1
|
Yang C, Wang Y, Wu X, Gong M, Li Y. Reduced levels of A20 protein prompted RIPK1-dependent apoptosis and blood-brain barrier breakdown during cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290015. [PMID: 37578944 PMCID: PMC10424866 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) leakage is an important cause of the exacerbation of pathological features of cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury (CIRI). However, the specific mechanism of BBB leakage is not clear. It was found that the CIRI resulted in RIPK1 activation and subsequent RIPK1-dependent apoptosis (RDA). Inhibition of RIPK1 significantly reduced BBB breakdown and brain damage. The aim of this study is to investigate the mechanism of RIPK1 in the BBB leakage during CIRI. It was discovered by proteomics that autophagy activation resulting from ischemia and reperfusion significantly downregulated the level of A20 protein. A20 is an important protein that regulates RIPK1 and RDA. It was hypothesized that activation of autophagy caused by ischemic reperfusion led to a decrease in A20 protein, which, in turn, caused the activation of RIPK1 and the occurrence of RDA, leading to leakage of the BBB. The findings in this study revealed the role of RIPK1 in the cell death and BBB leakage upon cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury, and these findings provide a novel perspective for the treatment of ischemic reperfusion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chaonan Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yongjiao Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaohui Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Min Gong
- Department of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
- WIMM, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ying Li
- Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Alphaviruses, members of the enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA Togaviridae family, represent a reemerging public health threat as mosquito vectors expand into new geographic territories. The Old World alphaviruses, which include chikungunya virus, Ross River virus, and Sindbis virus, tend to cause a clinical syndrome characterized by fever, rash, and arthritis, whereas the New World alphaviruses, which consist of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, eastern equine encephalitis virus, and western equine encephalitis virus, induce encephalomyelitis. Following recovery from the acute phase of infection, many patients are left with debilitating persistent joint and neurological complications that can last for years. Clues from human cases and studies using animal models strongly suggest that much of the disease and pathology induced by alphavirus infection, particularly atypical and chronic manifestations, is mediated by the immune system rather than directly by the virus. This review discusses the current understanding of the immunopathogenesis of the arthritogenic and neurotropic alphaviruses accumulated through both natural infection of humans and experimental infection of animals, particularly mice. As treatment following alphavirus infection is currently limited to supportive care, understanding the contribution of the immune system to the disease process is critical to developing safe and effective therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria K Baxter
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Mark T Heise
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Nacer A, Movila A, Baer K, Mikolajczak SA, Kappe SHI, Frevert U. Neuroimmunological blood brain barrier opening in experimental cerebral malaria. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002982. [PMID: 23133375 PMCID: PMC3486917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum malaria is responsible for nearly one million annual deaths worldwide. Because of the difficulty in monitoring the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria in humans, we conducted a study in various mouse models to better understand disease progression in experimental cerebral malaria (ECM). We compared the effect on the integrity of the blood brain barrier (BBB) and the histopathology of the brain of P. berghei ANKA, a known ECM model, P. berghei NK65, generally thought not to induce ECM, P. yoelii 17XL, originally reported to induce human cerebral malaria-like histopathology, and P. yoelii YM. As expected, P. berghei ANKA infection caused neurological signs, cerebral hemorrhages, and BBB dysfunction in CBA/CaJ and Swiss Webster mice, while Balb/c and A/J mice were resistant. Surprisingly, PbNK induced ECM in CBA/CaJ mice, while all other mice were resistant. P. yoelii 17XL and P. yoelii YM caused lethal hyperparasitemia in all mouse strains; histopathological alterations, BBB dysfunction, or neurological signs were not observed. Intravital imaging revealed that infected erythrocytes containing mature parasites passed slowly through capillaries making intimate contact with the endothelium, but did not arrest. Except for relatively rare microhemorrhages, mice with ECM presented no obvious histopathological alterations that would explain the widespread disruption of the BBB. Intravital imaging did reveal, however, that postcapillary venules, but not capillaries or arterioles, from mice with ECM, but not hyperparasitemia, exhibit platelet marginalization, extravascular fibrin deposition, CD14 expression, and extensive vascular leakage. Blockage of LFA-1 mediated cellular interactions prevented leukocyte adhesion, vascular leakage, neurological signs, and death from ECM. The endothelial barrier-stabilizing mediators imatinib and FTY720 inhibited vascular leakage and neurological signs and prolonged survival to ECM. Thus, it appears that neurological signs and coma in ECM are due to regulated opening of paracellular-junctional and transcellular-vesicular fluid transport pathways at the neuroimmunological BBB. Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest of all human malaria parasites, can cause cerebral malaria, a severe and frequently fatal complication of this devastating disease. Young children are predominantly at risk and may progress rapidly from the first signs of neurological involvement to coma and death. Here we used a murine model for high-resolution in vivo imaging to demonstrate that cerebral malaria, but not high parasitemia and severe anemia, is associated with extensive leakage of fluid from cerebral blood vessels into the brain tissue. This vascular leakage occurs downstream from the capillary bed, at the neuroimmunological blood brain barrier, a site recently recognized as the immune cell entry point into the brain during neuroinflammation. Vascular leakage is closely associated with the appearance of neurological signs suggesting that the ultimate cause of brain edema, coma and death in cerebral malaria is a widespread opening of the neuroimmunological blood brain barrier. Indeed, vascular leakage, neurological signs, and death from ECM can be prevented with endothelial barrier-stabilizing drugs. Based on the unique role of this anatomical feature in neuroinflammation, our findings are expected to have implications for other infectious diseases and autoimmune disorders of the central nervous system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adela Nacer
- Division of Medical Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Alexandru Movila
- Division of Medical Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Kerstin Baer
- Division of Medical Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | | | - Stefan H. I. Kappe
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Ute Frevert
- Division of Medical Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Vaccinia virus-induced smallpox postvaccinal encephalitis in case of blood–brain barrier damage. Vaccine 2012; 30:1397-405. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.08.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
5
|
Paintlia AS, Paintlia MK, Singh I, Skoff RB, Singh AK. Combination therapy of lovastatin and rolipram provides neuroprotection and promotes neurorepair in inflammatory demyelination model of multiple sclerosis. Glia 2009; 57:182-93. [PMID: 18720408 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Drug combination therapies for central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS) are gaining momentum over monotherapy. Over the past decade, both in vitro and in vivo studies established that statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors) and rolipram (phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor; blocks the degradation of intracellular cyclic AMP) can prevent the progression of MS in affected individuals via different mechanisms of action. In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of lovastatin (LOV) and rolipram (RLP) in combination therapy to promote neurorepair in an inflammatory CNS demyelination model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Combination treatment with suboptimal doses of these drugs in an established case of EAE (clinical disease score > or = 2.0) significantly attenuated the infiltration of inflammatory cells and protected myelin sheath and axonal integrity in the CNS. It was accompanied with elevated level of cyclic AMP and activation of its associated protein kinase A. Interestingly, combination treatment with these drugs impeded neurodegeneration and promoted neurorepair in established EAE animals (clinical disease score > or = 3.5) as verified by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunohistochemistry and electron microscopic analyses. These effects of combination therapy were minimal and/or absent with either drug alone in these settings. Together, these data suggest that combination therapy with LOV and RLP has the potential to provide neuroprotection and promote neurorepair in MS, and may have uses in other related CNS demyelinating diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ajaib S Paintlia
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Getts DR, Terry RL, Getts MT, Müller M, Rana S, Shrestha B, Radford J, Van Rooijen N, Campbell IL, King NJC. Ly6c+ "inflammatory monocytes" are microglial precursors recruited in a pathogenic manner in West Nile virus encephalitis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 205:2319-37. [PMID: 18779347 PMCID: PMC2556789 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20080421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In a lethal West Nile virus (WNV) model, central nervous system infection triggered a threefold increase in CD45int/CD11b+/CD11c− microglia at days 6–7 postinfection (p.i.). Few microglia were proliferating, suggesting that the increased numbers were derived from a migratory precursor cell. Depletion of “circulating” (Gr1−(Ly6Clo)CX3CR1+) and “inflammatory” (Gr1hi/Ly6Chi/CCR2+) classical monocytes during infection abrogated the increase in microglia. C57BL/6 chimeras reconstituted with cFMS–enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) bone marrow (BM) showed large numbers of peripherally derived (GFP+) microglia expressing GR1+(Ly6C+) at day 7 p.i., suggesting that the inflammatory monocyte is a microglial precursor. This was confirmed by adoptive transfer of labeled BM (Ly6Chi/CD115+) or circulating inflammatory monocytes that trafficked to the WNV-infected brain and expressed a microglial phenotype. CCL2 is a chemokine that is highly expressed during WNV infection and important in inflammatory monocyte trafficking. Neutralization of CCL2 not only reduced the number of GFP+ microglia in the brain during WNV infection but prolonged the life of infected animals. Therefore, CCL2-dependent inflammatory monocyte migration is critical for increases in microglia during WNV infection and may also play a pathogenic role during WNV encephalitis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Getts
- The Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Paintlia AS, Paintlia MK, Singh I, Singh AK. Combined medication of lovastatin with rolipram suppresses severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Exp Neurol 2008; 214:168-80. [PMID: 18775426 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2008] [Revised: 07/23/2008] [Accepted: 07/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Combinations of new medications or existing therapies are gaining momentum over monotherapy to treat central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent studies established that statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors) are effective in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an MS model and are promising candidates for future MS medication. Another drug, rolipram (phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor) ameliorates the clinical severity of EAE via induction of various anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. In this study, we tested whether combining the suboptimal doses of these drugs can suppress the severity of EAE. Prophylactic studies revealed that combined treatment with suboptimal doses of statins perform better than their individually administered optimal doses in EAE as evidenced by delayed clinical scores, reduced disease severity, and rapid recovery. Importantly, combination therapy suppressed the progression of disease in an established EAE case via attenuation of inflammation, axonal loss and demyelination. Combination treatment attenuated inflammatory T(H)1 and T(H)17 immune responses and induced T(H)2-biased immunity in the peripheral and CNS as revealed by serological, quantitative, and immunosorbant assay-based analyses. Moreover, the expansion of T regulatory (CD25(+)/Foxp3(+)) cells and self-immune tolerance was apparent in the CNS. These effects of combined drugs were reduced or minimal with either drug alone in this setting. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that the combination of these drugs suppresses EAE severity and provides neuroprotection thereby suggesting that this pharmacological approach could be a better future therapeutic strategy to treat MS patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ajaib S Paintlia
- Darby Children's Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Forsbach A, Nemorin JG, Montino C, Müller C, Samulowitz U, Vicari AP, Jurk M, Mutwiri GK, Krieg AM, Lipford GB, Vollmer J. Identification of RNA sequence motifs stimulating sequence-specific TLR8-dependent immune responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:3729-38. [PMID: 18322178 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.6.3729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The TLRs 7, 8, and 9 stimulate innate immune responses upon recognizing pathogen nucleic acids. U-rich RNA sequences were recently discovered that stimulate human TLR7/8-mediated or murine TLR7-mediated immune effects. In this study we identified single-stranded RNA sequences containing defined sequence motifs that either preferentially activate human TLR8-mediated as opposed to TLR7- or TLR7/8-mediated immune responses. The identified TLR8 RNA motifs signal via TLR8 and fail to induce IFN-alpha from TLR7-expressing plasmacytoid dendritic cells but induce the secretion of Th1-like and proinflammatory cytokines from TLR8-expressing immune cells such as monocytes or myeloid dendritic cells. In contrast, RNA sequences containing the TLR7/8 motif signal via TLR7 and TLR8 and stimulate cytokine secretion from both TLR7- and TLR8-positive immunocytes. The TLR8-specific RNA sequences are able to trigger cytokine responses from human and bovine but not from mouse, rat, and porcine immune cells, suggesting that these species lack the capability to respond properly to TLR8 RNA ligands. In summary, we describe two classes of single-stranded TLR7/8 and TLR8 RNA agonists with diverse target cell and species specificities and immune response profiles.
Collapse
|
9
|
Morrey JD, Olsen AL, Siddharthan V, Motter NE, Wang H, Taro BS, Chen D, Ruffner D, Hall JO. Increased blood-brain barrier permeability is not a primary determinant for lethality of West Nile virus infection in rodents. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:467-473. [PMID: 18198377 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.83345-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability was evaluated in mice and hamsters infected with West Nile virus (WNV, flavivirus) as compared to those infected with Semliki Forest (alphavirus) and Banzi (flavivirus) viruses. BBB permeability was determined by measurement of fluorescence in brain homogenates or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) after intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of sodium fluorescein, by macroscopic examination of brains after i.p. injection of Evans blue, or by measurement of total protein in CSF compared to serum. Lethal infection of BALB/c mice with Semliki Forest virus and Banzi virus caused the brain : serum fluorescence ratios to increase from a baseline of 2-4% to as high as 11 and 15%, respectively. Lethal infection of BALB/c mice with WNV did not increase BBB permeability. When C57BL/6 mice were used, BBB permeability was increased in some, but not all, of the WNV-infected animals. A procedure was developed to measure BBB permeability in live WNV-infected hamsters by comparing the fluorescence in the CSF, aspirated from the cisterna magnum, with the fluorescence in the serum. Despite a time-dependent tendency towards increased BBB permeability in some WNV-infected hamsters, the highest BBB permeability values did not correlate with mortality. These data indicated that a measurable increase in BBB permeability was not a primary determinant for lethality of WNV infection in rodents. The lack of a consistent increase in BBB permeability in WNV-infected rodents has implications for the understanding of viral entry, viral pathogenesis and accessibility of the CNS of rodents to drugs or effector molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John D Morrey
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Aaron L Olsen
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Venkatraman Siddharthan
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Neil E Motter
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Hong Wang
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Brandon S Taro
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Dong Chen
- Center for Integrated Biosystems, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Duane Ruffner
- Center for Integrated Biosystems, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| | - Jeffery O Hall
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4700, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Miu J, Mitchell AJ, Müller M, Carter SL, Manders PM, McQuillan JA, Saunders BM, Ball HJ, Lu B, Campbell IL, Hunt NH. Chemokine gene expression during fatal murine cerebral malaria and protection due to CXCR3 deficiency. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:1217-30. [PMID: 18178862 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.2.1217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral malaria (CM) can be a fatal manifestation of Plasmodium falciparum infection. Using murine models of malaria, we found much greater up-regulation of a number of chemokine mRNAs, including those for CXCR3 and its ligands, in the brain during fatal murine CM (FMCM) than in a model of non-CM. Expression of CXCL9 and CXCL10 RNA was localized predominantly to the cerebral microvessels and in adjacent glial cells, while expression of CCL5 was restricted mainly to infiltrating lymphocytes. The majority of mice deficient in CXCR3 were found to be protected from FMCM, and this protection was associated with a reduction in the number of CD8+ T cells in brain vessels as well as reduced expression of perforin and FasL mRNA. Adoptive transfer of CD8+ cells from C57BL/6 mice with FMCM abrogated this protection in CXCR3-/- mice. Moreover, there were decreased mRNA levels for the proinflammatory cytokines IFN-gamma and lymphotoxin-alpha in the brains of mice protected from FMCM. These data suggest a role for CXCR3 in the pathogenesis of FMCM through the recruitment and activation of pathogenic CD8+ T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Miu
- Molecular Immunopathology Unit, Bosch Institute, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Olsen AL, Morrey JD, Smee DF, Sidwell RW. Correlation between breakdown of the blood-brain barrier and disease outcome of viral encephalitis in mice. Antiviral Res 2006; 75:104-12. [PMID: 17223204 PMCID: PMC2040264 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2006.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2006] [Revised: 11/28/2006] [Accepted: 11/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Changes in the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) were evaluated in two mouse models of viral encephalitis. The ability of sodium fluorescein (NaFl) to cross the BBB from the serum into the central nervous system was assayed in animals inoculated with virulent strains of either Banzi or Semliki Forest viruses. To test the hypothesis that increases in BBB permeability were associated with poor disease outcome subsequent experiments measured BBB permeability in conjunction with treatment with the interferon inducer Ampligen (poly I:poly C(12)U). A single intraperitoneal injection of Ampligen (1 mg/kg) administered either 24 h or 4-6 h before, but not 24 h after, virus inoculation with Banzi virus provided significant improvements in survival, viral brain titers, weight change and BBB permeability. In comparison, a similar treatment with Ampligen administered either 24 h or 4-6 h before inoculation with Semliki Forest virus was able to significantly improve weight change, and BBB permeability, but only animals receiving Ampligen 4-6 h pre-virus showed a significantly improved mortality. In general, it was found that evaluation of BBB permeability was a more sensitive indicator of disease outcome and the antiviral efficacy Ampligen than either weight change or brain viral titers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron L Olsen
- Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, 5600 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5600, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Jerusalmi A, Morris-Downes MM, Sheahan BJ, Atkins GJ. Effect of intranasal administration of semliki forest virus recombinant particles expressing reporter and cytokine genes on the progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Mol Ther 2003; 8:886-94. [PMID: 14664790 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2003.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We have initiated studies to determine the feasibility of employing the Semliki Forest virus (SFV) expression system as a central nervous system (CNS) vector. We investigated the effects of infecting Balb/c mice intranasally (i.n.) with recombinant SFV particles expressing the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) reporter gene. EGFP expression was detected by fluorescence microscopy in the olfactory bulb as early as 1 day postinfection. No pathological changes were associated with infection. Viral RNA could be detected in the olfactory mucosa only, whereas fluorescence was detected in axons in the olfactory bulb, indicating that only the expressed protein was present. A vector expressing interleukin 10 (IL-10) was constructed and shown to induce good cytokine expression in cultured cells. IL-10 expression in the nasal passage and olfactory bulb of infected mice was enhanced following i.n. administration of such particles. Mice induced for experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) were treated i.n. with vectors expressing EGFP and IL-10 and with empty vector. The EGFP-expressing and empty vectors were found to exacerbate EAE, whereas that expressing IL-10 ameliorated EAE. It is concluded that the mice showed a significant biological response when treated i.n. with recombinant SFV particles and that such particles administered by the i.n. route have potential as a noninvasive vector for protein delivery to the CNS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alan Jerusalmi
- Department of Microbiology, Moyne Institute of Preventive Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Keogh B, Sheahan BJ, Atkins GJ, Mills KHG. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases ameliorates blood-brain barrier disruption and neuropathological lesions caused by avirulent Semliki Forest virus infection. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2003; 94:185-90. [PMID: 12909414 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-2427(03)00082-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Semliki Forest virus (SFV) infection of mice is a useful model of viral neuropathogenesis in animals and avirulent strains such as SFV-A7 induce immune-mediated demyelination and death of neurones by necrosis and apoptosis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been implicated in various diseases including arthritis and cancer in many species. In this report, we show that MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression is induced in the brains of mice infected i.n. with SFV-A7. Treatment of mice with the pan MMP inhibitor GM6001 ameliorated the development of SFV-induced neuropathological lesions via an effect on the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Low levels of neuronal necrosis and demyelination in GM6001-treated mice correlated with localisation of fibrinogen staining to thin-walled blood vessels and less intense staining of the perivascular neuropil.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Keogh
- Immune Regulation Research Group, Biochemistry Department, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Peltoniemi J, Setälä N, Broberg E, Röyttä M, Hukkanen V, Salmi AA, Erälinna JP. Semliki Forest virus infection is enhanced in Th1-prone SJL mice but not in Th2-prone BALB/c mice during Linomide-induced immunomodulation. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 132:83-92. [PMID: 12417437 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(02)00312-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Linomide (quinoline-3-carboxamide) is an immunomodulator with diverse effects on the immune system. Its beneficial effects on experimental autoimmune disease models have been linked to downregulation of Th1 cytokines and altered macrophage functions. We studied this effect of downregulation of Th1-type of immune response on Semliki Forest A7 virus infection in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) susceptible Th1-prone SJL mice and in EAE-resistant Th2-prone BALB/c mice. We aimed at addressing the target-cell population of Linomide responsible for this Th1 downregulation. Treatment with Linomide led to increased virus infection in brain and this effect coincided with decreased production of IL-12 and IFN-gamma from stimulated spleen cells in SJL mice. In contrast, IL-12 and IFN-gamma expression were increased in Linomide-treated BALB/c mice. Treatment of infected SJL mice resulted in decreased percentage of CD11b+ and CD11c+ cells. Thus, the target cell population of Linomide may be antigen-presenting cells (APC) which are considered as candidates for regulatory cells of Th1/Th2 balance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Peltoniemi
- Department of Virology, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 13, 20520, Turku, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Proescholdt MA, Jacobson S, Tresser N, Oldfield EH, Merrill MJ. Vascular endothelial growth factor is expressed in multiple sclerosis plaques and can induce inflammatory lesions in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis rats. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2002; 61:914-25. [PMID: 12387457 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/61.10.914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The active lesions in multiple sclerosis (MS) are characterized by blood-brain-barrier (BBB) breakdown, upregulation of adhesion molecules on capillary endothelial cells, and perivascular inflammation, suggesting that altered vessel permeability and activated endothelial cells are involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mediates multiple aspects of blood vessel physiology, including regulation of growth, permeability, and inflammation. To investigate a possible relationship between VEGF expression and CNS autoimmune disease, we examined VEGF expression in MS plaques compared to normal white matter by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. VEGF expression was consistently upregulated in both acute and chronic MS plaques. We also examined VEGF expression during the course of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) in rats. VEGF-positive cells with astrocytic morphology increased in the spinal cord during the development of EAE and were found in association with inflammatory cells. Furthermore, intracerebral infusion of VEGF in animals previously immunized with myelin basic protein induced an inflammatory response in the brain, whereas infusion of vehicle, or infusion of VEGF in naive animals, did not. These results suggest that overexpression of VEGF may exacerbate the inflammatory response in autoimmune diseases of the CNS by inducing focal BBB breakdown and migration of inflammatory cells into the lesions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin A Proescholdt
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1414, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Dietrich JB. The adhesion molecule ICAM-1 and its regulation in relation with the blood-brain barrier. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 128:58-68. [PMID: 12098511 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(02)00114-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is formed by high resistance tight junctions within the capillary endothelium perfusing the vertebrate brain. Normal BBB maintains a unique microenvironment within the central nervous system (CNS). In neurodegenerative disorders (for example multiple sclerosis, MS), the BBB becomes impaired. Perivascular cells (astrocytes, macrophages and microglial cells) and brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMEC) produce various inflammatory factors that affect the BBB permeability and the expression of adhesion molecules. Indeed, cytokines can stimulate the expression of several adhesion molecules on brain microvascular endothelial cells. Among these adhesion molecules, the intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) binds to its leukocyte ligands and allows activated leukocytes entry into the CNS. This review is dealing with the expression and regulation of ICAM-1 in relation with several properties of the BBB. Particularly, the role of ICAM-1 in the control of the leukocyte traffic into the CNS, as well as in cerebral malaria and in CNS infection by viruses, is discussed.
Collapse
|
17
|
Veräjänkorva E, Setälä N, Teros T, Salmi AA, Pöllänen P. Testicular-associated immune deviation: flushing of the testicular lymph sinusoids induces immunosuppression and inhibits formation of EAE in SJL mice. Scand J Immunol 2002; 55:478-83. [PMID: 11975759 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3083.2002.01083.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Injection of antigen into the testis has been previously proved to induce systemic tolerance in rats. Testicular-associated immune deviation (TAID) has thus far been induced and studied only in the rat and the present study was planned to study if TAID could be induced in mice as well. In addition, it was studied if TAID is organ-specific. Mouse spinal cord homogenate (MSCH), as well as phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), was injected into the testes of SJL and BALB/c male mice before the induction of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis into the animals. The control animals received MSCH intramuscularly into the hamstring muscles. The animals were followed and graded daily for symptoms attending the next 30 days. In the SJL strain, mice treated with an intratesticular (i.t.) MSCH injection prior to the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) had the shortest duration of symptoms and the longest time to the onset of the first symptoms. In addition, the mice injected i.t. with PBS had as mild symptoms as those injected with MSCH. There was a statistically significant difference, however, between the groups injected either with MSCH or PBS intratesticularly. In general, mice treated with an intramuscular injection of MSCH got sick first, and had the most severe symptoms for the longest duration of time. In the case of the BALB/c mice, there were no statistical differences between the groups investigated. It is concluded that TAID is a testis- and strain-specific phenomenon in the mouse, and not specific to the rat. In addition, i.t. injection of PBS is just as effective in creating tolerance against EAE as i.t. injection of MSCH in the SJL mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Veräjänkorva
- Department of Anatomy, the Turku Graduate School of Clinical Sciences, University of Turku, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kyrkanides S, O'Banion MK, Whiteley PE, Daeschner JC, Olschowka JA. Enhanced glial activation and expression of specific CNS inflammation-related molecules in aged versus young rats following cortical stab injury. J Neuroimmunol 2001; 119:269-77. [PMID: 11585630 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(01)00404-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Aging is associated with increased glial responsiveness that may enhance the brain's susceptibility to injury and disease. To determine whether unique age-related molecular responses occur in brain injury, we assessed mRNA levels of representative central nervous system (CNS) inflammation-related molecules in young (3 months) and aged (36 months) Fisher 344/Brown Norwegian F1 hybrid rats following cortical stab. Enhanced glial activation in older animals was accompanied by increased expression of a subset of inflammation-related mRNAs, including IL-1beta, TNFalpha, IL-6, ICAM-1, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and complement 3alpha-chain 1 (C3alpha1). Recognition of these age-specific differences may guide development of novel treatment regimes for older individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Kyrkanides
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 603, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kyrkanides S, Olschowka JA, Williams JP, Hansen JT, O'Banion MK. TNF alpha and IL-1beta mediate intercellular adhesion molecule-1 induction via microglia-astrocyte interaction in CNS radiation injury. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 95:95-106. [PMID: 10229119 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(98)00270-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Radiation injury to the central nervous system (CNS) results in glial activation accompanied by expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules. In this study we demonstrate intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) induction in the irradiated mouse brain at the mRNA and protein levels. Immunocytochemical analysis revealed that ICAM-1 protein was primarily expressed in endothelial cells and microglia. In vitro, ionizing radiation significantly induces TNF alpha, IL-1beta and ICAM-1 mRNA in primary microglia cultures. Interestingly, although ionizing radiation activated primary astrocyte cultures, it did not induce ICAM-1 expression. However, exposure of astrocytes to conditioned medium collected from irradiated microglia resulted in ICAM-1 induction, which was abrogated when the conditioned medium was pre-incubated with neutralizing antibodies raised against murine TNF alpha and IL-1beta. These results indicate that pro-inflammatory cytokines may be necessary for ICAM-1 expression in astrocytes in CNS radiation injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Kyrkanides
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Määttä JA, Sjöholm UR, Nygårdas PT, Salmi AA, Hinkkanen AE. Neutrophils secreting tumor necrosis factor alpha infiltrate the central nervous system of BALB/c mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 1998; 90:162-75. [PMID: 9817444 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(98)00135-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) can be induced in resistant BALB/c mice by ultrasound-formed adjuvant emulsion. In contrast to susceptible mouse strains large numbers of neutrophils secreting TNF-alpha occupied the central nervous system (CNS) of BALB/c mice with severe EAE, whereas only small numbers of macrophages and CD4+ T-cells could be detected. CNS infiltration was preceded with activation of microglial cells. Ultrasound formed adjuvant induced early IFN-gamma expression in popliteal lymph nodes of BALB/c mice, whereas conventional adjuvant induced delayed IFN-gamma production. Although the clinical outcome of EAE was similar to that seen in susceptible mice, the pathogenesis was distinct having possible implications on the different forms seen in multiple sclerosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J A Määttä
- Turku Immunology Centre and Department of Virology, University of Turku, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Erälinna JP, Röyttä M, Hukkanen V, Zinhu D, Salmi AA, Salonen R. Selective downregulation of Th1 response by Linomide reduces autoimmunity but increases susceptibility to viral infection in BALB/c and SJL mice. J Neuroimmunol 1998; 88:165-76. [PMID: 9688338 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(98)00115-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Susceptibility to autoimmunity has been associated with polarization of Th1/Th2 balance in immune system towards the Th1-type of reactivity. We report here that orally administered quinoline-3-carboxamide (Linomide) selectively downregulates Th1 response in BALB/c and SJL mice, leading to reduction of autoimmunity in the BALB/c and SJL models of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). This was shown by prevention of EAE in Th1 responding SJL mice and partial downregulation of EAE in Th2-prone BALB/c mice. In a BALB/c model of EAE, in which infection with Semliki Forest A7 virus (SFV-A7) is used for enhancement of autoimmunity, clinical signs of EAE were reduced while mortality due to viral infection in the CNS was enhanced. Selective downregulation of the Th1 response by Linomide also rendered initially resistant SJL mice susceptible to SFV-A7 CNS infection. This was shown by immunohistochemical detection of extensive deposits of viral antigen in numerous perivascular foci within the CNS and abolished virus antigen-specific lymphocyte reactivity in Linomide-treated SJL mice. In addition, analysis of spleen cell cytokine mRNA production profile revealed decreased number of IFN-gamma producing cells in both SJL and BALB/c mice, reduced number of IL-12p40 producing cells in SJL and increased number of 12p40 producing cells in BALB/c mice along with slightly increased IL-4 production in both strains of mice. These results indicate that oral treatment with Linomide induces selective downregulation of Th1 reactivity causing reduction of autoimmunity and increased susceptibility to SFV-A7 CNS infection. Selective downregulation of Th1 response is a desired effect in the treatment of autoimmune diseases but our results suggest that the benefits have to be balanced against the possible loss in immunoprotection against pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J P Erälinna
- Department of Virology, University of Turku, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Soilu-Hänninen M, Röyttä M, Salmi A, Salonen R. Therapy with antibody against leukocyte integrin VLA-4 (CD49d) is effective and safe in virus-facilitated experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 1997; 72:95-105. [PMID: 9003249 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(96)00158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) is facilitated in resistant BALB/c mice by intraperitoneal infection with an avirulent Semliki Forest virus (SFV-A7). Viral infection increases the incidence of EAE from 15-30% to 60-90% and speeds up appearance of paralysis from 24 to 14 days. In this paper, we describe treatment of virus-facilitated EAE with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against leukocyte and/or endothelial cell adhesion molecules. Therapy with mAb against ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1) had a modest effect, but caused hemorrhagic brain and spinal cord lesions. Therapy with mAb against Mac-1 (alpha M beta 2-integrin) was well tolerated but had no effect. Therapy with mAb against VLA-4 (alpha 4 beta 1-integrin) was safe, diminished both clinical and histopathological signs of EAE, decreased induction of VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) on brain vessels and diminished infiltration of VLA-4+ cells into the brain. The amount of viral antigen in the brain was not altered. We conclude that facilitation of leukocyte entry into the brain is a major mechanism for viral facilitation of EAE in the BALB/c mouse, and that facilitation can be inhibited by anti-adhesion therapy. This may have implications for treatment of relapses triggered by viral infections in multiple sclerosis.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/therapy
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/virology
- Immunohistochemistry
- Immunotherapy
- Integrin alpha4beta1
- Integrin beta1/immunology
- Integrins/immunology
- Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1/immunology
- Macrophage-1 Antigen/chemistry
- Macrophage-1 Antigen/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Receptors, Lymphocyte Homing/immunology
- Semliki forest virus/immunology
Collapse
|