suzuki M, Watanabe M, Hayashi H. Hepatotoxin (microcystin) and neurotoxin (anatoxin-a) contained in natural blooms and strains of cyanobacteria from Japanese freshwaters. NATURAL TOXINS 1993; 1:353-60. [PMID: 8167957 DOI: 10.1002/nt.2620010606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Amounts of hepatotoxic microcystin and neurotoxic anatoxin-a were estimated in natural blooms and strains of cyanobacteria from freshwaters in Japan. A simultaneous analysis method of anatoxin-a and microcystin was applied to natural bloom samples, which has been dominated by several species and the strains of cyanobacteria which produced simultaneously both toxins. The natural blooms examined in the present study were mainly composed of Anabaena and Oscillatoria, but most also contained Microcystis and other cyanobacteria. Only one sample was almost unialgal, Anabaena spiroides, collected from Lake Sagami. The toxins in 14 samples collected from nine different natural blooms during 1988-1992 were identified as microcystins-RR, -YR, and -LR; desmethyl-7-microcystin-LR (7-DMLR); and anatoxin-a. Microcystins were the main toxins contained in these natural blooms, with anatoxin-a not being detected or of very little quantity. 7-DMLR was detected in samples only from Lake Kasumigaura. Five strains of Anabaena isolated from waters in Japan produced a small amount of anatoxin-a, but no microcystins. One half of the strains of Microcystis produced microcystins and/or anatoxin-a. This is the first study showing Microcystis producing both anatoxin-a and microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- H D Park
- Department of Hygiene, School of Medicine, Shinshu University, Matsumoto, Japan
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Carmichael WW. Cyanobacteria secondary metabolites--the cyanotoxins. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1992; 72:445-59. [PMID: 1644701 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1992.tb01858.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 700] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W W Carmichael
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435
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Falconer IR, Choice A, Hosja W. Toxicity of edible mussels (Mytilus edulis) growing naturally in an estuary during a water bloom of the blue-green algaNodularia spumigena. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/tox.2530070203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Eriksson JE, Toivola D, Meriluoto JA, Karaki H, Han YG, Hartshorne D. Hepatocyte deformation induced by cyanobacterial toxins reflects inhibition of protein phosphatases. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1990; 173:1347-53. [PMID: 2176489 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(05)80936-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The cyclic peptide hepatotoxins microcystin-LR, 7-desmethyl-microcystin-RR and nodularin are potent inhibitors of the protein phosphatases type 1 and type 2A. Their potency of inhibition resembles calyculin-A and to a lesser extent okadaic acid. These hepatotoxins increase the overall level of protein phosphorylation in hepatocytes. Evidence is presented to indicate that in hepatocytes the morphological changes and effects on the cytoskeleton are due to phosphatase inhibition. The potency of these compounds in inducing hepatocyte deformation is similar to their potency in inhibiting phosphatase activity. These results suggest that the hepatotoxicity of these peptides is related to inhibition of phosphatases, and further indicate the importance of the protein phosphorylation in maintenance of structural and homeostatic integrity in these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Eriksson
- Dept. Biology, Abo Akademi Univ., Turku, Finland
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Hermansky SJ, Stohs SJ, Markin RS, Murray WJ. Hepatic lipid peroxidation, sulfhydryl status, and toxicity of the blue-green algal toxin microcystin-LR in mice. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 1990; 31:71-91. [PMID: 2120461 DOI: 10.1080/15287399009531438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MCLR), a cyclic heptapeptide produced by the blue-green algae Microcystis aeruginosa, produces death in female mice treated with 100 micrograms MCLR/kg. Kupffer-cell hyperplasia was observed histologically after treatment with 50 or 100 micrograms MCLR/kg. No other changes or lethality were observed with the 50 micrograms MCLR/kg, while 100% lethality occurred in less than 2 h in mice treated with 100 micrograms/kg. In these animals liver weights increased by 45% and hepatic hemoglobin content increased 106% at 60 min posttreatment. Liver histology showed loss of hepatic architecture and necrosis 30 min after treatment, and congestion with blood became evident at 45 min after treatment. Serum enzymes were significantly increased 45 min posttreatment. Hepatic nonprotein sulfhydryl content decreased 19% when calculated on the basis of cytosolic protein and 39% when based upon the total protein content, respectively. The sulfhydryl content of the liver cytoskeletal fraction decreased 26% by 30 min after treatment. Decreased enzyme-mediated and increased non-enzyme-mediated lipid peroxidation were observed in hepatic microsomes following both in vivo and in vitro exposure of hepatic microsomes to MCLR. The toxicity of MCLR may be related to alterations in the sulfhydryl content of the cytoskeletal protein. Furthermore, MCLR may either directly or indirectly affect microsomes, suggesting alterations in structure and function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Hermansky
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha
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Dierstein R, Kaiser I, Weckesser J. Inhibition of Prodigiosin Formation in Serratia marcescens by Extracts of Toxic Cyanobacteria. Syst Appl Microbiol 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0723-2020(89)80069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Sivonen K, Kononen K, Carmichael WW, Dahlem AM, Rinehart KL, Kiviranta J, Niemela SI. Occurrence of the hepatotoxic cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena in the Baltic Sea and structure of the toxin. Appl Environ Microbiol 1989; 55:1990-5. [PMID: 2506812 PMCID: PMC202992 DOI: 10.1128/aem.55.8.1990-1995.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Water blooms formed by potentially toxic species of cyanobacteria are a common phenomenon in the Baltic Sea in late summer. Twenty-five cyanobacterial bloom samples were collected from open and coastal waters of the Baltic Sea during 1985 to 1987, and their toxicity was determined by mouse bioassay. All of 5 bloom samples from the southern Baltic Sea, 6 of 6 from the open northern Baltic Sea (Gulf of Finland), and 7 of 14 Finnish coastal samples were found to contain hepatotoxic cyanobacteria. Nodularia spumigena and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae occurred together in high amounts in blooms from the open-sea areas. In addition, coastal samples contained the species Anabaena lemmermannii, Microcystis aeruginosa, and Oscillatoria agardhii. Eighteen hepatotoxic N. spumigena cultures were isolated from water bloom and open-sea water samples. High-pressure liquid chromatographic analysis of both hepatotoxic bloom samples and Nodularia strains showed a single toxic fraction. The toxin concentrations of the blooms were less than or equal to 2.4 mg/g of freeze-dried material, and those of laboratory-grown cultures were 2.5 to 8.0 mg/g of freeze-dried cells. A single toxin was isolated from three N. spumigena-containing bloom samples and three N. spumigena laboratory isolates. Amino acid analysis and low- and high-resolution fast-atom bombardment mass spectroscopy indicated that the toxin from all of the sources was a cyclic pentapeptide (molecular weight, 824) containing glutamic acid, beta-methylaspartic acid, arginine, N-methyldehydrobutyrine, and 3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyl-4,6-decadienoic acid.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sivonen
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Birk IM, Dierstein R, Kaiser I, Matern U, König WA, Krebber R, Weckesser J. Nontoxic and toxic oligopeptides with D-amino acids and unusual residues in Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806. Arch Microbiol 1989; 151:411-5. [PMID: 2500922 DOI: 10.1007/bf00416599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Toxic and nontoxic peptides were isolated from the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806 by a procedure including extraction of cells with water-saturated 1-butanol, chromatography of the extract on silica gel plates and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) on Partisil-5. The toxin was shown to be only a minor constituent, being negatively charged and thus separable by electrophoresis, within the HPLC-purified fraction. It contained erythro-beta-methyl-D-Asp, D-Glu, D-Ala, L-Leu, and L-Arg known to be part of the Microcystis peptide-toxin with Mr 994. The major part of the HPLC-purified fraction was assigned, however, to a nontoxic peptide with a Mr of 956. Partial hydrolysis studies of the nontoxic peptide(s) revealed amino acid sequences composed of D-Glu, N-methyl-Phe, and 3,4-dehydro-Pro, aside from the common L-amino acids. Cyclic linkage in the nontoxic peptide(s) appears likely.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Birk
- Institut für Biologie II, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg, Federal Republic of Germany
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28
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Eriksson JE, Meriluoto JAO, Kujari HP, Al-Layl KJ, Codd GA. Cellular effects of cyanobacterial peptide toxins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1988. [DOI: 10.1002/tox.2540030507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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29
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Carmichael WW, Eschedor JT, Patterson GM, Moore RE. Toxicity and partial structure of a hepatotoxic peptide produced by the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena Mertens emend. L575 from New Zealand. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:2257-63. [PMID: 3142356 PMCID: PMC202845 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.9.2257-2263.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A clonal isolate, termed L575, of the filamentous brackish-water cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena Mertens emend. was found to produce a potent hepatotoxic peptide (50% lethal intraperitoneal dose for the mouse, 60 micrograms/kg) with chemical and toxicological properties similar to those of the hepatotoxic heptapeptides produced by other freshwater planktonic cyanobacteria. The isolate was made from a water sample collected in Lake Ellesmere, New Zealand, in 1980. The toxin, isolated and purified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and analyzed by HPLC amino acid analysis, contained glutamic acid, beta-methyla-spartic acid, and arginine units in equivalent amounts. The fast-atom-bombardment mass spectrum of the toxin indicated the molecular weight to be 824. Batch cultures of strain L575 showed that the toxin content varied between 1.96 and 2.99 mg/g of cells and that a positive correlation between toxin content and chlorophyll a, but not biomass, was present.
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Affiliation(s)
- W W Carmichael
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio 45435
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