The cytokine genes of Oncorhynchus masou formosanus include a defective interleukin-4/13A gene

Oncorhynchus masou formosanus (Formosa landlocked salmon) is a critically endangered salmonid fish endemic to Taiwan. To begin to understand how its drastic change in lifestyle from anadromous to exclusively river-dwelling is reflected in its immune genes, we characterized the genes encoding six cytokines (IL-2A, IL-2B, IL-4/13A, IL-4/13B1, IL-4/13B2, and IL-17A/F2a) important for T cell responses as no genomic data is available for this fish. Interestingly, all genes appeared homozygous indicative of a genetic bottleneck. The IL2 and IL17A/F2a genes and their products are highly similar to their characterized homologs in Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) and other salmonid fish. Two notable differences were observed in IL4/13 family important for type 2 immune responses. First, O. m. formosanus carries not only one but two genes encoding IL-4/13B1 proteins and expansions of these genes are present in other salmonid fish. Second, the OmfoIL4/13A gene carries a 228 bp deletion that results in a premature stop codon and hence a non-functional IL-4/13A cytokine. This suggests a reduced ability for T cell responses against parasitic infections in this species.

IL-4 activates ULK1/Atg9a/Rab9 in asthma, NLRP3 inflammasomes, and Golgi fragmentation by increasing autophagy flux and mitochondrial oxidative stress

During asthma, there is an intensification of pulmonary epithelial inflammation, mitochondrial oxidative stress, and Golgi apparatus fragmentation. However, the underlying mechanism remains largely unknown. Therefore, this study investigated the roles of ULK1, Atg9a, and Rab9 in epithelial inflammation, mitochondrial oxidative stress, and Golgi apparatus fragmentation. We found that ULK1 gene knockout reduced the infiltration of inflammatory cells, restored the imbalance of the Th1/Th2 ratio, and inhibited the formation of inflammatory bodies in the lung tissue of house dust mite-induced asthma mice. Moreover, we demonstrated that Atg9a interacted with ULK1 at S467. ULK1 phosphorylated Atg9a at S14. Treatment with ULK1 activator (LYN-1604) and ULK1 inhibitor (ULK-101) respectively promoted and inhibited inflammasome activation, indicating that the activation of inflammasome induced by house dust mite in asthma mice is dependent on ULK1. For validation of the in vivo results, we then used a lentivirus containing ULK1 wild type and ULK1-S467A genes to infect Beas-2b-ULK1-knockout cells and establish a stable cell line. The results suggest that the ULK1 S467 site is crucial for IL-4-induced inflammation and oxidative stress. Experimental verification confirmed that Atg9a was the superior signaling pathway of Rab9. Interestingly, we found for the first time that Rab9 played a very important role in inflammation-induced fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus. Inhibiting the activation of the ULK1/Atg9a/Rab9 signaling pathways can inhibit Golgi apparatus fragmentation and mitochondrial oxidative stress in asthma while reducing the production of NLRP3-mediated pulmonary epithelial inflammation.

Apoptotic cell identity induces distinct functional responses to IL-4 in efferocytic macrophages

Macrophages are functionally heterogeneous cells essential for apoptotic cell clearance. Apoptotic cells are defined by homogeneous characteristics, ignoring their original cell lineage identity. We found that in an interleukin-4 (IL-4)-enriched environment, the sensing of apoptotic neutrophils by macrophages triggered their tissue remodeling signature. Engulfment of apoptotic hepatocytes promoted a tolerogenic phenotype, whereas phagocytosis of T cells had little effect on IL-4-induced gene expression. In a mouse model of parasite-induced pathology, the transfer of macrophages conditioned with IL-4 and apoptotic neutrophils promoted parasitic egg clearance. Knockout of phagocytic receptors required for the uptake of apoptotic neutrophils and partially T cells, but not hepatocytes, exacerbated helminth infection. These findings suggest that the identity of apoptotic cells may contribute to the development of distinct IL-4-driven immune programs in macrophages.

Upregulation of IL4-induced gene 1 enzyme by B2 cells during melanoma progression impairs their antitumor properties

B cells present in human cutaneous melanoma have been associated with protective or detrimental effects on disease progression according to their phenotype. By using the RET model of spontaneous melanoma and adoptive transfer of B16 melanoma cells, we show that immature and follicular B2 (B2-FO) cells exert a protective effect on melanoma progression by promoting the generation of effector memory T cells and limiting the recruitment of polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Unfortunately, this beneficial effect progressively wanes as a consequence of enhanced expression of the IL4-induced gene 1 (IL4I1) enzyme by immature B cells and B2-FO cells. Endogenous IL4I1 selectively decreases CXCR5 expression in splenic immature B cells, subverting their trafficking to primary tumors and enhancing the production of IL-10 by B2 cells, thereby promoting an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Accordingly, B2 cells from RET IL4I1KO mice more efficiently controlled B16 melanoma growth than B2 cells from IL4I1-competent RET mice. Collectively, immature B cells and B2-FO cells are key actors in the control of melanoma growth, but their mobility and functions are differently impaired by IL4I1 overexpression during melanoma progression. Thus, our present data strongly urge us to associate an IL4I1 antagonist with current immunotherapy to improve the treatment of metastatic melanoma.

Construction of recombinant pseudorabies virus expressing PCV2 Cap, PCV3 Cap, and IL-4: investigation of their biological characteristics and immunogenicity

Background

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is a globally prevalent and recurrent pathogen that primarily causes slow growth and immunosuppression in pigs. Porcine circovirus type 3 (PCV3), a recently discovered virus, commonly leads to reproductive disorders in pigs and has been extensively disseminated worldwide. Infection with a single PCV subtype alone does not induce severe porcine circovirus-associated diseases (PCVD), whereas concurrent co-infection with PCV2 and PCV3 exacerbates the clinical manifestations. Pseudorabies (PR), a highly contagious disease in pigs, pose a significant threat to the swine industry in China.

Methods

In this study, recombinant strains named rPRV-2Cap/3Cap and rPRV-2Cap/3Cap/IL4 was constructed by using a variant strain XJ of pseudorabies virus (PRV) as the parental strain, with the TK/gE/gI genes deleted and simultaneous expression of PCV2 Cap, PCV3 Cap, and IL-4. The two recombinant strains obtained by CRISPR/Cas gE gene editing technology and homologous recombination technology has genetic stability in baby hamster Syrian kidney-21 (BHK-21) cells and is safe to mice.

Results

rPRV-2Cap/3Cap and rPRV-2Cap/3Cap/IL4 exhibited good safety and immunogenicity in mice, inducing high levels of antibodies, demonstrated 100% protection against the PRV challenge in mice, reduced viral loads and mitigated pathological changes in the heart, lungs, spleen, and lymph nodes during PCV2 challenge. Moreover, the recombinant viruses with the addition of IL-4 as a molecular adjuvant outperformed the non-addition group in most indicators.

Conclusion

rPRV-2Cap/3Cap and rPRV-2Cap/3Cap/IL4 hold promise as recombinant vaccines for the simultaneous prevention of PCV2, PCV3, and PRV, while IL-4, as a vaccine molecular adjuvant, effectively enhances the immune response of the vaccine.

rBet v 1a-BanLecwt induce upregulation of IL-10 and IFN-γ gene expression in Caco-2/THP-1 co-culture and secretion of IL-10 and IFN-γ/IL-4 levels in PBMCs of birch pollen allergic donors

Novel allergen immunotherapy (AIT) approaches necessitate the use of more effective and safe therapeutics, which can be accomplished by employing novel adjuvants for improved innate immune cell activation, as well as hypoallergenic allergen forms. In this study, we investigate the immunomodulatory effects of a chimera rBet v 1a-BanLecwt (rBv1a-BLwt; Cwt) composed of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1a and banana lectin (BanLecwt; BLwt) and two novel chimeras, rBv1l-BLH84T (rBet v 1l-BanLecH84T; C1) and rBLH84T-Bv1l (rBanLecH84T-Bet v 1l; C2), both composed of BLH84T and hypoallergenic birch pollen allergen Bv1l in the co-culture model Caco-2/THP-1, and PBMCs from donors with birch pollen allergy. The chimeric molecules rBv1l-BLH84T (C1) and rBLH84T-Bv1l (C2) were created in silico and then produced in E. coli using recombinant DNA technology. Real-time PCR analysis of gene expression following compound treatment in the co-culture model revealed that all three chimeras have the potential to induce the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 gene expression in Caco-2 cells and IFN-γ gene expression in THP-1 cells. Sandwich ELISA revealed that Cwt increased IL-10 secretion and IFN-/IL-4 levels in PBMCs from birch pollen allergic donors, whereas C1 and C2 were less effective. The findings suggest that Cwt should be analyzed further due to its potential benefit in AIT.

STAT6 mutations enriched at diffuse large B-cell lymphoma relapse reshape the tumor microenvironment

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) relapses in approximately 40% of patients following frontline therapy. We reported that STAT6D419 mutations are enriched in relapsed/refractory DLBCL (rrDLBCL) samples, suggesting that JAK/STAT signaling plays a role in therapeutic resistance. We hypothesized that STAT6D419 mutations can improve DLBCL cell survival by reprogramming the microenvironment to sustain STAT6 activation. Thus, we investigated the role of STAT6D419 mutations on DLBCL cell growth and its microenvironment. We found that phospho-STAT6D419N was retained in the nucleus longer than phospho-STAT6WT following IL-4 stimulation, and STAT6D419N recognized a more restricted DNA-consensus sequence than STAT6WT. Upon IL-4 induction, STAT6D419N expression led to a higher magnitude of gene expression changes, but in a more selective list of gene targets compared with STATWT. The most significantly expressed genes induced by STAT6D419N were those implicated in survival, proliferation, migration, and chemotaxis, in particular CCL17. This chemokine, also known as TARC, attracts helper T-cells to the tumor microenvironment, especially in Hodgkin's lymphoma. To this end, in DLBCL, phospho-STAT6+ rrDLBCL cells had a greater proportion of infiltrating CD4+ T-cells than phospho-STAT6- tumors. Our findings suggest that STAT6D419 mutations in DLBCL lead to cell autonomous changes, enhanced signaling, and altered composition of the tumor microenvironment.

Eosinophils promote CD8+ T cell memory generation to potentiate anti-bacterial immunity

Memory CD8+ T cell generation is crucial for pathogen elimination and effective vaccination against infection. The cellular and molecular circuitry that underlies the generation of memory CD8+ T cells remains elusive. Eosinophils can modulate inflammatory allergic responses and interact with lymphocytes to regulate their functions in immune defense. Here we report that eosinophils are required for the generation of memory CD8+ T cells by inhibiting CD8+ T cell apoptosis. Eosinophil-deficient mice display significantly impaired memory CD8+ T cell response and weakened resistance against Listeria monocytogenes (L.m.) infection. Mechanistically, eosinophils secrete interleukin-4 (IL-4) to inhibit JNK/Caspase-3 dependent apoptosis of CD8+ T cells upon L.m. infection in vitro. Furthermore, active eosinophils are recruited into the spleen and secrete more IL-4 to suppress CD8+ T cell apoptosis during early stage of L.m. infection in vivo. Adoptive transfer of wild-type (WT) eosinophils but not IL-4-deficient eosinophils into eosinophil-deficient mice could rescue the impaired CD8+ T cell memory responses. Together, our findings suggest that eosinophil-derived IL-4 promotes the generation of CD8+ T cell memory and enhances immune defense against L.m. infection. Our study reveals a new adjuvant role of eosinophils in memory T cell generation and provides clues for enhancing the vaccine potency via targeting eosinophils and related cytokines.

Genetic profile of adaptive immune traits and relationships with parasite resistance and productivity in Scottish Blackface sheep

Gastrointestinal (GI) parasites cause significant production losses in grazing ruminants which can be mitigated by breeding animals resistant to disease. Lymphocyte cytokine production and parasite-specific Immunoglobulin A (IgA) are adaptive immune traits associated with immunity to GI parasites. To explore the utility of these traits for selective breeding purposes, this study estimated the genetic parameters of the immune traits in sheep and assessed their relationship with disease and productivity traits. Whole blood stimulation assays were performed on 1 040 Scottish Blackface lambs at two months of age in 2016-2017. Blood was stimulated with either pokeweed mitogen (PWM), a non-specific activator of lymphocytes, and Teladorsagia circumcincta (T-ci) larval antigen to activate parasite-specific T lymphocytes. The type of adaptive immune response was determined by quantifying production of cytokines interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-4, and IL-10, which relate to T-helper type (Th) 1, Th2 and regulatory T cell responses, respectively. Serum T-ci specific IgA was also quantified. Heritabilities were estimated for each immune trait by univariate analyses. Genetic and phenotypic correlations were estimated between different immune traits, and between immune traits vs. disease and productivity traits that were recorded at three months of age. Disease phenotypes were expressed as faecal egg counts (FEC) of nematode parasites (Strongyles and Nematodirus), faecal oocyst counts (FOC) of coccidian parasites, and faecal soiling score; production was measured as lamb live weight. Significant genetic variation was observed in all immune response traits. Heritabilities of cytokine production varied from low (0.14 ± 0.06) to very high (0.77 ± 0.09) and were always significantly greater than zero (P < 0.05). IgA heritability was found to be moderate (0.41 ± 0.09). Negative associations previously identified between IFN-γ production and FOC, and IL-4 production and strongyle FEC, were not evident in this study, potentially due to the time-lag between immune and parasitology measures. Instead, a positive genetic correlation was found between FOC and PWM-induced IFN-γ production, while a negative genetic correlation was found between FOC and T-ci induced IL-10. Live weight was negatively genetically correlated with IFN-γ responses. Overall, IFN-γ and IL-4 responses were positively correlated, providing little evidence of cross-regulation of Th1 and Th2 immunity within individual sheep. Furthermore, T-ci specific IgA was highly positively correlated with PWM-induced IL-10, indicating a possible role for this cytokine in IgA production. Our results suggest that while genetic selection for adaptive immune response traits is possible and may be beneficial for parasite control, selection of high IFN-γ responsiveness may negatively affect productivity.

The immune enhancing effect of antimicrobial peptide LLv on broilers chickens

To evaluate the effect and its mechanism of heat-resistant antimicrobial peptide LLv on broilers, three hundred 1-day-old healthy AA+ female broilers were allocated into 5 groups with 6 replicates in each group and 10 birds in each replicate. Birds were given a basal diet, an antibiotic diet (10.2 mg/kg chlortetracycline hydrochloride), and the basal diet supplemented with 10, 50, and 100 mg/kg LLv for 42 d, respectively. Compared with the group which birds were fed an antibiotic-free basal diet (control group), supplementing 100 mg/kg LLv increased 21-day IgA, IgM, IL-4, AIV-Ab, IFN-γ levels and 42-day IgA, IgM, IL-4, AIV-Ab levels and reduced 42-day IL-1 levels in serum (P < 0.05). Compared with antibiotic group, the 10 and 50 mg/kg LLv decreased 42-day IgM levels in serum (P < 0.05). The 100 mg/kg LLv increased 21-day AIV-Ab levels and 42-day IL-4, AIV-Ab levels and reduced 42-day IL-1 levels in serum (P < 0.05). Compared with control group, the 100 mg/kg LLv increased the expression rate of sIgA secretory cells and sIgA content in jejunal mucosa at 21 d and 42 d (P < 0.05), which did not differ from antibiotic group (P > 0.05). Compared with antibiotic group, the 10 mg/kg LLv reduced 21-day sIgA content and the 50 mg/kg LLv reduced 42-d the expression rate of sIgA secretory cells in jejunal mucosa (P < 0.05). Compared with control group, the 100 mg/kg LLv increased the expression of TCR, IL-15, CD28, BAFF, CD86, CD83, MHC-II, and CD40 genes in jejunal mucosa at 21 d and 42 d (P < 0.05). Compared with antibiotic group, the 100 mg/kg LLv increased the expression of 21-day BAFF, CD40, MHC-II, CD83 genes and the expression of 42-day BAFF, TCR, IL-15, CD40, CD83 genes in jejunal mucosa (P < 0.05). The results showed that the addition of LLv to the ration had a promotional effect on the immune function of broiler chickens.

Down-Regulation of INSR Restores Th17/Treg Immune Balance and Alleviates Airway Hyperviscosity in Asthmatic Mice via Inactivation of STAT3 Pathway

BACKGROUND

Allergic asthma (AA) is a prevalent chronic airway inflammation disease. In this study, this study aims to investigate the biological functions and potential regulatory mechanisms of the insulin receptor (INSR) in the progression of AA.

METHODS

BALB/c mice (n = 48) were randomly divided into the following groups: control group, AA group, AA+Lentivirus (Lv)-vector short hairpin RNA (shRNA) group, AA+Lv-vector group, AA+Lv-INSR shRNA group, and AA+Lv-INSR group. The pulmonary index was calculated. mRNA and protein expression levels of INSR, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), phosphorylated-STAT3 (p-STAT3), phosphorylated-JAK2 (p-JAK2), alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), febrile neutropenia (FN), mucin 5AC (MUC5AC), and mucin 5B (MUC5B) were examined using reverse-transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blot assays. Positive expressions of INSR, retinoic acid-related orphan receptor gamma-t (RORγt), and forkhead box protein P3 (Foxp3) were quantified by immunohistochemistry. Fluorescence intensities of α-SMA and FN were detected by immunofluorescence. Pathological morphology was observed through hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, Masson staining, and Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) staining. Contents of immunoglobulin E (IgE), interleukin-6 (IL-6), eotaxin, interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-13 (IL-13), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin-17 (IL-17), and interleukin-10 (IL-10) were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The percentage of T helper 17 (Th17) and regulatory T (Treg) cells was determined through flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, expression levels of INSR, p-STAT3, p-JAK2, α-SMA, FN, MUC5AC, MUC5B, RORγt, and Foxp3, as well as IgE, IL-6, eotaxin, IL-4, IL-13, and IL-17 contents, pulmonary index, glycogen-positive area (%), and Th17 cell percentage significantly increased (p < 0.05). Additionally, pulmonary histopathological deterioration and collagen deposition were aggravated, while Treg cell percentage and IFN-γ and IL-10 contents remarkably decreased (p < 0.05). The overexpression of INSR further exacerbated the progression of allergic asthma, but the down-regulation of INSR reversed the trends of the above indicators.

CONCLUSIONS

The down-regulation of INSR alleviates airway hyperviscosity, inflammatory infiltration, and airway remodeling, restoring Th17/Treg immune balance in AA mice by inactivating the STAT3 pathway.

Effect of acupoint catgut embedding on p38 MAPK pathway in the lung tissue of asthmatic rats

OBJECTIVES

To observe the effect of catgut embedding at "Feishu"(BL13), "Dingchuan" (EX-B1) and "Danzhong" (CV17) on expression of phosphorylated p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (p-p38 MAPK), interleukin-4 (IL-4), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and changes of airway epithelial cells (AEC) in the lung tissue of bronchial asthma (BA) rats, so as to explore its mechanisms underlying improvement of BA.

METHODS

Forty male Wistar rats were randomly and equally divided into blank control, model, dexamethasone (DEX) and catgut embedding groups. The BA model was established by intraperitoneal injection of suspension of ovalbumin and aluminum hydroxide. Rats of the DEX group received intraperitoneal injection of DEX (1.5 mg/kg), once daily for 2 weeks, and those of the catgut embedding group received catgut embedding at BL13, EX-B1 and CV17 only one time. The rats' sneezing times per miniute in each group were recorded. H.E. staining was used to observe the histopathological changes of the lung tissue under light microscope. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to observe the ultrastructural changes of AEC in the lung tissue, including the thickness of bronchial wall and bronchial smooth muscle by using an image analysis software. The protein expressions of p-p38 MAPK, IL-4 and INF-γ in the lung tissue were determined using Western blot.

RESULTS

Morphological observation revealed that in the model group, light microscope showed deformed and swollen bronchial tube wall with increased folds and thickened bronchial smooth muscle；and TEM showed a large number of autophagy vesicles containing swollen and deformed organelles in the AEC, and apparent reduction of intracellular mitochondria, these situations were obviously milder in both DEX and catgut embedding groups. Compared with the blank control group, the sneezing times, thickness of bronchial wall and bronchial smooth muscle in the model group were significantly increased (P<0.01), and the expressions of p-p38 MAPK and IL-4 in lung tissue were significantly increased (P<0.01), while the expression of IFN-γ was significantly decreased (P<0.01) in the model group. In comparison with the model group, the sneezing times, thickness of bronchial wall and bronchial smooth muscle, protein expressions of p-p38 MAPK and IL-4 were significantly decreased (P<0.01), while the expression of IFN-γ was obviously increased (P<0.01) in both the DEX and catgut embedding groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Acupoint catgut embedding can reduce the expression of IL-4 and increase the expression of IFN-γ by inhibiting p38 MAPK signal pathway of lung tissues in BA rats, which may contribute to its effect in alleviating the degree of airway epithelial cells damage.

Association of MIF-173G/C, IL-4 VNTR, and IL-1RA VNTR variants with FMF-related amyloidosis in a Turkish cohort

The most important complication of familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) is secondary amyloidosis. The aim of this study is to investigate the risk of developing FMF-related amyloidosis with macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), interleukin 4 (IL-4), and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) variants. This study included 62 FMF patients with amyloidosis, 110 FMF patients without amyloidosis, and 120 controls. The clinical information of the patient groups was compared. MIF-173G/C, IL-4 variant number tandem repeat (VNTR), and IL-1RA VNTR variants were analyzed for all participants. The use of colchicine, pleurisy, and appendectomy was more common in FMF patients with amyloidosis than in FMF patients without amyloidosis. MIF-173G/C C/C genotype and C allele were higher in both patient groups compared to controls. IL-1RA VNTR A1/A2 and A1/A4 genotypes and A1-A4 alleles were more common in both patient groups than controls. The IL-4 VNTR P1 allele was more common in FMF patients with amyloidosis compared to controls. The MIF-173G/C allele and the IL-1RA VNTR A1-A4 allele are associated with FMF in the Turkish population but not with amyloidosis risk in FMF patients. The IL-4 VNTR P1 allele is more common in FMF patients with amyloidosis than in healthy individuals.

Blockade of OSMRβ signaling ameliorates skin lesions in a mouse model of human atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by severe pruritus and eczematous skin lesions. Although IL-31, a type 2 helper T (Th2)-derived cytokine, is important to the development of pruritus and skin lesions in AD, the blockade of IL-31 signaling does not improve the skin lesions in AD. Oncostatin M (OSM), a member of IL-6 family of cytokines, plays important roles in the regulation of various inflammatory responses through OSM receptor β subunit (OSMRβ), a common receptor subunit for OSM and IL-31. However, the effects of OSM on the pathogenesis of AD remain to be elucidated. When AD model mice were treated with OSM, skin lesions were exacerbated and IL-4 production was increased in the lymph nodes. Next, we investigated the effects of the monoclonal antibody (mAb) against OSMRβ on the pathogenesis of AD. Treatment with the anti-OSMRβ mAb (7D2) reduced skin severity score in AD model mice. In addition to skin lesions, scratching behavior was decreased by 7D2 mAb with the reduction in the number of OSMRβ-positive neurons in the dorsal root ganglia of AD model mice. 7D2 mAb also reduced the serum concentration of IL-4, IL-13, and IgE as well as the gene expressions of IL-4 and IL-13 in the lymph nodes of AD model mice. Blockade of both IL-31 and OSM signaling is suggested to suppress both pruritus and Th2 responses, resulting in the improvement of skin lesions in AD. The anti-OSMRβ mAb may be a new therapeutic candidate for the treatment of AD.

Allergic Airway Inflammation Emerges from Gut Inflammation and Leakage in Mouse Model of Asthma

Asthma is an allergic airway inflammatory disease characterized by type 2 immune responses. Growing evidence suggests an association between allergic airways and intestinal diseases. However, the primary site of disease origin and initial mechanisms involved in the development of allergic airway inflammation (AAI) is not yet understood. Therefore, the initial contributing organs and mechanisms involved in the development of AAI are investigated using a mouse model of asthma. This study, without a local allergen challenge into the lungs, demonstrates a significant increase in intestinal inflammation with signature type-2 mediators including IL-4, IL-13, STAT6, eosinophils, and Th2 cells. In addition, gut leakage and mRNA expressions of gut leakage markers significantly increase in the intestine. Moreover, reduced mRNA expressions of tight junction proteins are observed in gut and interestingly, in lung tissues. Furthermore, in lung tissues, an increased pulmonary barrier permeability and IL-4 and IL-13 levels associated with significant increase of lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP-gut leakage marker) and eosinophils are observed. However, with local allergen challenges into the lungs, these mechanisms are further enhanced in both gut and lungs. In conclusion, the primary gut originated inflammatory responses translocates into the lungs to orchestrate AAI in a mouse model of asthma.

Immune synergistic mechanism of recombinant plasmid adjuvant containing chicken IL-4 and IL-2 fusion genes on chicken coccidia live vaccine

The recombinant plasmid pCI-IL-4-IL-2-EGFP containing fusion genes of chicken IL-4 and IL-2 can be used as an adjuvant to enhance the anticoccidiosis effect of the chicken coccidia live vaccine. The chickens were divided into 3 groups: blank control group, vaccine + pCI-IL-4-IL-2-EGFP adjuvant coimmunization group, and vaccine-only group to investigate the immune synergy mechanism of recombinant plasmid adjuvant pCI-IL-4-IL-2-EGFP. The expressions of IL-2, IL-4, TNF-α, and IFN-γ in chicken sera and tissues were detected by ELISA and RT-qPCR, and the proliferation of T and B lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells (APC) in chicken immune organs and intestines were detected by acid alpha-naphthalase (ANAE) staining, methyl green pyronine (MGP) staining, and immunofluorescence (IF) staining, respectively. Results showed that the mRNA expression of IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ and the number of activated T and B lymphocytes were significantly upregulated in the spleen and cecum tonsils of chickens in vaccine + pCI-IL-4-IL-2-EGFP group compared with the vaccine-only group on 7 d after vaccination (P < 0.05). Protein contents of IL-2, IL-4 and TNF-α in vaccine + pCI-IL-4-IL-2-EGFP group were significantly increased compared to vaccine-only group on 28 d of inoculation (P < 0.05). The number of T and B lymphocytes and APC in chickens of the vaccine+ pCI-IL-4-IL-2-EGFP group was significantly higher than that of the vaccine-only group in cecum tonsils, thymus and spleen after 14 and 28 d of inoculation (P < 0.05). All results revealed that pCI-IL-4-IL-2-EGFP adjuvant enhanced the immune response of chicken coccidia live vaccine by upregulating the expression of IL-2, IL-4, TNF-α, and IFN-γ and promoting the proliferation of T, B lymphocytes and APCs in chicken intestines and immune organ sites. Moreover, our study provides a theoretical basis for the clinical application of cytogenic plasmids as adjuvants.

Expression of miR-21 &IL-4 in endometriosis

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis characterized with existence of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterus. Fibrosis of ectopic lesions is an important feature of endometriosis. IL-4 induces fibrosis via fibroblast proliferation, collagen production and myofibroblast differentiation. Increasing of miR-21 expression promotes fibroblast activation and fibrosis expansion. The aim of study was to evaluate the expression of miR-21 and its relationship with IL-4 gene expression in endometrial ectopic and eutopic tissues of endometriosis patients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Ectopic and eutopic tissue samples were taken from 20 women with endometriosis, and control samples were taken from the endometrium of 20 endometriosis-free women. The relative expression of IL-4 and miR-21 evaluated by Real Time PCR. IL-4 relative gene expression was significantly increased in ectopic tissue compared to eutopic (p = 0.025) and control tissue (p = 0.021). The relative expression of miR-21 gene in ectopic tissue was increased compared to eutopic (p = 0.850) and control tissue (p = 0.978) but these differences were not significant. Also, the correlation between IL-4 and miR-21 relative gene expression was not significant (p = 0.083).

CONCLUSION

The increased expression of miR-21 in endometrium of women with endometriosis may upregulate the IL-4 gene expression and lead to fibrosis. Further studies may suggest miR-21 and IL-4 as candidates for diagnosis of endometriosis.

M2 tumor-associated macrophage promoted DNA methylation in lung cancer metastasis via intensifying EZH2

This study aimed to explore the interaction between the tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) and enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) in tumor microenvironment of lung cancer are obscure. M2 type of TAM was induced by interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13) in RAW264.7 cells. Subsequently, the co-culture system of the M2 RAW264.7 treating LLC-1 cells were constructed to evaluate the cell proliferation, migration and invasion abilities. On top of that, the M2 RAW264.7 was injected into the LLC-1 cells-bearing mice. Tumor growth and the number of metastatic nodes were observed. Moreover, DNA methylation, EZH2 expression, target genes of EZH2 and the M2 type TAM-related markers were detected in vivo and in vitro . Further experiments of EZH2 function in lung cancer were carried out by the addition of EZH2 inhibitor (GSK126) and si-EZH2. M2 type of TAM was induced with IL-4 and IL-13 with increased expression of CD206, CD68, CD163 and Arg1. Following co-culture with M2 type TAM, the proliferative, invasive, migrative abilities, tumor growth and metastasis, and the DNA methylation, EZH2 level were strengthened whereas the target genes of EZH2, including p21, CDKN2A, CDKN2B were reduced in LLC-1 cells and LLC-1 cell-bearing mice. Of note, GSK126 and si-EZH2 offset the M2 type TAM's effects, and inhibited the LLC-1 cell metastasis, DNA methylation and tumor growth. M2 type TAM promoted DNA methylation in LLC-1 cells and LLC-1 cell-bearing mice, which is related to the intensified EZH2.

Prediction of asthma using a four-locus gene model including IL13, IL4, FCER1B, and ADRB2 in children of Kazak nationality

BACKGROUND

To study whether the four locus gene model consisting of ADRB2 rs1042713, IL4 rs2243250, FCER1B rs569108 and L13 rs20541 can predict asthma of the Kazak children in Xinjiang, China.

METHODS

Four single nucleotide polymorphisms about the 4 genes were genotyped in asthma group and control group of Han children and Kazak children respectively. The frequencies of different genotypes and alleles were compared between the asthma group and the control group in the two nationalities. Different risk genotypes for asthma were evaluated in the two nationalities.

RESULTS

The differences about frequencies of genotypes in ADRB2 rs1042713 and IL4 rs2243250 and IL13 rs20541 between asthma group and control group were statistically significant in Han children, as were the frequencies of alleles in the 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms, but there were no statistical differences in FCER1B rs569108(P > 0.05). For the Kazak children, no differences were existed among all the genotypes and alleles in asthma group and control group. For the Han children, more children were asthma high risk genotype in the asthma group than those in the control group and no difference was found in the Kazak children.

CONCLUSIONS

The four locus gene model consisting of ADRB2 rs1042713, IL4 rs2243250, FCER1B rs569108 and L13 rs20541 can predict asthma of Han children but not for the Kazak children in Xinjiang, which illustrating that the difference of asthma prevalence between different races is closely related to the genetic background.

Molecular and Cellular Evaluation of Horses With Summer Pasture Associated Asthma Syndrome

Equine asthma is an airway disease that affects a large number of horses annually leading to considerable economic losses in the horse industry. Despite advances in research in this area, there is still a lack of information on its etiology and molecular characterization in pasture associated asthma. The objective of the current study was to characterize the inflammatory disease of lower airways in horses maintained on pasture through cytologic and immunologic profile during the summer in a tropical environment by analysis of the gene expression of Th1 cytokines (IFN- λ, IL-8), Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-5), and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, TNF-α) in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid in healthy and asthma horses on pasture. A group 39 of clinically healthy horses maintained on native pasture and supplemented with concentrate was evaluated by BAL analyzed for differential cellular count and assigned into a control and an asthma group. The gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was analyzed in the BAL by reverse time PCR (RT-PCR) (IL-1α (alpha), IL-4, IL-5, IL-8, TNF-α alpha and IFN-λ), using β-actin as housekeeping gene. Higher gene expression of IL-1, IL-4, IL-5, IL-8, IFN-λ in the BAL of asthma horses was found. Current results indicate an increase in Th2, characterizing an allergic inflammatory reaction due to the significant increase in IL-5 in asthmatic horses (10.3 ± 1.13), when compared to the values ​​obtained in normal horses (3.27 ± 0.46). The only down regulated cytokine in the asthma group was TNF-α, suggesting a chronic antigenic reaction.

Th-1 cytotoxic cell-mediated response predominates in the tracheal mucosa following Mycoplasma synoviae infection of MS-H-vaccinated chickens

Mycoplasma synoviae is a pathogen of poultry that causes upper respiratory tract disease. MS-H is a live attenuated temperature-sensitive vaccine that effectively control M. synoviae infection in chickens. However, the mechanisms underpinning protection have not been described previously. In this study, specific-pathogen-free chickens were vaccinated at 3 weeks of age with MS-H vaccine and challenged with field strain M. synoviae 94011/v-18d at 6 weeks of age. Tracheal mucosal inflammation was characterised by the assessment of thickness, histopathological lesions, cellular infiltrates and cytokine transcription. Tracheal lesion scores of unvaccinated-challenged (-V+C) birds were higher than that of vaccinated-challenged (+V+C) birds. +V+C birds displayed early upregulation of IL-4, consistent with a Th-2-skewed response, followed by a later increase in IFN-γ transcription, indicating transition to a Th-1-skewed response. -V+C birds displayed a concurrent early Th-2 and Th-17 response characterised by increase expression of IL-4 and IL-17A respectively, and late T regulatory response characterised by increased IL-10 transcription. +V+C chickens had more cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T cells) at 7- and 21 days post-challenge (dpc), while -V+C chickens had higher numbers of infiltrating CD4+CD25+ at 7 and 21 dpc. Overall, these observations suggest that the immune response in +V+C chickens had an inflammation characterised by an early Th-2 skewed response followed closely by a Th-1 response and infiltration of cytotoxic T cells, while the response in -V+C chickens was an early Th-2/Th-17-skewed response closely followed by a T regulatory response.

Dose-responses of zinc as zinc-methionine supplements on antioxidant status, hematological parameters, immune response and the expression of IL-4 and IL-6 genes of ewes in the hot season

This study was implemented to evaluate the effects of different zinc doses as Zinc-Met supplement (Zinpro®) on the antioxidant status, blood immune cells, antibody titers, and the expression of IL-4 and IL-6 genes of ewes in the hot season. In a completely randomized design, 24 ewes were assigned to treatments as follow: 0, 15, 30 and 45 mg/kg zinc as Zinc-Met supplementation for 40 days in region with 40 °C and vaccinated against food-and-mouth disease as an immune challenge at day 30, and then blood samples were collected on day 40. Ewes were fed a basal diet containing 29.9 mg zinc/kg. The highest activity of the antioxidant enzyme and the lowest lipid peroxidation values were found in ewes receiving 30 and 45 mg/kg zinc following a linear trend. The highest lymphocytes count and antibody titers were found in ewes received 30 mg zinc/kg. There were no significant differences among treatments for the relative expression of genes. In overall, zinc supplementation non-significantly up-regulate interleukin-4 and down-regulate interleukin-6. It was concluded that zinc supplementation as Zinc-Met could enhance the antioxidant status and immune response of ewes under heat stress; supplementation of diet with 30 mg zinc/kg (300 mg/kg Zinpro®) appeared to be the most effective dose.

The mechanism underlying the inverse proportion between serum IgE concentration and Stat3 transcriptional activity depends on Stat3 mutation type

Abnormalities in the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway can sometimes result in extremely high levels of IgE concentration in serum, however, the regulatory role of STAT3 in IgE production is elusive. We used several genetically modified mice with distinctive germline Stat3 transcriptional activity to assess the influence of Stat3 on the biochemical characteristics of IgE and found that the IgE concentration in serum is inversely proportional to Stat3 transcriptional activity. Intriguingly, the serum IgE concentration is directly proportional to IgE-producing B cells in Stat3-GOF mice but inversely proportional in mice carrying Stat3 mutations with reduced transcriptional activity. For reduced Stat3 transcriptional activity induced high levels of IgE in the mice, IL-4/Stat6 signaling is indispensable for IgE production, but it was observed that an increased IgE concentration was accompanied by reduced IL-4/Stat6 signaling and lessened IgE-producing B cells, which implies that an increase in IgE concentration may result from an extended half-life of IgE but not an increasing number of IgE-producing cells.

GLUT3 promotes macrophage signaling and function via RAS-mediated endocytosis in atopic dermatitis and wound healing

The facilitative GLUT1 and GLUT3 hexose transporters are expressed abundantly in macrophages, but whether they have distinct functions remains unclear. We confirmed that GLUT1 expression increased after M1 polarization stimuli and found that GLUT3 expression increased after M2 stimulation in macrophages. Conditional deletion of Glut3 (LysM-Cre Glut3fl/fl) impaired M2 polarization of bone marrow-derived macrophages. Alternatively activated macrophages from the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis showed increased GLUT3 expression, and a calcipotriol-induced model of atopic dermatitis was rescued in LysM-Cre Glut3fl/fl mice. M2-like macrophages expressed GLUT3 in human wound tissues as assessed by transcriptomics and costaining, and GLUT3 expression was significantly decreased in nonhealing, compared with healing, diabetic foot ulcers. In an excisional wound healing model, LysM-Cre Glut3fl/fl mice showed significantly impaired M2 macrophage polarization and delayed wound healing. GLUT3 promoted IL-4/STAT6 signaling, independently of its glucose transport activity. Unlike plasma membrane-localized GLUT1, GLUT3 was localized primarily to endosomes and was required for the efficient endocytosis of IL-4Rα subunits. GLUT3 interacted directly with GTP-bound RAS in vitro and in vivo through its intracytoplasmic loop domain, and this interaction was required for efficient STAT6 activation and M2 polarization. PAK activation and macropinocytosis were also impaired without GLUT3, suggesting broader roles for GLUT3 in the regulation of endocytosis. Thus, GLUT3 is required for efficient alternative macrophage polarization and function, through a glucose transport-independent, RAS-mediated role in the regulation of endocytosis and IL-4/STAT6 activation.

The Correlation Between IFNG Gene Methylation and Th1|Th2 Cell Balance in ROU and the Interventional Study of Jiaweidaochi Powder

The pathogenesis of recurrent oral ulcers (ROU) is complex, with a long duration of illness and challenging to cure. According to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM),"heat accumulation in the heart-spleen" is one of the main causative factors. Jiaweidaochi powder (JWDCP) is based on the ancient Chinese medicine formula JWDCS, with the addition of Tongcao and gypsum and the removal of Mu Tong. It is generally used to treat "heat accumulation in the heart-spleen." Previous studies have demonstrated that it effectively reduces recurrence rates and is anti-inflammatory in modulating immunity. The ROU rats' model for JWDCP intervention treatment had been established, and histological tests revealed that JWDCP has a therapeutic effect on the pathological changes in the oral mucosa. In addition, the methylation levels of peripheral blood IFNG gene were detected by bisulfite sequencing PCR (BSP), and the methylation levels of the IFNG promoter region in the model group and each dose group were lower than those in the control group. However, no significant methylation differences were observed. Furthermore, the results of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and RNA quantitative polymerase chain reaction showed that JWDCP could reduce IFN-γ and IL-4 protein concentrations, with high GATA-3 mRNA production, T-bet mRNAproduction was upgraded, elevated IL-4 mRNA levels, and reduced IFN-γ mRNA levels after treatment (P < 0.001). The expression of transcription factor T-betmRNA and GATA-3 gene mRNA was accompanied by changes in IFN-γmRNA and IL-4mRNA, demonstrating that Th2 type differentiation in RAS suppresses the body's immunity and that the imbalance of transcription factor expression further leads to Th1/Th2 drift. JWDCP is likely to reduce the protein concentration by regulating the imbalance of transcription factors and enhancing antioxidant capacity, thus achieving therapeutic effects. Treatment of recurrent oral ulcer models is not sufficient to reset IFNG methylation levels, correlating with the refractoriness of ROU, further confirming the complexity of epigenetic mechanisms and that epigenetic alterations in specific mediators may persist locally.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis EspR modulates Th1-Th2 shift by transcriptionally regulating IL-4, steering increased mycobacterial persistence and HIV propagation during co-infection

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and HIV are known to mutually support each other during co-infection by multiple mechanisms. This synergistic influence could be either by direct interactions or indirectly through secreted host or pathogen factors that work in trans. Mtb secretes several virulence factors to modulate the host cellular environment for its persistence and escaping cell-intrinsic immune responses. We hypothesized that secreted Mtb transcription factors that target the host nucleus can directly interact with host DNA element(s) or HIV LTR during co-infection, thereby modulating immune gene expression, or driving HIV transcription, helping the synergistic existence of Mtb and HIV. Here, we show that the Mtb-secreted protein, EspR, a transcription regulator, increased mycobacterial persistence and HIV propagation during co-infection. Mechanistically, EspR localizes to the nucleus of the host cells during infection, binds to its putative cognate motif on the promoter region of the host IL-4 gene, activating IL-4 gene expression, causing high IL-4 titers that induce a Th2-type microenvironment, shifting the macrophage polarization to an M2 state as evident from CD206 dominant population over CD64. This compromised the clearance of the intracellular mycobacteria and enhanced HIV propagation. It was interesting to note that EspR did not bind to HIV LTR, although its transient expression increased viral propagation. This is the first report of an Mtb transcription factor directly regulating a host cytokine gene. This augments our understanding of the evolution of Mtb immune evasion strategies and unveils how Mtb aggravates comorbidities, such as HIV co-infection, by modulating the immune microenvironment.

Association of Cytokine Gene Polymorphisms and Their Impact on Active and Latent Tuberculosis in Brazil's Amazon Region

Some genetic variations in cytokine genes can alter their expression and influence the evolution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection. This study aimed to investigate the association of polymorphisms in cytokine genes and variability in plasma levels of cytokines with the development of tuberculosis (TB) and latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI). Blood samples from 245 patients with TB, 80 with LTBI, and healthy controls (n = 100) were included. Genotyping of the IFNG +874A/T, IL6 -174G/C, IL4 -590C/T, and IL10 -1082A/G polymorphisms was performed by real-time PCR, and cytokine levels were determined by flow cytometry. Higher frequencies of genotypes AA (IFNG +874A/T), GG (IL6 -174G/C), TT (IL4 -590C/T), and GG (IL10 -1082A/G) were associated with an increased risk of TB compared to that of LTBI (p = 0.0027; p = 0.0557; p = 0.0286; p = 0.0361, respectively) and the control (p = <0.0001, p = 0.0021; p = 0.01655; p = 0.0132, respectively). In combination, the A allele for IFNG +874A/T and the T allele for IL4 -590C/T were associated with a higher chance of TB (p = 0.0080; OR = 2.753 and p < 0.0001; OR = 3.273, respectively). The TB group had lower levels of IFN-γ and higher concentrations of IL-6, IL-4, and IL-10. Cytokine levels were different between the genotypes based on the polymorphisms investigated (p < 0.05). The genotype and wild-type allele for IFNG +874A/T and the genotype and polymorphic allele for IL4 -590C/T appear to be more relevant in the context of Mtb infection, which has been associated with the development of TB among individuals infected by the bacillus and with susceptibility to active infection but not with susceptibility to latent infection.

A fine mapping of single nucleotide variants and haplotype analysis of IL13 gene in patients with Leishmania guyanensis-cutaneous leishmaniasis and plasma cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13

Introduction

Leishmaniasis continues to pose a substantial health burden in 97 countries worldwide. The progression and outcome of Leishmania infection are influenced by various factors, including the cytokine milieu, the skin microbiota at the infection site, the specific Leishmania species involved, the genetic background of the host, and the parasite load. In endemic regions to leishmaniasis, only a fraction of individuals infected actually develops the disease. Overexpression of IL-13 in naturally resistant C57BL/6 mice renders them susceptible to L. major infection. Haplotypes constructed from several single nucleotide variant (SNV) along a chromosome fragment may provide insight into any SNV near the fragment that may be genuinely associated with a phenotype in genetic association studies.

Methods

We investigated nine SNVs (SNV1rs1881457A>C, SNV2rs1295687C>G, SNV3rs2069744C>T, SNV4rs2069747C>T, SNV5rs20541A>G, SNV6rs1295685A>G, SNV7rs848A>C, SNV8rs2069750G >C, and SNV9rs847T>C) spanning the entire IL13 gene in patients with L. guyanensis cutaneous leishmaniasis (Lg-CL).

Results

Our analysis did not reveal any significant association between the SNVs and susceptibility/protection against Lg-CL development. However, haplotype analysis, excluding SNV4rs2069747 and SNV8rs2069750 due to low minor allele frequency, revealed that carriers of the haplotype CCCTAAC had a 93% reduced likelihood developing Lg-CL. Similarly, the haplotypes ACCCGCT (ORadj=0.02 [95% CI 0.00-0.07]; p-value, 6.0×10-19) and AGCTAAC (ORadj=0.00[95% CI 0.00-0.00]; p-value 2.7×10-12) appeared to provide protection against the development of Lg-CL. Conversely, carriers of haplotype ACCTGCC have 190% increased likelihood of developing Lg-CL (ORadj=2.9 [95%CI 1.68-5.2]; p-value, 2.5×10-6). Similarly, haplotype ACCCAAT (ORadj=2.7 [95%CI 1.5-4.7]; p-value, 3.2×10-5) and haplotype AGCCGCC are associated with susceptibility to the development of Lg-CL (ORadj=1.7[95%CI 1.04-2.8]; p-value, 0.01). In our investigation, we also found a correlation between the genotypes of rs2069744, rs20541, rs1295685, rs847, and rs848 and plasma IL-5 levels among Lg-Cl patients. Furthermore, rs20541 showed a correlation with plasma IL-13 levels among Lg-Cl patients, while rs2069744 and rs848 showed a correlation with plasma IL-4 levels among the same group.

Conclusions

Overall, our study identifies three haplotypes of IL13 associated with resistance to disease development and three haplotypes linked to susceptibility. These findings suggest the possibility of a variant outside the gene region that may contribute, in conjunction with other genes, to differences in susceptibility and partially to the pathology.

Role and Molecular Mechanisms of Alternative Splicing of Th2-Cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 in Atopic Bronchial Asthma

Bronchial asthma (BA) is a heterogeneous chronic inflammatory disease of the respiratory tract. Allergic (atopic) asthma is the most common (up to 80% of cases) phenotype developing through the Th2-dependent mechanisms involving cytokines: IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13. The genes encoding Th2-cytokines have a mosaic structure (encode exons and introns). Therefore, several mature mRNA transcripts and protein isoforms can be derived from a single mRNA precursor through alternative splicing, and they may contribute to BA pathogenesis. Analysis of the published studies and databases revealed existence of the alternative mRNA transcripts for IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. The alternative transcripts of IL-4 and IL-5 carry open reading frames and therefore can encode functional proteins. It was shown that not only alternative mRNA transcripts exist for IL-4, but alternative protein isoforms, as well. Natural protein isoform (IL-4δ2) lacking the part encoded by exon-2 was identified. Similarly, alternative mRNA transcript with deleted exon-2 (IL-5δ2) was also identified for IL-5. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the identified alternative mRNA transcripts and protein isoforms of Th2-cytokinins, first of all IL-4 and IL-5. We have analyzed biological properties of the alternative variants of these cytokines, their possible role in the allergic asthma pathogenesis, and considered their diagnostic and therapeutic potential.

Autosomal Dominant STAT6 Gain of Function Causes Severe Atopy Associated with Lymphoma

The transcription factor STAT6 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 6) is a key regulator of Th2 (T-helper 2) mediated allergic inflammation via the IL-4 (interleukin-4) JAK (Janus kinase)/STAT signalling pathway. We identified a novel heterozygous germline mutation STAT6 c.1255G > C, p.D419H leading to overactivity of IL-4 JAK/STAT signalling pathway, in a kindred affected by early-onset atopic dermatitis, food allergy, eosinophilic asthma, anaphylaxis and follicular lymphoma. STAT6 D419H expression and functional activity were compared with wild type STAT6 in transduced HEK293T cells and to healthy control primary skin fibroblasts and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). We observed consistently higher STAT6 levels at baseline and higher STAT6 and phosphorylated STAT6 following IL-4 stimulation in D419H cell lines and primary cells compared to wild type controls. The pSTAT6/STAT6 ratios were unchanged between D419H and control cells suggesting that elevated pSTAT6 levels resulted from higher total basal STAT6 expression. The selective JAK1/JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib reduced pSTAT6 levels in D419H HEK293T cells and patient PBMC. Nuclear staining demonstrated increased STAT6 in patient fibroblasts at baseline and both STAT6 and pSTAT6 after IL-4 stimulation. We also observed higher transcriptional upregulation of downstream genes (XBP1 and EPAS1) in patient PBMC. Our study confirms STAT6 gain of function (GOF) as a novel monogenetic cause of early onset atopic disease. The clinical association of lymphoma in our kindred, along with previous data linking somatic STAT6 D419H mutations to follicular lymphoma suggest that patients with STAT6 GOF disease may be at higher risk of lymphomagenesis.245 words.

Interleukin 4 gene polymorphisms and the risk of tuberculosis: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is implicated in the progression of tuberculosis (TB); however, these results remain controversial.

OBJECTIVES

This meta-analysis examined the relationship between IL and 4 polymorphisms (-589C/T, +4221C > A, and -33C/T) and the risk of TB.

METHODS

A retrospective database analysis was conducted using the CNKI and PubMed databases. Using fixed- and random-effects models, we calculated the combined odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

We identified 14 articles related to this topic, and theresultsshowed that the IL-4 -589C/T polymorphism didnotinfluencethe risk of TB. However,in subgroupanalyses we found that the IL-4 -589C/T polymorphism was associated with the risk of TB inCaucasians (recessive modelOR = 2.54, 95% CI = 1.30-4.96). In our study, the IL-4--33C/T polymorphism was not associated with the risk of TB. The IL-4 + 4221C > A polymorphism was associated with the risk of TB (recessive model: OR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.07-1.83).

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis showed that the IL-4 -589C/T polymorphism was associated with TB risk in Caucasian populations, and the IL-4 + 4221C > A polymorphism is associated with TB risk.

Interlukin-4 weakens resistance to stress injury and megakaryocytic differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells by inhibiting Psmd13 expression

Thrombocytopenia is a major and fatal complication in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), which results from disrupted megakaryopoiesis by leukemic niche and blasts. Our previous research revealed that elevated interleukin-4 (IL-4) in AML bone marrow had adverse impact on multiple stages throughout megakaryopoiesis including hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), but the specific mechanism remains unknown. In the present study, we performed single-cell transcriptome analysis and discovered activated oxidative stress pathway and apoptosis pathway in IL-4Rαhigh versus IL-4Rαlow HSCs. IL-4 stimulation in vitro led to apoptosis of HSCs and down-regulation of megakaryocyte-associated transcription factors. Functional assays displayed higher susceptibility of IL-4Rαhigh HSCs to tunicamycin and irradiation-induced apoptosis, demonstrating their vulnerability to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress injury. To clarify the downstream signaling of IL-4, we analyzed the transcriptomes of HSCs from AML bone marrow and found a remarkable down-regulation of the proteasome component Psmd13, whose expression was required for megakaryocytic-erythroid development but could be inhibited by IL-4 in vitro. We knocked down Psmd13 by shRNA in HSCs, and found their repopulating capacity and megakaryocytic differentiation were severely compromised, with increased apoptosis in vivo. In summary, our study uncovered a previous unrecognized regulatory role of IL-4-Psmd13 signaling in anti-stress and megakaryocytic differentiation capability of HSCs.

Gremlin 1 is required for macrophage M2 polarization

Pro-proliferative, M2-like polarization of macrophages is a critical step in the development of fibrosis and remodeling in chronic lung diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension. Macrophages in healthy and diseased lungs express gremlin 1 (Grem1), a secreted glycoprotein that acts in both paracrine and autocrine manners to modulate cellular function. Increased Grem1 expression plays a central role in pulmonary fibrosis and remodeling, however, the role of Grem1 in M2-like polarization of macrophages has not previously been explored. The results reported here show that recombinant Grem1 potentiated M2-like polarization of mouse macrophages and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) in response to the Th2 cytokines IL4 and IL13. Genetic depletion of Grem1 in BMDMs inhibited M2 polarization while exogenous gremlin 1 could partially rescue this effect. Taken together, these findings reveal that gremlin 1 is required for M2-like polarization of macrophages.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show here that gremlin 1 potentiated M2 polarization of mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) in response to the Th2 cytokines IL4 and IL13. Genetic depletion of Grem1 in BMDMs inhibited M2 polarization while exogenous gremlin 1 partially rescued this effect. Taken together, these findings reveal a previously unknown requirement for gremlin 1 in M2 polarization of macrophages and suggest a novel cellular mechanism promoting fibrosis and remodeling in lung diseases.

Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 mediated alterations in the functionality of immune cells, deciphers the pregnancy outcomes in crossbred dairy cows

Pregnancy establishment in bovines requires maternal immune cell modulation. Present study investigated possible role of immunosuppressive indolamine-2, 3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) enzyme in the alteration of neutrophil (NEUT) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) functionality of crossbred cows. Blood was collected from non-pregnant (NP) and pregnant (P) cows, followed by isolation of NEUT and PBMCs. Plasma pro-inflammatory (IFNγ and TNFα) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) were estimated by ELISA and analysis of IDO1 gene in NEUT and PBMCs by RT-qPCR. Neutrophil functionality was assessed by chemotaxis, measuring activity of myeloperoxidase and β-D glucuronidase enzyme and evaluating nitric oxide production. Changes in PBMCs functionality was determined by transcriptional expression of pro-inflammatory (IFNγ, TNFα) and anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-4, IL-10, TGFβ1) genes. Significantly elevated (P < 0.05) anti-inflammatory cytokines, increased IDO1 expression, reduced NEUT velocity, MPO activity and NO production observed only in P cows. Significantly higher (P < 0.05) expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines and TNFα genes were observed in PBMCs. Study highlights possible role of IDO1 in modulating the immune cell and cytokine activity during early pregnancy and may be targeted as early pregnancy biomarkers.

Evaluation of IL-4, MIP-1α, and MMP-9 gene expression levels in peri-implant tissues in peri-implantitis

This case-control study evaluated the gene expression levels of interleukin (IL)-4, macrophage inflammatory protein type 1 alpha (MIP-1α), and metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, factors involved in the formation of giant cells in healthy peri-implant tissue and peri-implantitis. Thirty-five subjects (15 healthy and 20 with peri-implantitis), who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria, were included in this study. The peri-implant tissue biopsies were subjected to total RNA extraction, DNAse treatment, and cDNA synthesis. Subsequently, the reaction of real-time PCR was performed to evaluate the gene expression levels of IL-4, MIP-1α, and MMP-9 concerning the reference gene. IL-4 gene expression showed higher (18-fold) values in the Peri-Implantitis Group of Patients when compared with the Healthy (Control) Group (p<0.0001). Although MIP- 1α and MMP-9 gene expression levels were higher in diseased implants, they showed no significant differences (p=0.06 and p=0.2337), respectively. Within the limitations of this study, the results showed that in tissues affected by peri-implantitis, only levels of Il-4 were increased when compared with tissues in the control group.

The IL-4Rα Q576R polymorphism is associated with increased severity of atopic dermatitis and exaggerates allergic skin inflammation in mice

BACKGROUND

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is characterized by TH2-dominated skin inflammation and systemic response to cutaneously encountered antigens. The TH2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 play a critical role in the pathogenesis of AD. The Q576->R576 polymorphism in the IL-4 receptor alpha (IL-4Rα) chain common to IL-4 and IL-13 receptors alters IL-4 signaling and is associated with asthma severity.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to investigate whether the IL-4Rα R576 polymorphism is associated with AD severity and exaggerates allergic skin inflammation in mice.

METHODS

Nighttime itching interfering with sleep, Rajka-Langeland, and Eczema Area and Severity Index scores were used to assess AD severity. Allergic skin inflammation following epicutaneous sensitization of mice 1 or 2 IL-4Rα R576 alleles (QR and RR) and IL-4Rα Q576 (QQ) controls was assessed by flow cytometric analysis of cells and quantitative RT-PCR analysis of cytokines in skin.

RESULTS

The frequency of nighttime itching in 190 asthmatic inner-city children with AD, as well as Rajka-Langeland and Eczema Area and Severity Index scores in 1116 White patients with AD enrolled in the Atopic Dermatitis Research Network, was higher in subjects with the IL-4Rα R576 polymorphism compared with those without, with statistical significance for the Rajka-Langeland score. Following epicutaneous sensitization of mice with ovalbumin or house dust mite, skin infiltration by CD4+ cells and eosinophils, cutaneous expression of Il4 and Il13, transepidermal water loss, antigen-specific IgE antibody levels, and IL-13 secretion by antigen-stimulated splenocytes were significantly higher in RR and QR mice compared with QQ controls. Bone marrow radiation chimeras demonstrated that both hematopoietic cells and stromal cells contribute to the mutants' exaggerated allergic skin inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

The IL-4Rα R576 polymorphism predisposes to more severe AD and increases allergic skin inflammation in mice.

Arsenic causes distinct gene expression changes in macrophages polarized in vitro with either interferon-γ or interleukin-4

Arsenic exposure is correlated with atherosclerosis in epidemiological studies and in animal models. We have previously shown that arsenic exposure enhanced the atherosclerotic plaque size, increased the plaque lipid content, and decreased the plaque smooth muscle cell and collagen contents in the apolipoprotein E knockout (apoE-/-) mice. However, the percentage of plaque-resident macrophages, the primary drivers of atherosclerosis remained unchanged. Therefore, we hypothesized that although arsenic does not change the quantity of macrophages, it alters the macrophage transcriptome towards a proatherogenic state. To test this hypothesis, we used bone marrow-derived macrophages, polarized them to either interferon-γ (IFN-ɣ) stimulated, proinflammatory or interleukin-4 (IL-4) stimulated, alternatively activated macrophages in the presence or absence of 0.67 µM (50 ppb) arsenic and performed RNA sequencing. Arsenic exposure altered the gene expression of the macrophages in a subtype-specific manner. Most differentially expressed genes (88%) were altered specifically in either IFN-ɣ- or IL-4-stimulated macrophages, whereas in the remaining 12% of genes that changed in both cell types, did so in opposite directions. In IL-4-stimulated macrophages, arsenic significantly downregulated the genes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis and the chemokines CCL17/CCL22, whereas in IFN-ɣ-stimulated macrophages, the genes associated with the liver X receptor (LXR) pathway were downregulated by arsenic. Using a bone marrow transplant experiment, we validated that the deletion of LXRα from the hematopoietic compartment rescued arsenic-enhanced atherosclerosis in the apoE-/- mouse model. Together, these data suggest that arsenic modulates subtype-specific transcriptomic changes in macrophages and further emphasize the need to define macrophage heterogeneity in atherosclerotic plaques in order to evaluate the proatherogenic role of arsenic.

BRD4-PRC2 represses transcription of T-helper 2-specific negative regulators during T-cell differentiation

BRD4 is a well-recognized transcriptional activator, but how it regulates gene transcriptional repression in a cell type-specific manner has remained elusive. In this study, we report that BRD4 works with Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) to repress transcriptional expression of the T-helper 2 (Th2)-negative regulators Foxp3 and E3-ubiqutin ligase Fbxw7 during lineage-specific differentiation of Th2 cells from mouse primary naïve CD4+ T cells. Brd4 binds to the lysine-acetylated-EED subunit of the PRC2 complex via its second bromodomain (BD2) to facilitate histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) at target gene loci and thereby transcriptional repression. We found that Foxp3 represses transcription of Th2-specific transcription factor Gata3, while Fbxw7 promotes its ubiquitination-directed protein degradation. BRD4-mediated repression of Foxp3 and Fbxw7 in turn promotes BRD4- and Gata3-mediated transcriptional activation of Th2 cytokines including Il4, Il5, and Il13. Chemical inhibition of the BRD4 BD2 induces transcriptional de-repression of Foxp3 and Fbxw7, and thus transcriptional downregulation of Il4, Il5, and Il13, resulting in inhibition of Th2 cell lineage differentiation. Our study presents a previously unappreciated mechanism of BRD4's role in orchestrating a Th2-specific transcriptional program that coordinates gene repression and activation, and safeguards cell lineage differentiation.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms of Interleukin - 4, Interleukin-18, FCRL3 and sPLA2IIa genes and their association in pathogenesis of endometriosis

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis is a complex gynaecological disorder that contributes to infertility, dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, and other chronic issues. It is a multifactorial disease involving genetic, hormonal, immunological and environmental components. Endometriosis's pathogenesis remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

was to analyse the polymorphisms in Interleukin 4, Interleukin 18, FCRL3 and sPLA2IIa genes to identify any significant association with the risk of endometriosis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This study evaluated the polymorphism of -590 C/T in interleukin- 4(IL-4) gene, C607A in Interleukin - 18(IL-18) gene, -169T > C in FCRL3 gene and 763 C > G in sPLA2IIa gene in women with endometriosis. The case-control study included 150 women with endometriosis and 150 apparently healthy women as control subjects. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes and endometriotic tissue of cases and blood samples for controls and further analysed by PCR amplification and then sequencing was carried out to find the allele and genotypes of the subjects and then to analyse the relationship between the gene polymorphisms and endometriosis. To evaluate the association of the different genotypes, 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated.

RESULTS

Interleukin - 18 and FCRL3 gene polymorphisms of endometriotic tissue and blood samples of endometriosis (cases) showed significantly associated (OR = 4.88 [95% CI = 2.31-10.30], P > 0.0001) and (OR = 4.00 [95% CI = 2.2-7.33], P > 0.0001) when compared with normal blood samples. However, there was no significant difference in Interleukin - 4 and sPLA2IIa gene polymorphisms between control women and patients with endometriosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study suggests that the IL-18 and FCRL3 gene polymorphisms are associated with a higher risk for endometriosis, which delivers valuable knowledge of endometriosis's pathogenesis. However, a larger sample size of patients from various ethnic backgrounds is necessary to evaluate whether these alleles have a direct effect on disease susceptibility.

Mollugin ameliorates murine allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting Th2 response and M2 macrophage activation

Mollugin, isolated from Rubia cordifolia L, is a pharmacological compound with anti-inflammatory activity. This study aimed to investigate whether mollugin protects mice against shrimp tropomyosin (ST)-induced allergic airway inflammation. Mice were sensitized with ST combined with Al(OH)₃ administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) once weekly for 3 wk followed by ST challenge for 5 d. Mice were i.p.-administered daily with mollugin for 7 d. Results showed that mollugin attenuated ST-induced infiltration of eosinophils and epithelial mucus secretion in the lung tissues and suppressed lung eosinophil peroxidase activity. Additionally, mollugin lowered the Th2 cytokine, IL-4 and IL-5, production and downregulated the mRNA levels of Il-4, Il-5, Il-13, eotaxin, Ccl-17, Muc5ac, arginase-1, Ym-1, and Fizz-1 in the lung tissues. Network pharmacology was employed to predict core targets, and the molecular docking approach was used to verify the compound targets. The results of the molecular docking study of mollugin into p38 MAPK or poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) binding sites revealed that its mechanism was possibly similar to that of SB203580 (a p38 MAPK inhibitor) or olaparib (a PARP1 inhibitor). Immunohistochemistry analysis revealed that mollugin mitigated ST-induced elevation of arginase-1 expression and macrophage levels in the lungs and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, respectively. Furthermore, arginase-1 mRNA level and phosphorylation of p38 MAPK were inhibited in IL-4-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. In ST-stimulated mouse primary splenocytes, mollugin notably inhibited IL-4 and IL-5 production and downregulated PARP1 and PAR protein expression. According to our findings, mollugin ameliorated allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting Th2 response and macrophage polarization.

Vitamin B complex blocks the dust fall PM2 .5 -induced acute lung injury through DNA methylation in rats

This study aimed to explore whether vitamin B complex (folic acid, B₆ , and B₁₂ ) could avert DNA methylation changes associated with inflammation induced by acute PM_2.5 exposure. Sprague-Dawley rats were administered by gavage with different concentrations of vitamin B complex once a day for 28 days, and then by intratracheal instillation with saline or PM_2.5 once every 2 days for three times. Vitamin B continued to be taken during the PM_2.5 exposure. Rats were sacrificed 24 h after the last exposure. The results showed that vitamin B complex could block the pathological changes and injury in lungs induced by PM_2.5 . Meanwhile, vitamin B complex could prevent the abnormal DNA methylation of IL-4 and IFN-γ to antagonize the imbalance of IL-4/IFN-γ associated with inflammation. It was further found that vitamin B complex could regulate DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) and increase the S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)/S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH) ratio to reverse the hypomethylation of genomic DNA and the abnormal DNA methylation of IL-4 and IFN-γ. In conclusion, vitamin B complex has a protective effect on acute lung injury by attenuating abnormal DNA methylation induced by PM_2.5 in rats. This study may provide a new insight into the physiological function of vitamin B to prevent the health effects induced by PM_2.5 .

STAT6 suppression prevents bleomycin-induced dermal fibrosis

Fibrosis of the skin and internal organs is a hallmark of systemic sclerosis (SSc). Although the pathogenesis of SSc is poorly understood, increasing evidence suggests that interleukins (IL)-4 and - 13 contribute to the pathogenesis of skin fibrosis by promoting collagen production and myofibroblast differentiation. Signal transducers and activators of transcription 6 (STAT6) is one of the most important downstream transcription factors activated by both IL-4 and IL-13. However, it is not completely understood whether STAT6 plays a role during the pathogenesis of skin fibrosis in SSc. In this study, we observed increased STAT6 phosphorylation in fibrotic skin samples collected from SSc patients as well as bleomycin-injected murine mice. Knockout of Stat6 in mice significantly (1) suppressed the expression of fibrotic cytokines including Il13, Il17, Il22, Ccl2, and the alternatively activated macrophage marker Cd206; (2) reduced the production of collagen and fibronectin, and (3) attenuated late-stage skin fibrosis and inflammation induced by bleomycin. Consistently, mice treated with STAT6 inhibitor AS1517499 also attenuated skin fibrosis on day 28. In addition, a co-culture experiment demonstrated that skin epithelial cells with STAT6 knockdown had reduced cytokine expression in response to IL-4/IL-13, and subsequently attenuated fibrotic protein expression in skin fibroblasts. On the other side, STAT6 depletion in skin fibroblasts attenuated IL-4/IL-13-induced cytokine and fibrotic marker expression, and reduced CXCL2 expression in co-cultured keratinocytes. In summary, our study highlighted an important yet not fully understood role of STAT6 in skin fibrosis by driving innate inflammation and differentiation of alternatively activated macrophages in response to injury.

Comparative Genetic Association Analysis of Human Genetic Susceptibility to Pulmonary and Lymph Node Tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) manifests itself primarily in the lungs as pulmonary disease (PTB) and sometimes disseminates to other organs to cause extra-pulmonary TB, such as lymph node TB (LNTB). This study aimed to investigate the role of host genetic polymorphism in immunity related genes to find a genetic basis for such differences.

METHODS

Sixty-three, Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in twenty-three, TB-immunity related genes including eleven innate immunity (SLCA11, VDR, TLR2, TLR4, TLR8, IRGM, P2RX7, LTA4H, SP110, DCSIGN and NOS2A) and twelve cytokine (TNFA, IFNG, IL2, Il12, IL18, IL1B, IL10, IL6, IL4, rs1794068, IL8 and TNFB) genes were investigated to find genetic associations in both PTB and LNTB as compared to healthy community controls. The serum cytokine levels were correlated for association with the genotypes.

RESULTS

PTB and LNTB showed differential genetic associations. The genetic variants in the cytokine genes (IFNG, IL12, IL4, TNFB and IL1RA and TLR2, 4 associated with PTB susceptibility and cytokine levels but not LNTB (p < 0.05). Similarly, genetic variants in LTA4H, P2RX7, DCSIGN and SP110 showed susceptibility to LNTB and not PTB. Pathway analysis showed abundance of cytokine related variants for PTB and apoptosis related variants for LNTB.

CONCLUSIONS

PTB and LNTB outcomes of TB infection have a genetic component and should be considered for any future functional studies or studies on susceptibility to pulmonary and extra-pulmonary TB.

Macrophage inflammatory and regenerative response periodicity is programmed by cell cycle and chromatin state

Cell cycle (CC) facilitates cell division via robust, cyclical gene expression. Protective immunity requires the expansion of pathogen-responsive cell types, but whether CC confers unique gene expression programs that direct the subsequent immunological response remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that single macrophages (MFs) adopt different plasticity states in CC, which leads to heterogeneous cytokine-induced polarization, priming, and repolarization programs. Specifically, MF plasticity to interferon gamma (IFNG) is substantially reduced during S-G2/M, whereas interleukin 4 (IL-4) induces S-G2/M-biased gene expression, mediated by CC-biased enhancers. Additionally, IL-4 polarization shifts the CC-phase distribution of MFs toward the G2/M phase, providing a subpopulation-specific mechanism for IL-4-induced, dampened IFNG responsiveness. Finally, we demonstrate CC-dependent MF responses in murine and human disease settings in vivo, including Th2-driven airway inflammation and pulmonary fibrosis, where MFs express an S-G2/M-biased tissue remodeling gene program. Therefore, MF inflammatory and regenerative responses are gated by CC in a cyclical, phase-dependent manner.

Adenosine kinase promotes post-infarction cardiac repair by epigenetically maintaining reparative macrophage phenotype

Pro-inflammatory and reparative macrophages are crucial in clearing necrotic myocardium and promoting cardiac repair after myocardial infarction (MI), respectively. Extracellular adenosine has been demonstrated to modulate macrophage polarization through adenosine receptors. However, the role of intracellular adenosine in macrophage polarization has not been explored and adenosine kinase (ADK) is a major enzyme regulating intracellular adenosine levels. Here, we aimed to elucidate the role of ADK in macrophage polarization and its subsequent impact on MI. We demonstrated that ADK was upregulated in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) after IL-4 treatment and was highly expressed in the infarct area at day 7 post-MI, especially in macrophages. Compared with wild-type mice, myeloid-specific Adk knockout mice showed increased infarct size, limited myofibroblast differentiation, reduced collagen deposition and more severe cardiac dysfunction after MI, which was related to impaired reparative macrophage phenotype in MI tissue. We found that ADK deletion or inhibition significantly decreased the expression of reparative genes, such as Arg1, Ym1, Fizz1, and Cd206 in BMDMs after IL-4 treatment. The increased intracellular adenosine due to Adk deletion inhibited transmethylation reactions and decreased the trimethylation of H3K4 in BMDMs after IL-4 treatment. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that Adk deletion suppressed reparative macrophage phenotype through decreased IRF4 expression, which resulted from reduced levels of H3K4me3 on the Irf4 promotor. Together, our study reveals that ADK exerts a protective effect against MI by promoting reparative macrophage polarization through epigenetic mechanisms.

GATA-3 in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): Tissue distribution and its regulation of IL-4/13a promoter

GATA3 is a transcription factor that plays an important role in T cell lineage differentiation and T-helper 2 (Th2) type immune responses. In this study, we developed two rat antibodies against Atlantic salmon GATA-3 (anti-rSsGATA-3a and anti-rSsGATA-3b, respectively). The western blotting and immunofluorescence results showed that anti-rSsGATA-3b antibodies recognized endogenous SsGATA-3 proteins, while the anti-rSsGATA-3a antibodies did not bind SsGATA-3. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that SsGATA-3 positive cells were detected in all tissues tested, with relatively high number of immune reactive cells in the gills and spleen. Furthermore, the immunohistochemical study revealed that SsGATA-3 was expressed in pillar cells, epithelial cells, chondrocytes, perichondrium cells, and some undifferentiated basal cells. In addition, we determined 577 bp of the upstream promoter sequence of SsIL-4/13a and found four motifs that matched SsGATA-3 binding sites. The promoter regions of SsIL-4/13a were assessed by transfecting four deletion reporter constructs and SsGATA-3 overexpression plasmids. The result showed that SsGATA-3 enhanced the activity of SsIL-4/13a promoters within the region ranging from -317 to -302 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site. Antibodies against Th2 markers such as GATA-3 are valuable in addressing the diversity of T cell responses in fish.

Interleukin 4/13 signaling in cardiac regeneration and repair

Interleukin 4 (IL4) and interleukin 13 (IL13) are closely related cytokines that have been classically attributed to type II immunity, namely, differentiation of T-helper 2 (TH2) cells and alternative activation of macrophages. Although the role of IL4/13 has been well described in various contexts such as defense against helminth parasites, pathogenesis of allergic disease, and several models of wound healing, relatively little is known about the role of IL4/13 in the heart following injury. Emerging literature has identified various roles for IL4/13 in animal models of cardiac regeneration as well as in the adult mammalian heart following myocardial injury. Notably, although IL4 and IL13 signal to hematopoietic cell types following myocardial infarction (MI) to promote wound healing phenotypes, there is substantial evidence that these cytokines can signal directly to non-hematopoietic cell types in the heart during development, homeostasis, and following injury. Comprehensive understanding of the molecular and cellular actions of IL4/13 in the heart is still lacking, but overall evidence to date suggests that activation of these cytokines results in beneficial outcomes with respect to cardiac repair. Here, we aim to comprehensively review the role of IL4 and IL13 and their prospective mechanisms in cardiac regeneration and repair.

[Effect of Maxing Shigan Decoction and dissembled prescriptions against airway inflammation in RSV-aggravated asthma and mechanism of regulating TRPV1]

This study investigated the effect of Maxing Shigan Decoction(MXSGD) and its disassembled prescriptions against the airway inflammation in respiratory syncytial virus(RSV)-aggravated asthma and the regulation of transient receptor potential vanilloid-1(TRPV1). To be specific, ovalbumin(OVA) and RSV were used to induce aggravated asthma in mice(female, C57BL/6). Then the model mice were intervened by MXSGD and the disassembled prescriptions. The eosinophil(EOS) in peripheral blood, inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid(BALF), enhanced pause(Penh) variation, and lung pathological damage in each group were observed, and the changes of interleukin(IL)-4, IL-13, substance P(SP), and prostaglandin E2(PGE2) in BALF were mea-sured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA). Quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction(qPCR) and Western blot were used to detect mRNA and protein of TRPV1 in mouse lung tissue. In the in vitro experiment, 16 HBE cells were stimulated with IL-4 and RSV. Then the changes of TRPV1 expression after the intervention with the serum containing MXSGD and its disassembled prescriptions were observed. Besides, the intracellular Ca~(2+) level after the stimulation with TRPV1 agonist was evaluated. The results showed that the mice in the model group had obvious asthma phenotype, the levels of various inflammatory cells in the peripheral blood and BALF and Penh were significantly increased(P&lt;0.05, P&lt;0.01), and the lung tissue was severely damaged compared with the control group. Compared with the model group, the levels of EOS in the peripheral blood and BALF were significantly decreased in the MXSGD group, the SG group and the MXC group(P&lt;0.05, P&lt;0.01). The levels of WBC and neutrophils in BALF were significantly decreased in the MXSGD group and SG group(P&lt;0.01), the levels of neutrophils in BALF were decreased in the MXC group(P&lt;0.05). The improvement effect of the MXGSD on the level of inflammatory cells in peripheral blood and BALF was better than that of two disassembled groups(P&lt;0.05, P&lt;0.01). After 50 mg·mL~(-1) acetylcholine chloride stimulation, the Penh values of the MXSGD group and the MXC group significantly decreased(P&lt;0.01), and the Penh value of the SG group decreased(P&lt;0.05). The levels of IL-4, IL-13, PGE2 and SP in BALF could be significantly decreased in the MXSGD group(P&lt;0.05, P&lt;0.01), the levels of IL-13 and PGE2 in BALF could be decreased in the MXC group(P&lt;0.05, P&lt;0.01), and the levels of IL-13, PGE2 and SP in BALF could be decreased in the SG group(P&lt;0.05, P&lt;0.01). MXSGD could down-regulate the protein and mRNA expression of TRPV1 in lung tissue(P&lt;0.05, P&lt;0.01). The serum containing MXSGD and its disassembled prescriptions could down-regulate TRPV1 expression in 16 HBE cells stimulated by IL-4 combined with RSV and inhibit the inward flow of Ca~(2+) induced by TRPV1 agonist, especially the serum containing MXSGD which showed better effect than the serum containing disassembled ones(P&lt;0.05). In vivo and in vitro experiments verified the protective effect of MXSGD and its disassembled prescriptions against airway inflammation in RSV-exacerbated asthma, the whole decoction thus possessed synergy in treating asthma, with better performance than the dissembled prescriptions. Different groups of prescription had made contributions in improving airway hyperresponsiveness, anti-allergy and anti-inflammation. The mechanism is the likelihood that it regulates TRPV1 channel and levels of related inflammatory mediators.

Relationship of persistent lymphocytosis, antibody titers, and proviral load with expression of interleukin-12, interferon-γ, interleukin-2, interleukin-4, interleukin-10, and transforming growth factor-β in cows infected with bovine leukemia virus from a high-prevalence dairy complex

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) subclinical infection promotes persistent lymphocytosis (PL), which is related to susceptibility and progression to lymphoma. Moreover, lymphocyte counts directly correlate with BLV antibody titers and proviral load, and cell immune responses are considered atypical due to immune suppression. In order to determine the relationship of PL, antibody titers, and proviral load with interleukin (IL)-12, interferon (IFN)-γ, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β expression in a 3-month interval, 58 cows were selected (30 BLV⁺ and 28 BLV^-) from a high-prevalence dairy herd to complete 3 monthly blood samplings for the assessment of PL, BLV antibody titers, BLV proviral load, and IL-12, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β expression. At sampling conclusion, the BLV-infected cows were grouped according to PL, BLV proviral load, and BLV antibody titers as follows: BLV⁺PL⁺ (n = 16) and BLV⁺PL^- (n = 14); high proviral load (HPL) (n = 18) and low proviral load (LPL) (n = 13); high antibody titers (HAT) (n = 17) and low antibody titers (LAT) (n = 14). The BLV⁺PL⁺ cows showed significantly higher proviral load and antibody titers than the BLV⁺PL^- group; however, the former suggested spread presumably unrelated to lymphoma outcome, because HPL was observed in PL^- cows in the last sampling. Consistent with the data, a higher antibody response strongly indicated BLV susceptibility since it was linked to PL⁺ occurrence and a cytokine profile compatible with immune suppression. Furthermore, a reversion to lower antibody titers was observed in cows with HPL far ahead of time, most likely due to long-term immune suppression. In addition, high expression of IL-10 and TGF-β was associated with reduced IL-12, IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-4 expression alongside PL, HAT, and HPL in BLV-infected cows, suggesting an IL-10- and TGF-β-induced immune suppression. The IL-10 expression was increasing throughout, implying disease progression, as described. In conclusion, the proliferative expansion of lymphocytes known as PL might enhance a regulatory-rich cell population (Bregs and/or Tregs) that secretes IL-10 and TGF-β, leading to immune suppression. Further studies must be conducted regarding the types of regulatory cells involved in BLV-induced immune suppression.

Cytokine-polymorphisms associated with Preeclampsia: A review

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia (PE) is a syndromic disorder that affects 2% to 8% of pregnancies and is diagnosed principally when hypertension appears in the second-d half of pregnancy. WHO estimates the incidence of PE to be seven times higher in developing countries than in developed countries. Severe preeclampsia/eclampsia is one of the most important causes of maternal mortality, associated with 50,000 to 100,000 annual deaths globally as well as serious fetal and neonatal morbidity and mortality, especially in developing countries. Even though evidence from family-based studies suggest PE has a heritable component, its etiology, and specific genetic contributions remain unclear. Many studies examining the genetic factors contributing to PE have been conducted, most of them are focused on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Given that PE has a very important inflammatory component, is mandatory to examine cytokine-SNPs for elucidating all mechanisms involved in this pathology. In this review, we describe the most important cytokine-polymorphisms associated with the onset and development of PE. We aim to provide current and relevant evidence in this regard.

METHODS

We searched English databases such as PubMed and the National Center for Biotechnology Information. The publication time of the papers was set from the establishment of the databases to February 2022. All studies about Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokines polymorphisms were included in our study.

RESULTS

SNPs in IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, and IL-22 are associated with the development, early-onset and severity of PE, being the Th1/Th2/Th17 responses affected by the presence of these SNPs.

CONCLUSIONS

The changes in Th1/Th2/Th17 response modify processes such as placentation, control of inflammation, and vascular function. Nonetheless, association studies have shown different results depending on sample size, diagnostic, and population.