A global biogeochemical budget for vanadium

Chemical characteristics and source apportionment of PM2.5 in a petrochemical city: Implications for primary and secondary carbonaceous component

To study the pollution features and underlying mechanism of PM_2.5 in Luoyang, a typical developing urban site in the central plain of China, 303 PM_2.5 samples were collected from April 16 to December 29, 2015 to analyze the elements, water soluble inorganic ions, organic carbon and elemental carbon. The annual mean concentration of PM_2.5 was 142.3 μg/m³, and 75% of the daily PM_2.5 concentrations exceeded the 75 μg/m³. The secondary inorganic ions, organic matter and mineral dust were the most abundant species, accounting for 39.6%, 19.2% and 9.3% of the total mass concentration, respectively. But the major chemical components showed clear seasonal dependence. SO₄^2- was most abundant specie in spring and summer, which related to intensive photochemical reaction under high O₃ concentration. In contrast, the secondary organic carbon and ammonium while primary organic carbon and ammonium significantly contributed to haze formation in autumn and winter, respectively. This indicated that the collaboration effect of secondary inorganic aerosols and carbonaceous matters result in heavy haze in autumn and winter. Six main sources were identified by positive matrix factorization model: industrial emission, combustion sources, traffic emission, mineral dust, oil combustion and secondary sulfate, with the annual contribution of 24%, 20%, 24%, 4%, 5% and 23%, respectively. The potential source contribution function analysis pointed that the contribution of the local and short-range regional transportation had significant impact. This result highlighted that local primary carbonaceous and precursor of secondary carbonaceous mitigation would be key to reduce PM_2.5 and O₃ during heavy haze episodes in winter and autumn.

Reducible Fraction Dominates the Mobility of Vanadium in Soil Around an Iron Smelter

Soil samples were collected to determine the pollution status, spatial distribution and mobility of Vanadium (V) in soil around an iron smelter in Panzhihua. The results showed that the topsoils and deep soils were unpolluted to moderately polluted and the subsurface soils was unpolluted with V. V concentrations in the topsoils decreased with the increase of the altitudes and the distances to the smelter. There was a great potential mobility of V in soil and the reductive dissolution of reducible V in the topsoils was responsible for the high concentration of V in the deep soils. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the reducible V when evaluating the mobility of V in soil.

VV Reduction by Polaromonas spp. in Vanadium Mine Tailings

Vanadium (V) is an important metal with critical industrial and medical applications. Elevated V contamination, however, can be a threat to the environment and human health. Microorganisms can reduce the more toxic and mobile V^V to the less toxic and immobile V^IV, which could be a detoxification and energy metabolism strategy adopted by V-reducing bacteria (VRB). The limited understanding of microbial responses to V contamination and the mechanisms for V^V reduction, however, hamper our capability to attenuate V contamination. This study focused on determining the microbial responses to elevated V concentration and the mechanisms of V^V reduction in V tailings. The bacterial communities were characterized and compared between the V tailings and the less contaminated adjacent mineral soils. Further, V^V-reducing enrichments indicated that bacteria associated with Polaromonas, a genus belonging to the family Burkholderiaceae, were potentially responsible for V^V reduction. Retrieved metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) suggested that the Polaromonas spp. encoded genes (cymA, omcA, and narG) were responsible for V^V reduction. Additionally, Polaromonas spp. was metabolically versatile and could use both organic and inorganic electron donors. The metabolic versatility of Polaromonas spp. may be important for its ability to flourish in the V tailings.

Recovery of vanadium from calcification roasted-acid leaching tailing by enhanced acid leaching

Vanadium contained tailing generated from the typical calcium roasting-acid leaching process is contaminant and waste of resource. Atmospheric and pressurized leaching were conducted and compared to recover the vanadium from the vanadium tailing and improve the tailing's environmental quality. Orthogonal experiments were designed and applied for the atmospheric leaching study. It is shown that the extraction efficiency of V changed from 29.6% to 43.5% while the extraction efficiency of Fe, Cr, Ti, Mg remained stable under 4% with variable atmospheric leaching conditions. In the pressurized leaching experiments, the effects of leaching temperature, H₂SO₄ concentration, liquid to solid ratio and leaching time on the extraction of V, Fe, and Ti were investigated. Under the optimum conditions (the temperature of 413.15 K, H₂SO₄ concentration of 300 g/L, liquid to solid ratio of 8:1 mL/g and the reaction time of 100 min), the extraction efficiencies of V, Fe, and Ti reached 91.7%, 60.1% and 46.5% respectively, a leach residue contains only 0.13% of stable vanadium was obtained.

Absorption characteristics of compound heavy metals vanadium, chromium, and cadmium in water by emergent macrophytes and its combinations

The aim of the present study was to investigate three kinds of emergent macrophytes, i.e., Acorus calamus L., Phragmites communis Trin., and Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb and their combination patterns on their removal efficiency of compound heavy metals (vanadium, chromium, and cadmium) from synthetic aqueous. The results showed that the optimal single-species for compound heavy metals removal was Acorus calamus L. and during experiment period, the average removal efficiency of V⁵⁺, Cr⁶⁺, and Cd²⁺ was 52.4, 46.8, and 90.0%, respectively. Combination C (the quality ratio of Acorus calamus L., Phragmites communis Trin., and Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb is 2:1:1) had the highest removal efficiency on compound heavy metals among three groups and the average removal efficiency of V⁵⁺, Cr⁶⁺, and Cd²⁺ was 18.0, 70.0, and 95.1%, respectively. The highest efficiency of combination C on V⁵⁺ removal was lower than single Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb group; this may be an existing antagonism in different plants. Heavy metals of V⁵⁺, Cr⁶⁺, and Cd²⁺ had an obviously positive effect on SOD, CAT, and POD of emergent macrophytes. From these results, we conclude that in a phytoremediation for the removal of compound heavy metals where V was dominated pollution in water, the use of Acorus calamus L. species rather than a mixture of several plants should be suggested. When heavy metal pollution was dominated by Cr and Cd, group C rather than a single plant species should be used.

Isolation of a novel compound (MIMO2) from the methanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves: protective effects against vanadium-induced cytotoxity

Moringa oleifera is reported to be a miracle plant, with positive effects on practically every system in the animal body. The methanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves was fractionated using liquid-liquid fractionation, column chromatography and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Bioassay guided fractionation using Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) was used to determine the fraction with the highest antioxidative power. Chemical structure was elucidated with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. FRAP showed that the pure compound, butyl p-hydroxyphenyl-acetate (MIMO2) exhibited an antioxidant activity higher than TEMPOL (positive control). Vanadium is a metal, which as a salt has been shown to be a neurotoxicant; and was therefore used to assess the efficacy of MIMO2 in this experiment. HT22 (immortalized mouse hippocampal) cells were used for cell culture. The Comet assay showed a statistically significant reduction (p < .05) in DNA damage when 0.25 and 0.5 μM MIMO2 as well as 0.1 and 0.2 mg of the methanolic extract of Moringa oleifera leaves (MO) were used in combination with 200 μM vanadium (sodium metavanadate). Analogously, a reduced formation of superoxide was observed using dihydroethidium (2,7-Diamino-10-ethyl-9-phenyl-9,10-dihydrophenanthridine-DHE) stain after 0.5 μM MIMO2 and 0.063 mg MO were used in combination with vanadium 100 μM. MIMO2 and MO gave a statistically significant (p < .05) protective effect against vanadium toxicity on neuronal cells. Further assays may need to be performed to assess the extent of protection that MIMO2 may offer, and also to better understand its mechanisms of action.

Current status and associated human health risk of vanadium in soil in China

A detailed assessment of vanadium contamination characteristics in China was conducted based on the first national soil pollution survey. The map overlay analysis was used to evaluate the contamination level of vanadium and the non-carcinogenic risk assessment model was calculated to quantify the vanadium exposure risks to human health. The results showed that, due to the drastically increased mining and smelting activities, 26.49% of soils were contaminated by vanadium scattered in southwest of China. According to Canadian soil quality guidelines, about 8.6% of the national soil pollution survey samples were polluted, and pose high non-carcinogenic risks to the public, especially to children living in the vicinity of heavily polluted mining areas. We propose the area near the boundary of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Sichuan provinces as priority control areas due to their higher geochemical background or higher health risks posed to the public. Finally, recommendations for management are proposed, including minimization of contaminant inputs, establishing stringent monitoring program, using phytoremediation, and strengthening the enforcement of relevant laws. Therefore, this study provides a comprehensive assessment of soil vanadium contamination in China, and the results will provide valuable information for China's soil vanadium management and risk avoidance.

Neurobehavioral and cytotoxic effects of vanadium during oligodendrocyte maturation: a protective role for erythropoietin

Vanadium exposure has been known to lead to lipid peroxidation, demyelination and oligodendrocytes depletion. We investigated behaviour and glial reactions in juvenile mice after early neonatal exposure to vanadium, and examined the direct effects of vanadium in oligodendrocyte progenitor cultures from embryonic mice. Neonatal pups exposed to vanadium via lactation for 15 and 22 days all had lower body weights. Behavioural tests showed in most instances a reduction in locomotor activity and negative geotaxis. Brain analyses revealed astrocytic activation and demyelination in the vanadium exposed groups compared to the controls. In cell culture, exposure of oligodendrocytes to 300 μM sodium metavanadate significantly increased cell death. Expression of the oligodendrocyte specific proteins, 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) and oligodendrocyte specific protein (OSP/Claudin) were reduced upon vanadium treatment while simultaneous administration of erythropoietin (EPO; 4-12 U/ml) counteracted vanadium-toxicity. The data suggest that oligodendrocyte damage may explain the increased vulnerability of the juvenile brain to vanadium and support a potential for erythropoietin as a protective agent against vanadium-toxicity during perinatal brain development and maturation.

Vanadium uptake and translocation in dominant plant species on an urban coastal brownfield site

This study, conducted at a brownfield site in New Jersey, USA, investigated factors controlling V uptake and translocation in naturally assembled plant species. Six dominant species were collected from 22 stations in the study area. We found that V concentration in the plants decreased in a sequence of root>leaf>stem. No significant differences were found among the six dominant plant species in terms of root V uptake efficiency (V BCF) and V root to shoot translocation (V TF). Although soil pH and TOC did not show significant impact on V accumulation in the roots, soil labile V content showed significant positive linear correlation (p<0.05) with plant root V. Non-linear regression analysis indicates that V translocation efficiency decreases with increasing concentration in the soil, implying that excessive V in the soil might inhibit its absorption by the plant roots. Leaf V concentration was constant in all the plant species regardless of the variation in soil V concentration. The study shows that the six dominant plant species on site had limited amount of V translocated to the aerial part of the plant.

Trawler fuel exhaust and respiratory impairments: a cross-sectional pilot study among Indian fishermen working in informal sectors

BACKGROUND

An estimated half a billion people are engaged in fishing related occupations in India. Exposure to adulterated fuel exhaust is common among deep-sea fishermen, yet little is known about the potential impacts on the exposure to health.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate whether fuel emission exposure was associated with increased respiratory impairments among fishermen who were occupationally exposed to fuel exhaust compared to fisherman occupationally unexposed to fuel exhaust.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study compared the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and lung function variables between 152 marine-water and 107 fresh water fishermen considering the use of fuel-driven trawlers. Data were obtained from questionnaires and computerized spirometer.

RESULTS

Fishermen exposed to trawler fuel exhaust reported more than double the number of respiratory symptoms compared to the unexposed fisherman (86·2 vs. 40·2%). They also had a significantly higher chance experiencing chronic cough (adjusted OR = 3·51, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2·09-6·35), chronic phlegm (8·61, 4·76-15·97), and wheezing (4·29, 2·55-7·61) symptoms. Finally, there was a significant reduction of the ratio of mid portion of forced expiratory flow rate and forced vital capacity (FEF25-75/FVC) in the exposed fishermen compared to the unexposed (0·84 vs. 0·73 second(-1), P = 0·015).

CONCLUSION

Fuel exhaust may negatively impact on the respiratory health of Indian fishermen. More attention and surveillance of occupational health for fishermen in India is needed.

Leaching characteristics of vanadium in mine tailings and soils near a vanadium titanomagnetite mining site

A series of column leaching experiments were performed to understand the leaching behaviour and the potential environmental risk of vanadium in a Panzhihua soil and vanadium titanomagnetite mine tailings. Results from sequential extraction experiments indicated that the mobility of vanadium in both the soil and the mine tailings was low, with <1% of the total vanadium readily mobilised. Column experiments revealed that only <0.1% of vanadium in the soil and mine tailing was leachable. The vanadium concentrations in the soil leachates did not vary considerably, but decreased with the leachate volume in the mine tailing leachates. This suggests that there was a smaller pool of leachable vanadium in the mine tailings compared to that in the soil. Drought and rewetting increased the vanadium concentrations in the soil and mine tailing leachates from 20μgL(-1) to 50-90μgL(-1), indicating the potential for high vanadium release following periods of drought. Experiments with soil columns overlain with 4, 8 and 20% volume mine tailings/volume soil exhibited very similar vanadium leaching behaviour. These results suggest that the transport of vanadium to the subsurface is controlled primarily by the leaching processes occurring in soils.

Statistical distributions of trace metal concentrations in the northwestern Mediterranean atmospheric aerosol

The concentrations of 11 crustal and anthropogenic trace metals (Li, Al, V, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb) were measured from 2006 to 2008 in the atmospheric aerosol at a northwestern Mediterranean coast (station of Cap Ferrat, situated on the southeastern coast of France). Statistical models (lognormal, Weibull, and gamma) that best represented the trace metal distribution for this environment are described. The lognormal model was selected for the distributions of (in decreasing strength of the fit) Al, Co, Li, Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, and Cd, i.e., metals that are introduced into the atmospheric aerosol by pulses inducing temporal variability in their concentrations. The gamma model was associated with Fe, i.e., metals that exhibit less inter-annual variability than the former trace metals. The third mode (Weibull) represented the distribution of the concentrations of V and Ni. The statistical approach presented in this study contributed to better define and constrain the distribution of the 11 trace metals of the atmospheric aerosol from the northwestern Mediterranean coast. In a close future, knowledge of these statistical distributions will allow using convolution models to separate their natural and anthropogenic contributions, therefore increasing our ability to study anthropogenic emissions of trace metals and their impact on the environment.

The interactions of vanadium with Phycomyces blakesleeanus mycelium: enzymatic reduction, transport and metabolic effects

The biological and chemical basis of vanadium action and transport in fungi is relatively poorly understood. In this study we investigated the interactions of vanadium in physiologically-relevant redox states: vanadate (+5) and vanadyl (+4), with mycelium of fungus Phycomyces blakesleeanus using EPR and (31)P NMR spectroscopy and biochemical assays. We determined that P. blakesleeanus reduces V(5+) to V(4+) in the extracellular compartment by the means of cell surface enzyme with ferricyanide reductase activity, which contains molybdenum-molybdopterin as a cofactor. Both, V(5+) and V(4+) bind to cell wall. They enter the cytoplasm via phosphate transporter and cation channels, respectively, and exhibit different metabolic effects. Vanadate provokes increased biomass production, the effects being inverted to toxic at higher V(5+) concentrations. In addition, V(5+) activates the synthesis of sugar phosphates and oligophosphates. On the other hand, V(4+) exhibits toxic effects even at low concentrations. The V(4+) detoxification route involves binding to vacuolar polyphosphates. Altogether our results imply that the mechanism of interaction of vanadium with P. blakesleeanus involves three major steps: extracellular enzymatic V(5+)/V(4+) reduction, V(4+) influx, and vacuolar storage, with an additional step - V(5+) import occurring at higher vanadate concentrations.

The mechanism of vanadium-mediated developmental hypomyelination is related to destruction of oligodendrocyte progenitors through a relationship with ferritin and iron

The second post-natal week in rat is the period of the most intense oligodendrocyte development and myelination. This period coincides with peak iron import by oligodendrocytes. During that time oligodendrocyte progenitors (OPCs) are sensitive to agents that may disturb normal iron homeostasis and assimilation of iron into these cells. One mechanism by which iron homeostasis can be disrupted is by environmental exposure to other metals. Vanadium is a transition metal, and exposure to vanadium during early brain development produces hypomyelination with variety of related neuro-behavioral phenotypes. In the current study, we investigated mechanisms of hypomyelination induced by vanadium exposure in developing rat brain. We demonstrate that both in vivo and in vitro, OPCs are more sensitive to vanadium exposure than astrocytes or mature oligodendrocytes. Vanadium exposure in OPCs resulted in increased ROS generation and increased annexinV labeling suggestive of apoptosis. Because ferritin is a major iron delivery protein for oligodendrocytes, we exposed the cells to recombinant ferritin and iron both of which exacerbated vanadium cytotoxicity, while the iron chelator desferroxamine (DFO) prevented cytotoxic/apoptotic effects of vanadium. To illustrate relationship between ferritin and vanadium, we demonstrate that vanadium exacerbated DNA nicking produced by iron-rich spleen ferritin, but not iron-poor apoferritin, resulting in a single and double strand breaks in a DNA relaxation assay. We propose that developmental exposure to vanadium interferes with normal iron assimilation into oligodendrocytes resulting in oxidative stress and apoptosis. Therefore, depletion of OPCs due to vanadium exposure in early post-natal period may be an important mechanism of vanadium-induced hypomyelination.

Vanadium exposure through lactation produces behavioral alterations and CNS myelin deficit in neonatal rats

The current study was performed to assess the vanadium(V)-induced developmental toxicity in sucklings of Wistar rats. Dams of treated litters were intraperitoneally injected with 3 mg NaVO(3)/kg body weight/day during 12 days starting on postnatal day (PND) 10. Surface righting reflex, negative geotaxy and hindlimb support tests were performed on pups every 48 h, from 8th to 18th PND. Open field test was performed on the 21st PND. On 22nd PND, some animals were transcardially perfusion-fixed and their brains were removed and cut with a cryostat. Brain sections were processed for myelin histochemistry and for anti-myelin basic protein immunohistochemistry. Delay in eye opening and decreased muscular strength and locomotion were observed in V-exposed pups of both sexes. A decreased myelin staining in corpus callosum and cerebellum in these pups was also observed. Results suggest that vanadium exposure through lactation would induce neurotoxicity in rat developing CNS.

Vanadium induced ultrastructural changes and apoptosis in male germ cells

Vanadium is a transition metal that is emitted to the atmosphere during combustion of fossil fuels. In the environment, vanadium occurs in the (V) oxidized form, but in the body it is found exclusively in the (IV) oxidized form. Vanadium tetraoxide is an inorganic chemical species in the (IV) oxidized form that has been shown to induce toxic effects in vitro and in vivo. The reproductive toxicity of vanadium in males was studied through monitoring germ cell apoptosis during spermatogenesis. We analyzed ultrastructural damage, and testosterone and progesterone concentrations following vanadium tetraoxide administered to male mice for 60 days. Spermatogenesis stages I-III and X-XII frequently showed apoptotic germ cells in control and treated animals; vanadium tetraoxide treatment induced an increase in the number of germ cell apoptosis in stages I-III and XII at 9.4 and 18.8 mg/kg, respectively. Although spermatogenesis is regulated by testosterone, in our study this hormone level was not modified by vanadium administration; thus, germ cell death was not related with testosterone concentration. At the ultrastructural level, we observed inclusion structures that varied as to location and content in the Sertoli and germ cells.

Morphological Alterations of Central Nervous System (CNS) Myelin in Vanadium (V)‐Exposed Adult Rats

In the present work we show morphological data of the in vivo susceptibility of CNS myelin to sodium metavanadate [V(+5)] in adult rats. The possible role of vanadium in behavioral alterations and in brain lipid peroxidation was also investigated. Animals were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with 3 mg/kg body weight (bw) of sodium metavanadate [1.25 V/kg bw/day] for 5 consecutive days. Open field and rotarod tests were performed the day after the last dose had been administered and then animals were sacrificed by different methods for histological and lipid peroxidation studies. The present results show that intraperitoneal administration of V(+5) to adult rats resulted in changes in locomotor activity, specific myelin stainings and lipid peroxidation in some brain areas. They support the notion that CNS myelin could be a preferential target of V(+5)-mediated lipid peroxidation in adult rats. The mechanisms underlying this action could affect the myelin sheath leading to behavioral perturbations.

Behavioral and developmental outcomes of prenatal and postnatal vanadium exposure in the rat

The developmental and behavioral outcomes of uninterrupted exposure to vanadium was studied in the rat. Starting 3 days before birth and up to the 100th day of extrauterine life, rats received as drink either a water solution of vanadyl sulphate (300 mg l(-1)containing 70 mg l(-1)of vanadium element, which is equal to an ingested dose of about 10 mg kg(-1)per day of vanadium element) plus NaCl 5 g l(-1), or a water solution of NaCl 5 g l(-1), or plain water [up to weaning (25th day of extrauterine life) treatment was given to dams and offspring]. At weaning, survivors were fewer and body weight was found to be significantly lower in the offspring of vanadium plus NaCl-treated dams than in the offspring of the other two groups. After weaning, growth retardation continued to be significant in both vanadium plus NaCl- and NaCl-treated rats. Such an effect was more pronounced in males than in females. Locomotor activity--evaluated at 1 month of age--was not significantly different in the three groups of rats. In the open-field, male (but not female) vanadium plus NaCl-treated rats had a reduced outer ambulation, rearing posture and grooming activity, and an increased defecation, in comparison with the males of the NaCl group, and reduced rearing in comparison with control males. As concerns ingestive behaviors, the only significant datum was an increased water intake in NaCl-treated males. Finally, at the 100th day of life, working memory was significantly impaired in both vanadium plus NaCl- and NaCl-treated rats.

Prevention by sodium 4,5-dihydroxybenzene-1,3-disulfonate (Tiron) of vanadium-induced behavioral toxicity in rats

Recent studies have shown that oral vanadate (V5+) administration results in behavioral toxicity in rats. The chelating agent Tiron (sodium 4,5-dihydroxybenzene-1,3-disulfonate) is an effective antidote in the removal of vanadium from vanadium-loaded rats. In this study, the protective activity of Tiron on vanadate-induced behavioral toxicity was evaluated in adult rats. Intraperitoneal treatment with Tiron at 235 or 470 mg/kg was initiated after 6 wk of oral sodium metavanadate administration (16 mg/kg/d) and continued for 2 wk. Although vanadate exposure did not result in a significant reduction in the general activity of the animals in an open field, a lower active avoidance acquisition could be observed. However, the vanadate-induced behavioral deficit was reverted by Tiron administration at 470 mg/kg. The present results suggest that Tiron may protect, at least in part, against metavanadate-induced behavioral toxicity.

Effects of vanadium on activity and learning in rats

The effects of vanadate administration on activity and learning were assessed in rats. Four groups of adult male rats were given by gavage 0, 4.1, 8.2, and 16.4 mg/kg/day of sodium metavanadate for eight consecutive weeks. Three weeks after the cessation of the treatment, general motor activity of all animals was measured in an open-field. Rats were also tested for two-way shock avoidance learning in an automatic reflex conditioner. At the end of the testing period, rats were killed and vanadium concentration was determined in a number of tissues. Vanadium exposure caused an observable but not significant effect on body weight gain, while a persistent presence of vanadium was observed in all tissues measured. The results of the behavioral testing show that oral vanadate administration resulted in significant reductions in both general activity and learning.

Vanadium: a review of the reproductive and developmental toxicity

While the essentiality of vanadium for living organisms has yet to be established with certainty, vanadium has become an increasingly important environmental metal. Moreover, in recent years pharmacological interest in vanadium has also increased because of the hypothetical utilization of oral vanadium as an alternative therapy to parenteral insulin in diabetic patients. Adverse effects of vanadium depend on the circulating levels of this element. Among those effects, it is now well established that vanadate (V+5) and vanadyl (V+4) may be reproductive and developmental toxicants in mammals. Decreased fertility, embryolethality, fetotoxicity, and teratogenicity have been reported to occur in rats, mice, and hamsters following vanadium exposure. The reproductive vanadium toxicity, the maternal and embryo/fetal toxicity of this trace element, the perinatal and postnatal effects of vanadium, as well as the prevention by chelating agents of vanadium-induced developmental toxicity are reviewed here. The developmental effects of vanadium in pregnant diabetic rats are also summarized.