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Pottier I, Lewis RJ, Vernoux JP. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean: Reconciling the Multiplicity of Ciguatoxins and Analytical Chemistry Approach for Public Health Safety. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:453. [PMID: 37505722 PMCID: PMC10467118 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Ciguatera is a major circumtropical poisoning caused by the consumption of marine fish and invertebrates contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs): neurotoxins produced by endemic and benthic dinoflagellates which are biotransformed in the fish food-web. We provide a history of ciguatera research conducted over the past 70 years on ciguatoxins from the Pacific Ocean (P-CTXs) and Caribbean Sea (C-CTXs) and describe their main chemical, biochemical, and toxicological properties. Currently, there is no official method for the extraction and quantification of ciguatoxins, regardless their origin, mainly due to limited CTX-certified reference materials. In this review, the extraction and purification procedures of C-CTXs are investigated, considering specific objectives such as isolating reference materials, analysing fish toxin profiles, or ensuring food safety control. Certain in vitro assays may provide sufficient sensitivity to detect C-CTXs at sub-ppb levels in fish, but they do not allow for individual identification of CTXs. Recent advances in analysis using liquid chromatography coupled with low- or high-resolution mass spectrometry provide new opportunities to identify known C-CTXs, to gain structural insights into new analogues, and to quantify C-CTXs. Together, these methods reveal that ciguatera arises from a multiplicity of CTXs, although one major form (C-CTX-1) seems to dominate. However, questions arise regarding the abundance and instability of certain C-CTXs, which are further complicated by the wide array of CTX-producing dinoflagellates and fish vectors. Further research is needed to assess the toxic potential of the new C-CTX and their role in ciguatera fish poisoning. With the identification of C-CTXs in the coastal USA and Eastern Atlantic Ocean, the investigation of ciguatera fish poisoning is now a truly global effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivannah Pottier
- Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, UNIROUEN, ABTE, 14000 Caen, France;
| | - Richard J. Lewis
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
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Danis T, Papadogiannis V, Tsakogiannis A, Kristoffersen JB, Golani D, Tsaparis D, Sterioti A, Kasapidis P, Kotoulas G, Magoulas A, Tsigenopoulos CS, Manousaki T. Genome Analysis of Lagocephalus sceleratus: Unraveling the Genomic Landscape of a Successful Invader. Front Genet 2021; 12:790850. [PMID: 34956332 PMCID: PMC8692874 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.790850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Tetraodontidae family encompasses several species which attract scientific interest in terms of their ecology and evolution. The silver-cheeked toadfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus) is a well-known “invasive sprinter” that has invaded and spread, in less than a decade, throughout the Eastern and part of the Western Mediterranean Sea from the Red Sea through the Suez Canal. In this study, we built and analysed the first near-chromosome level genome assembly of L. sceleratus and explored its evolutionary landscape. Through a phylogenomic analysis, we positioned L. sceleratus closer to T. nigroviridis, compared to other members of the family, while gene family evolution analysis revealed that genes associated with the immune response have experienced rapid expansion, providing a genetic basis for studying how L. sceleratus is able to achieve highly successful colonisation. Moreover, we found that voltage-gated sodium channel (NaV 1.4) mutations previously connected to tetrodotoxin resistance in other pufferfishes are not found in L. sceleratus, highlighting the complex evolution of this trait. The high-quality genome assembly built here is expected to set the ground for future studies on the species biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodoros Danis
- School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.,Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Vasileios Papadogiannis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Alexandros Tsakogiannis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Jon B Kristoffersen
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Daniel Golani
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior and the National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Dimitris Tsaparis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Aspasia Sterioti
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Kasapidis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Georgios Kotoulas
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Antonios Magoulas
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Costas S Tsigenopoulos
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Tereza Manousaki
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Greece
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Antonelli P, Salerno B, Bordin P, Peruzzo A, Orsini M, Arcangeli G, Barco L, Losasso C. Tetrodotoxin in live bivalve mollusks from Europe: Is it to be considered an emerging concern for food safety? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 21:719-737. [PMID: 34954887 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) are a group of potent neurotoxins named after the Tetraodontidae fish family (pufferfish). TTXs have been reported in several animal taxa, both terrestrial and marine. The ingestion of TTX-contaminated flesh can cause serious neurotoxic symptomatology and can eventually lead to death. Traditionally, TTXs have been associated with Asian countries, in particular with pufferfish consumption. However, they have also been reported in bivalve mollusks farmed in the Pacific area and, recently, in European seas. In Europe, different countries have reported TTXs, especially those bordering the Mediterranean Sea. As a consequence, in 2017 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) released an opinion with reference to TTX present in marine gastropods and bivalves, proposing a safety limit of 44 µg/kg TTXs in shellfish meat, below which no adverse effects should be observed in humans. Nevertheless, this limit has been exceeded on many occasions in European shellfish and, while for bivalves there have been no registered human intoxications, that is not the case for marine gastropods. However, TTXs have not yet been included in the list of marine biotoxins officially monitored in live bivalve mollusks within the European Union (EU). Thus, the aims of this manuscript are to discuss the increasing occurrence of TTXs in live bivalve mollusks from European sea waters, to acknowledge the still ongoing knowledge gaps that should be covered and to stimulate constructive debate on the eventuality of adopting a shared regulatory context, at least in the EU, for monitoring and managing this potential threat to food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Antonelli
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Barbara Salerno
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Paola Bordin
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Arianna Peruzzo
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Orsini
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Arcangeli
- Specialistic Aquatic Animal Health Centre, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Lisa Barco
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Carmen Losasso
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
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Whitelaw BL, Cooke IR, Finn J, Zenger K, Strugnell JM. The evolution and origin of tetrodotoxin acquisition in the blue-ringed octopus (genus Hapalochlaena). AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2019; 206:114-122. [PMID: 30472480 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2018.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin is a potent non-proteinaceous neurotoxin, which is commonly found in the marine environment. Synthesised by bacteria, tetrodotoxin has been isolated from the tissues of several genera including pufferfish, salamanders and octopus. Believed to provide a defensive function, the independent evolution of tetrodotoxin sequestration is poorly understood in most species. Two mechanisms of tetrodotoxin resistance have been identified to date, tetrodotoxin binding proteins in the circulatory system and mutations to voltage gated sodium channels, the binding target of tetrodotoxin with the former potentially succeeding the latter in evolutionary time. This review focuses on the evolution of tetrodotoxin acquisition, in particular how it may have occurred within the blue-ringed octopus genus (Hapalochlaena) and the subsequent impact on venom evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke L Whitelaw
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia.
| | - Ira R Cooke
- College of Public Health, Medical and Vet Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia; La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, 3086, Vic. Australia
| | - Julian Finn
- Sciences, Museum Victoria, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia
| | - Kyall Zenger
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia
| | - J M Strugnell
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia; Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, La Trobe University, Melbourne, 3086, Vic. Australia
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6
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Development of ELISA and colloidal gold immunoassay for tetrodotoxin detetcion based on monoclonal antibody. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 71:256-260. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Salvitti LR, Wood SA, Winsor L, Cary SC. Intracellular immunohistochemical detection of tetrodotoxin in Pleurobranchaea maculata (Gastropoda) and Stylochoplana sp. (Turbellaria). Mar Drugs 2015; 13:756-69. [PMID: 25636158 PMCID: PMC4344600 DOI: 10.3390/md13020756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), is a potent neurotoxin targeting sodium channels that has been identified in multiple marine and terrestrial organisms. It was recently detected in the Opisthobranch Pleurobranchaea maculata and a Platyhelminthes Stylochoplana sp. from New Zealand. Knowledge on the distribution of TTX within these organisms is important to assist in elucidating the origin and ecological role of this toxin. Intracellular micro-distribution of TTX was investigated using a monoclonal antibody-based immunoenzymatic technique. Tetrodotoxin was strongly localized in neutral mucin cells and the basement membrane of the mantle, the oocytes and follicles of the gonad tissue, and in the digestive tissue of P. maculata. The ova and pharynx were the only two structures to contain TTX in Stylochoplana sp. Using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, TTX was identified in the larvae and eggs, but not the gelatinous egg cases of P. maculata. Tetrodotoxin was present in egg masses of Stylochoplana sp. These data suggest that TTX has a defensive function in adult P. maculata, who then invest this in their progeny for protection. Localization in the digestive tissue of P. maculata potentially indicates a dietary source of TTX. Stylochoplana sp. may use TTX in prey capture and for the protection of offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren R Salvitti
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Leigh Winsor
- College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville QLD 4811, Australia.
| | - Stephen Craig Cary
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
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Llewellyn LE. Sodium channel inhibiting marine toxins. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR AND SUBCELLULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 46:67-97. [PMID: 19184585 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-87895-7_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX), tetrodotoxin (TTX) and their many chemical relatives are part of our daily lives. From killing people who eat seafood containing these toxins, to being valuable research tools unveiling the invisible structures of their pharmacological receptor, their global impact is beyond measure. The pharmacological receptor for these toxins is the voltage-gated sodium channel which transports Na ions between the exterior to the interior of cells. The two structurally divergent families of STX and TTX analogues bind at the same location on these Na channels to stop the flow of ions. This can affect nerves, muscles and biological senses of most animals. It is through these and other toxins that we have developed much of our fundamental understanding of the Na channel and its part in generating action potentials in excitable cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyndon E Llewellyn
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville MC, QLD 4810, Australia.
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Jost MC, Hillis DM, Lu Y, Kyle JW, Fozzard HA, Zakon HH. Toxin-resistant sodium channels: parallel adaptive evolution across a complete gene family. Mol Biol Evol 2008; 25:1016-24. [PMID: 18258611 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msn025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately 75% of vertebrate proteins belong to protein families encoded by multiple evolutionarily related genes, a pattern that emerged as a result of gene and genome duplications over the course of vertebrate evolution. In families of genes with similar or related functions, adaptation to a strong selective agent should involve multiple adaptive changes across the entire gene family. However, we know of no evolutionary studies that have explicitly addressed this point. Here, we show how 4 taxonomically diverse species of pufferfishes (Tetraodontidae) each evolved resistance to the guanidinium toxins tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX) via parallel amino acid replacements across all 8 sodium channels present in teleost fish genomes. This resulted in diverse suites of coexisting sodium channel types that all confer varying degrees of toxin resistance, yet show remarkable convergence among genes and phylogenetically diverse species. Using site-directed mutagenesis and expression of a vertebrate sodium channel, we also demonstrate that resistance to TTX/STX is enhanced up to 15-fold by single, frequently observed replacements at 2 sites that have not previously been implicated in toxin binding but show similar or identical replacements in pufferfishes and in distantly related vertebrate and nonvertebrate animals. This study presents an example of natural selection acting upon a complete gene family, repeatedly arriving at a diverse but limited number of adaptive changes within the same genome. To be maximally informative, we suggest that future studies of molecular adaptation should consider all functionally similar paralogs of the affected gene family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manda Clair Jost
- Sections of Integrative Biology and Neurobiology and Center for Computational Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, USA.
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Nagashima Y, Yamamoto K, Shimakura K, Shiomi K. A tetrodotoxin-binding protein in the hemolymph of shore crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus: purification and properties. Toxicon 2002; 40:753-60. [PMID: 12175612 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(01)00278-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The shore crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus hemolymph contains soluble proteins that bind tetrodotoxin (TTX) and are responsible for high resistance of the crab to TTX. The TTX-binding protein was purified from the hemolymph by ultrafiltration, lectin affinity chromatography and gel filtration HPLC. The purified protein gave only one band in native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), confirming its homogeneity. Its molecular weight was estimated to be about 400k by gel filtration HPLC, while it was estimated to be about 82k under non-reducing conditions and about 72 and 82k under reducing conditions by SDS-PAGE, indicating that the TTX-binding protein was composed of at least two distinct subunits. The TTX-binding protein was an acidic glycoprotein with pI 3.5, abundant in Asp and Glu but absent in Trp, and contained 6% reducing sugar and 12% amino sugar. The protein selectively bound to TTX, with a neutralizing ability of 6.7 mouse unit TTX/mg protein, but not to paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. However, its neutralizing activity was almost lost by treatments with enzymes (protease XIV, thermolysin, trypsin, amyloglucosidase and alpha-amylase) and denaturing agents (1% SDS, 1% dithiothreitol, 8 M urea and 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), suggesting the involvement of both proteinaceous and sugar moieties in the binding to TTX and the importance of the steric conformation of the TTX-binding protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Nagashima
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Fisheries, Konan, Minato, Tokyo 108-8477, Japan.
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Pottier I, Vernoux JP, Lewis RJ. Ciguatera fish poisoning in the Caribbean islands and Western Atlantic. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2001; 168:99-141. [PMID: 12882228 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0143-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning (ciguatera), a common poisoning caused by fish ingestion, is reviewed in the Western Atlantic and the Caribbean waters. It is endemic from Florida coasts (northern limit) to Martinique Island (southern limit), with outbreaks occurring from time to time. In the Caribbean, ciguatera causes a polymorphic syndrome with gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and neurological signs and symptoms. Neurological and muscular dysfunctions can be treated by intravenous injection of D-mannitol. The lipid-soluble toxins involved are ciguatoxins that are likely produced by the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. G. toxicus strains are endemic in the Caribbean Sea and in theWestern Atlantic. Although it is likely that blooms of G. toxicus are ingested by herbivorous fishes, they are not implicated in ciguatera in the Caribbean. Rather, large carnivores (barracudas, jacks, snappers, groupers), consumers of smaller benthic fish, are often involved in ciguatera. Fish toxicity depends on fishing area and depth, fish size and tissues, and climatic disturbances. Ciguatoxins have been isolated and purified from Caribbean fish species. The structure of two epimers, C-CTX-1 and C-CTX-2 from horse-eye jack, comprise 14 trans-fused ether-linked rings and a hemiketal in terminal ring. Caribbean ciguatoxins are mainly detected in the laboratory by chicken, mouse, mosquito, or cell bioassays, and by analytical HPLC/tandem mass spectrometry down to parts per billion (ppb). A ciguatera management plan that integrates epidemiology, treatment, and a simple method of detection is required to ensure the protection of consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Pottier
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Alimentaire, Universite de Caen, Esplanade de la Paix, 14032 Caen Cedex, France
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Yeo DS, Ding JL, Ho B. Neuroblastoma cell culture assay shows that Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda haemolymph neutralizes tetrodotoxin. Toxicon 1996; 34:1054-7. [PMID: 8896198 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(96)00062-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Veratridine facilitates the influx of Na+ into Neuro-2A cells and this process is exacerbated by the presence of a Na+/K(+)-ATPase inhibitor, ouabain, leading to a reduction in cell viability. However, tetrodotoxin neutralizes the cytotoxic effects of veratridine, hence sustaining the viability of Neuro-2A cells. This neutralizing ability was negated when TTX was first reacted with cell-free haemolymph of Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda, resulting in reduced cell viability. These results therefore indicate a bona fide effect of the cell-free haemolymph against tetrodotoxin as demonstrated by in vitro cell culture technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Yeo
- Department of Microbiology, National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore
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