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Abstract
It is still uncertain whether multilineage hematopoietic progenitor cells are affected by human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) infection in vivo. The SCID-hu Thy/Liv model is permissive of long-term multilineage human hematopoiesis, including T lymphopoiesis. This model was used to investigate the effects of HIV-1 infection on early hematopoietic progenitor function. We found that both lineage-restricted and multilineage hematopoietic progenitors were depleted from grafts infected with either a molecular clone or a primary isolate of HIV-1. Depletion of hematopoietic progenitors (including CD34+ cells, colony-forming units in methylcellulose, and long-term culture-initiating cells) occurred several days before the onset of thymocyte depletion, indicating that the subsequent rapid decline in thymocyte numbers was due at least in part to loss of thymocyte progenitors. HIV-1 proviral genomes were not detected at high frequency in hematopoietic cells earlier than the intrathymic T-progenitor cell stage, despite the depletion of such cells in infected grafts. Proviral genomes were also not detected in colonies derived from progenitor cells from infected grafts. These data demonstrate that HIV-1 infection interrupts both lineage-restricted and multilineage hematopoiesis in vivo and suggest that depletion of early hematopoietic progenitor cells occurs in the absence of direct viral infection.
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Kontny HU, Sleasman JW, Kingma DW, Jaffe ES, Avila NA, Pizzo PA, Mueller BU. Multilocular thymic cysts in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection: clinical and pathologic aspects. J Pediatr 1997; 131:264-70. [PMID: 9290614 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(97)70164-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have an increased susceptibility to severe and unusual infections, malignancies, and disorders characterized by abnormal lymphoproliferation (e.g., lymphoid interstitial pneumonitis). We report a novel disease entity associated with pediatric HIV infection that is characterized by massive enlargement of the thymus as a result of lymphoid hyperplasia and multicystic changes. METHODS Eight patients with HIV infection and cystic enlargement of the thymus are subject of this report. The status of their HIV disease and its clinical and radiologic manifestations at the time of diagnosis of the mediastinal mass are described. Tissue specimens were obtained from six patients and examined by microscopy and immunohistochemistry. The specimens were also evaluated for the evidence of HIV and Epstein-Barr virus by in situ hybridization. RESULTS Patients were between 2.1 and 12.1 years of age, with CD4+ cell counts between 102 and 733 cells/mm3. In all eight cases an anterior mediastinal mass was discovered incidentally on radiography of the chest, and computed tomography of the chest revealed a multicystic appearance. Histologic examination demonstrated distortion of the thymic architecture by focal cystic changes, lymphoid follicular hyperplasia, diffuse plasmacytosis, and multinucleated giant cells. In situ hybridization revealed HIV particles on the surface of follicular dendritic cells. Further, results of in situ hybridization for EBV were positive in lymphoid cells from biopsy samples of four patients. The patients were followed between 8 months and 4.8 years. In five patients the mass either decreased in size or resolved completely. CONCLUSIONS We describe a series of children with HIV infection and multilocular thymic cysts. We hypothesize that aberrant immunoregulation in these HIV-infected children leads to follicular hyperplasia and multicystic changes in the thymus, causing massive enlargement. EBV infection might also contribute to the pathogenesis of this process. Because none of our patients had symptoms from the mass, and there was no evidence of malignancy in the examined biopsy samples, it seems prudent to manage such children with careful follow-up examinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- H U Kontny
- Pediatric Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1182, USA
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Mehr R, Perelson AS. Blind T-cell homeostasis and the CD4/CD8 ratio in the thymus and peripheral blood. JOURNAL OF ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES AND HUMAN RETROVIROLOGY : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL RETROVIROLOGY ASSOCIATION 1997; 14:387-98. [PMID: 9170412 DOI: 10.1097/00042560-199704150-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
We present a model of the dynamics of CD4 and CD8 T-cell subsets in the thymus and peripheral blood and use it to study the blind homeostasis hypothesis, which states that the total T-cell population in the periphery is subject to regulation rather than regulation of the CD4 or CD8 subsets individually. Our model reconstructs experimental observations by Adleman and Wofsy on the effects of CD4+ T-cell depletion in mice. Our results point to the importance of the thymus in recovery from CD4+ T-cell depletion and particularly to the need to hypothesize an intrathymic feedback regulation of T-cell production exerted by CD4+ T cells. Our results support the blind homeostasis hypothesis for regulation of the peripheral blood levels of CD4+ and CD8- T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mehr
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, New Jersey, USA
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Ramarli D, Reina S, Merola M, Scupoli MT, Poffe O, Riviera AP, Brentegani M, Fiorini E, Vella A, Varnier O, Tridente G. HTLV type IIIB infection of human thymic epithelial cells: viral expression correlates with the induction of NF-kappa B-binding activity in cells activated by cell adhesion. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996; 12:1217-25. [PMID: 8870843 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1996.12.1217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Productive infection by the LAV strain has been demonstrated in T cell precursors at different stages of intrathymic development, while viral replication in thymic epithelial cells is still controversial. In this article we show that epithelial cell cultures derived from the medullary component of normal thymus are infectable by HTLV-IIIB virus through cell-free and lymphoid-mediated transmission. Free virus inoculum results in the integration of proviral copies undergoing poor replication, whereas lymphoid-mediated transmission leads to substantial viral expression and the production of viral progeny able to secondary infect lymphoid cells. Interleukin 6 production and phenotype changes (increased expression of MHC class I and ICAM-1) were induced in TE cells by contact with free virus or by adhesion to infected lymphoid cells. By contrast, NF-kappa B-binding activity on the HIV-1 LTR kappa B enhancer element was upregulated only by contact with infected lymphoid cells, but not with virus. The viral replication observed in TE cells after lymphoid-mediated transmission correlates with the upregulation of NF-kappa B-binding activity. Interleukin 6 increased production and phenotype changes and increased NF-kappa B-binding activity were also induced by adhesion to uninfected lymphoid cells, demonstrating that lymphoepithelial cell contacts can activate TE cells. These results demonstrate that thymic epithelial cells are permissive to HIV infection and that viral replication in this cell lineage can be modulated by intracellular signals delivered by adhesive contacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Ramarli
- Instituto di Immunologia e Malattie Infettive, Università di Verona, Italy
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Markert ML. Perspective: research highlights at the Duke University center for AIDS research. Immunoreconstitution in HIV infection: the role of the thymus. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996; 12:751-5. [PMID: 8738425 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1996.12.751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M L Markert
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
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Mosier DE. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of human cells transplanted to severe combined immunodeficient mice. Adv Immunol 1996; 63:79-125. [PMID: 8787630 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2776(08)60855-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D E Mosier
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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Calabrò ML, Zanotto C, Calderazzo F, Crivellaro C, Del Mistro A, De Rossi A, Chieco-Bianchi L. HIV-1 infection of the thymus: evidence for a cytopathic and thymotropic viral variant in vivo. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995; 11:11-9. [PMID: 7734184 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1995.11.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
As thymocyte infection may represent one of the mechanisms responsible for CD4+ T lymphocyte depletion in HIV-1-infected individuals, we studied the occurrence of HIV-1 infection in the thymus in vivo. Thymus (THYPD) and peripheral blood (PBLPD) primary viral isolates were obtained from an HIV-1-infected patient; restriction pattern analysis revealed the presence of a viral variant (THY) in the thymus isolate, from which biological viral clones containing this variant were obtained by limiting dilution infection of Molt-3 cells. The biological phenotype of the viral isolates and THY clones was studied in different cell lines and primary cultures. PBLPD, THYPD, and THY clones could efficiently infect T cell lines; the thymic variant showed a higher cytopathic activity in T cell lines, and a higher replication capacity in both unfractionated and CD4+CD8(+)-enriched primary thymocytes. Sequence analysis of the viral population patterns in vivo confirmed the presence of the THY variant in the thymic compartment, and revealed that the degree of V3 loop heterogeneity was higher in the thymocytes of the patient than in the peripheral blood lymphocytes. In addition to confirming thymocyte infection in vivo, our data also indicate that a differential distribution of viral variants may occur among different body compartments in a single individual; the emergence of cytopathic and tissue-specific variants in the thymus may play a relevant role in the pathogenesis of HIV-1 disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Calabrò
- Institute of Oncology, University of Padua, Italy
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Sandborg CI, Imfeld KL, Zaldivar F, Berman MA. HIV type 1 induction of interleukin 1 and 6 production by human thymic cells. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994; 10:1221-9. [PMID: 7848680 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1994.10.1221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that HIV can infect thymocytes at different maturational stages and lead to changes in the thymic microenvironment. To determine the effect of HIV on thymic stromal cells and the production of cytokines important in thymocyte development, three types of adherent thymic cultures were established and studied: thymic epithelial cells (TECs), macrophage-enriched, and mixed cultures of macrophages and TECs (M phi/TEC). Cultures were exposed to HIV-1 strains HIV-1IIIB and HIV-1Ba-L, and studied from day 2 to day 26 for the presence of infection, cytopathology, and cytokine (IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, and IL-6) production. M phi/TEC and macrophage-enriched cultures were infected by both HIV strains without cytopathic changes. The TECs grew well in culture for at least 6 weeks and showed no evidence of infection, cytopathology, or changes in cytokine production with HIV. Only cultures containing macrophages (M phi/TEC or macrophage enriched) showed changes in cytokine production with HIV. Sustained production of IL-1 alpha was seen for up to 20 days, with small or no increases in IL-1 beta. M phi/TEC cultures produced high constitutive levels of IL-6 that were not changed by HIV. Unstimulated macrophage-enriched cultures produced small amounts of IL-6 that were increased by HIV 20-fold. This study suggests that HIV infection in vivo can lead to infection of thymic macrophages resulting in cytokine abnormalities and a constant source for HIV to infect maturing thymocytes. These cytokine effects could lead to abnormal maturation and contribute to the lack of regeneration of the mature CD4+ T cell pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- C I Sandborg
- Department of Medicine, University of California at Irvine 92717
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Müller JG, Czub S, Marx A, Brinkmann R, Plesker R, Müller-Hermelink HK. Detection of SIV in rhesus monkey thymus stroma cell cultures. RESEARCH IN VIROLOGY 1994; 145:239-44. [PMID: 7800951 DOI: 10.1016/s0923-2516(07)80028-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
To clarify the pathogenesis of SIV-induced thymus atrophy, the presence of SIV within thymus stromal cell cultures (epithelial cells, IDC, macrophages or fibroblasts) was investigated. The material studied consisted of 15 thymus specimens of rhesus macaques infected with SIVmac251 (2-4 months postinoculation). No viral antigen was detected, either in the cultures, by immunohistochemistry, or in cell culture supernatants, by ELISA (p17 antigen), and no viral RNA was detected by in situ hybridization. Only after coculture with the C8166 cell line, was virus detected in 2 out of 15 stroma cultures. The fact that the virus could only be detected after several passages of coculture with the C8166 cell line indicates that the virus exists in the thymus stroma cells in the form of proviral DNA. The infection of thymus stromal cells may contribute to the destruction of the thymus microenvironment and to the SIV-induced thymus atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J G Müller
- Institute of Pathology, University of Würzburg, Germany
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Stanley SK, McCune JM, Kaneshima H, Justement JS, Sullivan M, Boone E, Baseler M, Adelsberger J, Bonyhadi M, Orenstein J. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of the human thymus and disruption of the thymic microenvironment in the SCID-hu mouse. J Exp Med 1993; 178:1151-63. [PMID: 8376927 PMCID: PMC2191215 DOI: 10.1084/jem.178.4.1151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) results in immunosuppression and depletion of circulating CD4+ T cells. Since the thymus is the primary organ in which T cells mature it is of interest to examine the effects of HIV infection in this tissue. HIV infection has been demonstrated in the thymuses of infected individuals and thymocytes have been previously demonstrated to be susceptible to HIV infection both in vivo, using the SCID-hu mouse, and in vitro. The present study sought to determine which subsets of thymocytes were infected in the SCID-hu mouse model and to evaluate HIV-related alterations in the thymic microenvironment. Using two different primary HIV isolates, infection was found in CD4+/CD8+ double positive thymocytes as well as in both the CD4+ and CD8+ single positive subsets of thymocytes. The kinetics of infection and resulting viral burden differed among the three thymocyte subsets and depended on which HIV isolate was used for infection. Thymic epithelial (TE) cells were also shown to endocytose virus and to often contain copious amounts of viral RNA in the cytoplasm by in situ hybridization, although productive infection of these cells could not be definitively shown. Furthermore, degenerating TE cells were observed even without detection of HIV in the degenerating cells. Two striking morphologic patterns of infection were seen, involving either predominantly thymocyte infection and depletion, or TE cell involvement with detectable cytoplasmic viral RNA and/or TE cell toxicity. Thus, a variety of cells in the human thymus is susceptible to HIV infection, and infection with HIV results in a marked disruption of the thymic microenvironment leading to depletion of thymocytes and degeneration of TE cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Stanley
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Bonyhadi ML, Rabin L, Salimi S, Brown DA, Kosek J, McCune JM, Kaneshima H. HIV induces thymus depletion in vivo. Nature 1993; 363:728-32. [PMID: 8100043 DOI: 10.1038/363728a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease is typified by declining CD4+ T lymphocyte counts in the peripheral circulation, a loss which may be secondary to accelerated destruction, to suppressed differentiation, and/or to sequestration of circulating cells into tissue spaces. As it is hard to distinguish between these possibilities in human subjects, the pathogenic mechanisms associated with HIV infection are unclear. In particular, little is known about the events that occur within infected lymphoid organs in which most CD4 T lymphocytes mature and function. To obtain a better description of HIV pathogenesis in vivo, we have implanted human haematolymphoid organs into the immunodeficient SCID mouse to create the SCID-hu mouse. We have previously shown that these organ systems promote long-term multilineage human haematopoiesis and are permissive for infection with HIV. Here we report that human thymopoiesis is suppressed by HIV infection, thereby precluding regeneration of the peripheral T-cell compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Bonyhadi
- New Enterprise Research Division, SyStemix Inc., Palo Alto, California 94304
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Shattles WG, Brookes SM, Venables PJ, Clark DA, Maini RN. Expression of antigen reactive with a monoclonal antibody to HTLV-1 P19 in salivary glands in Sjögren's syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol 1992; 89:46-51. [PMID: 1628425 PMCID: PMC1554392 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1992.tb06875.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
To examine the possible involvement of retroviruses in Sjögren's syndrome (SS), labial salivary gland sections from 99 individuals were probed with three MoAbs to core (gag) proteins of human T cell leukaemia virus-1 (HTLV-1) and two MoAbs to HIV-1. Sections from 31% of 39 patients with primary SS (pSS) contained an epithelial cytoplasmic protein reactive with a MoAb (197) to the p19 group specific antigen (gag) of HTLV-1. The antigen was also detected in samples from 24% of 17 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and SS, 21% of 14 patients with sicca symptoms and 12.5% of 16 patients with other connective tissue diseases. It was not found in the salivary glands of 13 normal controls. A second MoAb to p19 gag, a MoAb to the p24 gag of HTLV-1 and MoAbs to HIV-1 p17 and p24 gags gave negative reactions. Serum antibodies to HTLV-1 were negative, confirming that the antigen was not part of HTLV-1. The antigen showed properties consistent with an endogenous retrovirus in that it was absent in healthy tissues or resting cells but inducible by stimulation with phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) or interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). It appeared to be distinct from the endogenous retroviral sequence HRES-1. These data suggest the presence of an endogenous retrovirus in salivary gland epithelium which could contribute to the chronic inflammation of SS.
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Affiliation(s)
- W G Shattles
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, London, UK
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Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Broder S. The immunology of HIV infection: implications for therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1992; 8:1023-31. [PMID: 1503817 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1992.8.1023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
It is known that antiretroviral drugs can induce immunologic improvement in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and other manifestations of HIV infection. However, the improvements so attained are often partial and transient. This may result from a number of factors, including incomplete inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication by available agents, the development of viral drug resistance, the effect of cytokines, or thymic damage. An understanding of this problem may be important in further development of AIDS therapies. It will also be important to learn how to best assess the response to various therapies. In this regard, the CD4 count is evolving as a mortality risk indicator in AIDS and as such may find utility in assessing new therapeutic approaches. We have observed that in a cohort of gay men receiving antiretroviral therapy in a research environment, nearly all deaths occurred in individuals with fewer than 50 CD4 cells/mm3. However, the relationship between the CD4 count and the hazard of dying may be influenced by a number of factors (e.g., active intravenous drug use, extreme poverty, etc.), and further studies are needed to define the relationship between CD4 and clinical endpoints under a variety of conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Yarchoan
- Medicine Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892
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Abstract
Pathologic lesions in children with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) can be classified into three broad categories: (1) primary lesions related directly to infection by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (e.g., in the lymphoreticular system and brain); (2) associated lesions related to direct or indirect sequelae of HIV infection (e.g., opportunistic infections, lymphoid interstitial pneumonitis, and so forth); and (3) lesions of undetermined pathogenesis (e.g., cardiomyopathy, nephropathy, and so forth). The pathologic features of the various lesions in these three categories are described. Clinical relevance of the pathologic study of AIDS is discussed. Data on perinatal pathology of AIDS is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- V V Joshi
- Department of Clinical Pathology and Diagnostic Medicine, East Carolina University School of Medicine, Greenville, North Carolina
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von Briesen H, Andreesen R, Rübsamen-Waigmann H. Systematic classification of HIV biological subtypes on lymphocytes and monocytes/macrophages. Virology 1990; 178:597-602. [PMID: 2219711 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(90)90361-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The growth properties and cytopathic effects of several HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains were compared between cultures on human lymphocytes and monocytes/macrophages, respectively. For some isolates (among these three paired isolates from blood and cerebrospinal fluid) replication and cytopathogenicity were comparable between lymphocytes and monocytes/macrophages (dual tropic viruses), while others showed a very specific tropism for only one cell type. Yet another subtype grew neither well on lymphocytes nor on macrophages. Taking into account the growth properties in monocytes/macrophages we propose a classification system for HIV subtypes on these cells (alpha-delta), in analogy to the nomenclature for HIV-subtyping on lymphocytes (a-d). Using this system, some prototypic viruses (LAV/HTLV-IIIB, HIV-2ROD, SIVBK28, HIV-2ALT) as well as several other HIV-1 and HIV-2 isolates were subtyped.
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Affiliation(s)
- H von Briesen
- Chemotherapeutisches Forschungsinstitut Georg-Speyer-Haus, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany
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Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Broder S. Immunologic issues in anti-retroviral therapy. IMMUNOLOGY TODAY 1990; 11:327-33. [PMID: 1698379 DOI: 10.1016/0167-5699(90)90128-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A number of drugs acting at different stages of viral replication have been shown to be effective anti-HIV agents in the laboratory, and several have been found to be active in patients. It has become evident that inhibition of viral replication in HIV-infected patients will result in an improvement in their immune function. However, as Robert Yarchoan, Hiroaki Mitsuya and Samuel Broder point out, complete immunoreconstitution generally does not occur in patients with established AIDS using currently available therapies. It is important to understand the factors that limit immunologic improvement in such patients so that more effective therapy can be devised.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Yarchoan
- National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892
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