Crocin, safranal and picrocrocin from saffron (Crocus sativus L.) inhibit the growth of human cancer cells in vitro

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-mitophagy effects of trans sodium crocetinate on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in BALB/C57 mice

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the degeneration of myelin and inflammation in the central nervous system. Trans sodium crocetinate (TSC), a novel synthetic carotenoid compound, possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of TSC against the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a well-established model for MS. Female BALB/C57 mice were divided into different groups, including control, EAE, vehicle, TSC-treated (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, administered via gavage) + EAE, methyl prednisone acetate + EAE, and TSC-treated (100 mg/kg, administered via gavage for 28 days) groups. EAE was induced using MOG35-55, complete Freund's adjuvant, and pertussis toxin. In the mice spinal cord tissues, the oxidative markers (GSH and MDA) were measured using spectrophotometry and histological evaluation was performed. Mitophagic pathway proteins (PINK1and PARKIN) and inflammatory factors (IL-1β and TNF-α) were evaluated by western blot. Following 21 days post-induction, EAE mice exhibited weight loss, and the paralysis scores increased on day 13 but recovered after TSC (100 mg/kg) administration on day 16. Furthermore, TSC (50 and 100 mg/kg) reversed the altered levels of MDA and GSH in the spinal cord tissue of EAE mice. TSC (100 mg/kg) also decreased microgliosis, demyelination, and the levels of inflammatory markers IL-1β and TNF-α. Notably, TSC (100 mg/kg) modulated the mitophagy pathway by reducing PINK1 and Parkin protein levels. These findings demonstrate that TSC protects spinal cord tissue against EAE-induced MS through anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-mitophagy mechanisms.

Enhancing the purification of crocin-I from saffron through the combination of multicolumn countercurrent chromatography and green solvents

Crocin-I, a valuable natural compound found in saffron (Crocus sativus L.), is the most abundant among the various crocin structures. Developing a cost-effective and scalable purification process to produce high-purity crocin-I is of great interest for future investigations into its biological properties and its potential applications in the treatment of neurological disorders. However purifying crocin-I through single-column preparative chromatography (batch) poses a yield-purity trade-off due to structural similarities among crocins, meaning that the choice of the collection window sacrifices either yield in benefit of higher purity or vice versa. This study demonstrates how the continuous countercurrent operating mode resolves this dilemma. Herein, a twin-column MCSGP (multicolumn countercurrent solvent gradient purification) process was employed to purify crocin-I. This study involved an environmentally friendly ethanolic extraction of saffron stigma, followed by an investigation into the stability of the crocin-I within the feed under varying storage conditions to ensure a stable feed composition during the purification. Then, the batch purification process was initially designed, optimized, and subsequently followed by the scale-up to the MCSGP process. To ensure a fair comparison, both processes were evaluated under similar conditions (e.g., similar total column volume). The results showed that, at a purity grade of 99.7%, the MCSGP technique demonstrated significant results, namely + 334% increase in recovery + 307% increase in productivity, and - 92% reduction in solvent consumption. To make the purification process even greener, the only organic solvent employed was ethanol, without the addition of any additive. In conclusion, this study presents the MCSGP as a reliable, simple, and economical technique for purifying crocin-I from saffron extract, demonstrating for the first time that it can be effectively applied as a powerful approach for process intensification in the purification of natural products from complex matrices.

Exploring the therapeutic efficacy of crocetin in oncology: an evidence-based review

With cancer being a leading cause of death globally, there is an urgent need to improve therapeutic strategies and identify effective chemotherapeutics. This study aims to highlight the potential of crocetin, a natural product derived from certain plants, as an anticancer agent. It was  conducted an extensive review of the existing literature to gather and analyze the most recent data on the chemical properties of crocetin and its observed effects in various in vitro and in vivo studies. The study  particularly focused on studies that examined crocetin's impact on cell cycle dynamics, apoptosis, caspases and antioxidant enzyme levels, tumor angiogenesis, inflammation, and overall tumor growth. Crocetin exhibited diverse anti-tumorigenic activities including inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis induction, angiogenesis suppression, and potentiation of chemotherapy. Multiple cellular and molecular pathways such as the PI3K/Akt, MAPK and NF-κB were modulated by it. Crocetin demonstrates promising anti-cancer properties and offers potential as an adjunctive or alternative therapy in oncology. More large-scale, rigorously designed clinical trials are needed to establish therapeutic protocols and ascertain the comprehensive benefits and safety profile of crocetin in diverse cancer types.

Synergistic anticancer effects of crocin combined with deuterium-depleted water on HT-29 cells

Colorectal cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in the world and the study of the role of nutrients in preventing or inhibiting the growth of this cancer is of interest to scientists. In this article, the synergistic effect of deuterium-depleted water(DDW) and crocin at specific concentrations on HT-29 cells was investigated. In this regard, HT-29 cells were grown in RPMI medium containing DDW, alone and in combination with crocin for 24, 48 and 72 h. Cell viability, cell cycle changes and antioxidant enzymes status were determined by MTT assay, flow cytometry and quantitative luminescence methods, respectively. The results of these analyses proved the cell growth inhibitory effect of deuterium alone and its synergistic effect in combination with crocin. The cell cycle analysis showed an increase in the number of cells in the G0 and G1 phases whereas there was a decrease in the number of cells in the S, G2 and M phases. The activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase enzymes also decreased compared to the control group that is a reason to increase Malonyl dialdehyde factor. The results suggested that a combination of DDW and crocin can open a new strategic approach in the prevention and treatment of colorectal cancer.

Antimicrobial and anti-aflatoxigenic activities of nanoemulsions based on Achillea millefolium and Crocus sativus flower extracts as green promising agents for food preservatives

BACKGROUND

Although the mechanism of action of nanoemulsion is still unclear, the modern use of nanoemulsions made from natural extracts as antimicrobial and anti-aflatoxigenic agents represents a potential food preservation and a safety target.

METHODS

Two natural nanoemulsion extracts of Crocus sativus (the saffron flower) and Achillea millefolium (the yarrow flower) were produced in the current study using a low-energy method that included carboxymethylcellulose and Arabic gum. The synthesized nanoemulsion was fully identified by different analytical methods. Detection of the volatile content was completed using GC-MS analysis. The antioxidant potential, and phenolic compounds content were analyzed in the extractions. The synthesized nanoemulsions were screened for their antimicrobial potential in addition to their anti-aflatoxigenic activity.

RESULTS

The droplet size of Saffron flowers was finer (121.64 ± 2.18 nm) than yarrow flowers (151.21 ± 1.12 nm). The Zeta potential measurements of the yarrow flower (-16.31 ± 2.54 mV) and the saffron flower (-18.55 ± 2.31 mV) both showed high stability, along with low PDI values (0.34-0.41). The nanoemulsion of yarrow flower revealed 51 compounds using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS), with hexanal (16.25%), β-Pinene (7.41%), β-Myrcene (5.24%), D-Limonene (5.58%) and Caryophyllene (4.38%) being the most prevalent. Additionally, 31 compounds were detected in the saffron nanoemulsion, with D-limonene (4.89%), isophorone (12.29%), 4-oxy isophorone (8.19%), and safranal (44.84%) being the most abundant. Compared to the nanoemulsion of the yarrow flower, the saffron nanoemulsion had good antibacterial and antifungal activity. Saffron nanoemulsion inhibited total fungal growth by 69.64-71.90% in a simulated liquid medium and demonstrated the most significant decrease in aflatoxin production. Infected strawberry fruits coated with nanoemulsion extracts exhibited high antimicrobial activity in the form of saffron flower and yarrow flower extract nanoemulsions, which inhibited and/or controlled the growth of Aspergillus fungi. Due to this inhibition, the lag phase was noticeably prolonged, the cell load decreased, and the stability time increased.

CONCLUSION

This study will contribute to expanding the theoretical research and utilization of nanoemulsions as green protective agents in agricultural and food industries for a promising protection from the invasion of some pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

A Review of the Chemistry and Biological Activities of Natural Colorants, Dyes, and Pigments: Challenges, and Opportunities for Food, Cosmetics, and Pharmaceutical Application

Natural pigments are important sources for the screening of bioactive lead compounds. This article reviewed the chemistry and therapeutic potentials of over 570 colored molecules from plants, fungi, bacteria, insects, algae, and marine sources. Moreover, related biological activities, advanced extraction, and identification approaches were reviewed. A variety of biological activities, including cytotoxicity against cancer cells, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, anti-microbial, antiviral, and anti-protozoal activities, have been reported for different pigments. Considering their structural backbone, they were classified as naphthoquinones, carotenoids, flavonoids, xanthones, anthocyanins, benzotropolones, alkaloids, terpenoids, isoprenoids, and non-isoprenoids. Alkaloid pigments were mostly isolated from bacteria and marine sources, while flavonoids were mostly found in plants and mushrooms. Colored quinones and xanthones were mostly extracted from plants and fungi, while colored polyketides and terpenoids are often found in marine sources and fungi. Carotenoids are mostly distributed among bacteria, followed by fungi and plants. The pigments isolated from insects have different structures, but among them, carotenoids and quinone/xanthone are the most important. Considering good manufacturing practices, the current permitted natural colorants are: Carotenoids (canthaxanthin, β-carotene, β-apo-8'-carotenal, annatto, astaxanthin) and their sources, lycopene, anthocyanins, betanin, chlorophyllins, spirulina extract, carmine and cochineal extract, henna, riboflavin, pyrogallol, logwood extract, guaiazulene, turmeric, and soy leghemoglobin.

Crocin Attenuates NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation by Inhibiting Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species and Ameliorates Monosodium Urate-Induced Mouse Peritonitis

Crocin is a hydrophilic carotenoid pigment found in the stigma of Crocus sativus or the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides. In this study, we investigated the effects of Crocin on the activation of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in J774A.1 murine macrophage cells and monosodium urate (MSU)-induced peritonitis. Crocin significantly inhibited Nigericin-, adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-, MSU-induced interleukin (IL)-1β secretion, and caspase-1 cleavage without affecting pro-IL-1β and pro-caspase-1. Crocin also suppressed gasdermin-D cleavage and lactate dehydrogenase release and enhanced cell viability, indicating that Crocin reduces pyroptosis. Similar effects were observed in primary mouse macrophages. However, Crocin did not affect poly(dA:dT)-induced absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) and muramyl dipeptide-induced NLRP1 inflammasomes. Crocin decreased Nigericin-induced oligimerization and the speck formation of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC). Crocin also dramatically alleviated the ATP-induced production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS). Finally, Crocin ameliorated the MSU-induced production of IL-1β and IL-18 and the recruitment of neutrophils during peritoneal inflammation. These results suggest that Crocin suppresses NLRP3 inflammasome activation by blocking mtROS production and ameliorates MSU-induced mouse peritonitis. Thus, Crocin may have therapeutic potential in various NLRP3 inflammasome-related inflammatory diseases.

An In Vitro Study of Saffron Carotenoids: The Effect of Crocin Extracts and Dimethylcrocetin on Cancer Cell Lines

Crocus sativus L. has various pharmacological properties, known for over 3600 years. These properties are attributed mainly to biologically active substances, which belong to the terpenoid group and include crocins, picrocrocin and safranal. The aim of the current work was to examine the effects of crocins (CRCs) and their methyl ester derivate dimethylcrocetin (DMCRT) on glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in terms of cytotoxicity and gene expression, implicated in proapoptotic and cell survival pathways. Cell cytotoxicity was assessed with Alamar Blue fluorescence assay after treatment with saffron carotenoids for 24, 48 and 72 h and concentrations ranging from 22.85 to 0.18 mg/mL for CRCs and 11.43 to 0.09 mg/mL for DMCRT. In addition, BAX, BID, BCL2, MYCN, SOD1, and GSTM1 gene expression was studied by qRT-PCR analysis. Both compounds demonstrated cytotoxic effects against glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. They induced apoptosis, via BAX and BID upregulation, MYCN and BCL-2, SOD1, GSTM1 downregulation. The current research denotes the possible anticancer properties of saffron carotenoids, which are considered safe phytochemicals, already tested in clinical trials for their health promoting properties.

Anti-Depressant Properties of Crocin Molecules in Saffron

Saffron is a valued herb, obtained from the stigmas of the C. sativus Linn (Iridaceae), with therapeutic effects. It has been described in pharmacopoeias to be variously acting, including as an anti-depressant, anti-carcinogen, and stimulant agent. The therapeutic effects of saffron are harbored in its bioactive molecules, notably crocins, the subject of this paper. Crocins have been demonstrated to act as a monoamine oxidase type A and B inhibitor. Furthermore, saffron petal extracts have experimentally been shown to impact contractile response in electrical field stimulation. Other research suggests that saffron also inhibits the reuptake of monoamines, exhibits N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonism, and improves brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling. A host of experimental studies found saffron/crocin to be similarly effective as fluoxetine and imipramine in the treatment of depression disorders. Saffron and crocins propose a natural solution to combat depressive disorders. However, some hurdles, such as stability and delivery, need to be overcome.

Application of Quality by Design Approach to the Pharmaceutical Development of Anticancer Crude Extracts of Crocus sativus Perianth

The application of the Quality by Design (QbD) concept to extracts obtained from Crocus sativus perianth with potential anticancer activity will ensure the safety, efficiency, and quality control of the entire technological process, as well as determine the critical factors affecting the quality of extracts. Potentially critical points of the production of the plant extracts, including the cultivation and processing of the plant materials, the extraction process, and the choice of solvents, were identified using the Ishikawa diagram and FMEA risk assessment methods as well as the corrective actions proposed. The Herbal Chemical Marker Ranking System (HerbMars) approach was used to justify the Q-markers choice of Crocus, which takes into account bioavailability, pharmacological activity, and the presence of the selected standard. An experimental design (DoE) was used to assess the influence of potentially critical factors on the efficiency of the compound extraction from raw materials with water or ethanol. The presence of 16 compounds in Crocus perianth was determined by HPLC and their quantitative assessment was established. Selected compounds (ferulic acid, mangiferin, crocin, rutin, isoquercitrin) can be used for the quality control of Crocus perianth. In addition, the stigmas from the Volyn region met the requirements of ISO 3632 for saffron as a spice (category I). The cytotoxic activity against melanoma (IGR39) and triple-negative breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cell lines of the hydroethanolic extract of C. sativus perianth was significantly more pronounced than the water extract, probably due to the chemical composition of the constituent components. The results show that the QbD approach is a powerful tool for process development for the production of quality herbal drugs.

The Pharmacological Activities of Crocus sativus L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents

Crocus species are mainly distributed in North Africa, Southern and Central Europe, and Western Asia, used in gardens and parks as ornamental plants, while Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is the only species that is cultivated for edible purpose. The use of saffron is very ancient; besides the use as a spice, saffron has long been known also for its medical and coloring qualities. Due to its distinctive flavor and color, it is used as a spice, which imparts food preservative activity owing to its antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. This updated review discusses the biological properties of Crocus sativus L. and its phytoconstituents, their pharmacological activities, signaling pathways, and molecular targets, therefore highlighting it as a potential herbal medicine. Clinical studies regarding its pharmacologic potential in clinical therapeutics and toxicity studies were also reviewed. For this updated review, a search was performed in the PubMed, Science, and Google Scholar databases using keywords related to Crocus sativus L. and the biological properties of its phytoconstituents. From this search, only the relevant works were selected. The phytochemistry of the most important bioactive compounds in Crocus sativus L. such as crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal and also dozens of other compounds was studied and identified by various physicochemical methods. Isolated compounds and various extracts have proven their pharmacological efficacy at the molecular level and signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, toxicity studies and clinical trials were analyzed. The research results highlighted the various pharmacological potentials such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, antidepressant, hypolipidemic, and antihyperglycemic properties and protector of retinal lesions. Due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, saffron has proven effective as a natural food preservative. Starting from the traditional uses for the treatment of several diseases, the bioactive compounds of Crocus sativus L. have proven their effectiveness in modern pharmacological research. However, pharmacological studies are needed in the future to identify new mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetic studies, new pharmaceutical formulations for target transport, and possible interaction with allopathic drugs.

Synergistic effects of exosomal crocin or curcumin compounds and HPV L1-E7 polypeptide vaccine construct on tumor eradication in C57BL/6 mouse model

Cervical cancer is the most common malignant tumor in females worldwide. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is associated with the occurrence of cervical cancer. Thus, developing an effective and low-cost vaccine against HPV infection, especially in developing countries is an important issue. In this study, a novel HPV L1-E7 fusion multiepitope construct designed by immunoinformatics tools was expressed in bacterial system. HEK-293T cells-derived exosomes were generated and characterized to use as a carrier for crocin and curcumin compounds. The exosomes loaded with crocin and curcumin compounds as a chemotherapeutic agent (ExoCrocin and ExoCurcumin) were used along with the L1-E7 polypeptide for evaluation of immunological and anti-tumor effects in C57BL/6 mouse model. In vitro studies showed that ExoCrocin and ExoCurcumin were not cytotoxic at a certain dose, and they could enter tumor cells. In vivo studies indicated that combination of the L1-E7 polypeptide with ExoCrocin or ExoCurcumin could produce a significant level of immunity directed toward Th1 response and CTL activity. These regimens showed the protective and therapeutic effects against tumor cells (the percentage of tumor-free mice: ~100%). In addition, both ExoCrocin and ExoCurcumin represented similar immunological and anti-tumor effects. Generally, the use of exosomal crocin or curcumin forms along with the L1-E7 polypeptide could significantly induce T-cell immune responses and eradicate tumor cells.

Photo-induced mitochondrial DNA damage and NADH depletion by -NO2 modified Ru(II) complexes

Two mitochondria-localized Ru(ii) complexes with photo-labile ligands were reported to exert one- and two-photon activatable anticancer activity through a dual-function mechanism, i.e. mitochondrial DNA covalent binding after photo-induced ligand dissociation and photo-catalyzed NADH depletion, thus displaying good activity towards cisplatin-resistant cancer cells under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions.

The effect of salt stress on the production of apocarotenoids and the expression of genes related to their biosynthesis in saffron

Saffron stigmas are widely used as food additives and as traditional medicine in Iran and many other countries. The unique taste, flavor and pharmaceutical properties of saffron stigmas are due to the presence of three apocarotenoids secondary metabolites crocin, picrocrocin and safranal. There is limited knowledge about the effect of environmental stresses on the metabolism of apocarotenoids in saffron. We analyzed the content of crocin and picrocrocin and the expression of key genes of apocarotenoid biosynthesis pathways (CsCCD2, CsCCD4, CsUGT2, CsCHY-β and CsLCYB) in saffron plants exposed to moderate (90 mM) and high (150 mM) salt (NaCl) concentrations. Measuring ion concentrations in leaves showed an increased accumulation of Na⁺ and decreased uptake of K⁺ in salt treated compared to control plants indicating an effective salt stress. HPLC analysis of apocarotenoids revealed that crocin production was significantly halted (P < 0.05) with increasing salt concentration while picrocrocin level did not change with moderate salt but significantly dropped by high salt concentration. Real-time PCR analysis revealed a progressive decrease in transcript levels of CsUGT2 and CsLCYB genes with increasing salt concentration (P < 0.05). The expression of CsCCD2 and CsCHY-β tolerated moderate salt concentration but significantly downregulated with high salt concentration. CsCCD4 however responded differently to salt concentration being decreased with moderate salt but increased at higher salt concentration. Our result suggested that salt stress had an adverse effect on the production of saffron apocarotenoids and it is likely influencing the quality of saffron stigma produced.

Status analysis of herbal drug therapies in epilepsy: advancements in the use of medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory properties

BACKGROUND

Use of plants and plant products in health care has shown exponential increase in past two decades.

INTRODUCTION

In-spite of the availability of well-established pharmacotherapy for epilepsy, a large no of population still explores alternative treatments due to refractory seizures, adverse effects of drugs, chronic treatment, inaccessibility of standard therapies in rural areas and the social stigma attached to the disease. Various studies on medicinal plants showed the protective effect of herbals in animal models of epilepsy.

METHOD

In the present review, a status analysis of the traditional use of various medicinal plants in epilepsy with a special focus on plats having anti-inflammatory potential is recorded.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

The shortcomings of research on medicinal plants which needs to be explored further in order to tackle the growing need of safer and effective drugs for epilepsy are discussed. Overall, there is a huge scope of herbal drugs in CNS disorders especially epilepsy, either as an adjunct by reducing the dose and thus side effects of standard anti-epileptic drugs or as standalone agent . Although, there is still an urgent need of well planned randomized controlled clinical trials to validate their efficacy and safety.

Anticancer medicinal plants used by Moroccan people: Ethnobotanical, preclinical, phytochemical and clinical evidence

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cancer is a major health problem worldwide. Drugs' side effects and high cost of treatment remain the main limitations of conventional therapy. Nowadays, developing new therapeutic strategies is necessary. Therefore, medicinal plants can be used to promote novel, safe, and potent anticancer drugs through their natural compounds.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to provide scientific evidence related to the anticancer activities of medicinal plants used by Moroccan people as well as approving their efficiency as an alternative cancer therapy.

METHODS

An ethnopharmacological review approach was conducted by analyzing Moroccan published ethnobotanical surveys from 1991 to 2019 and consulting peer-reviewed articles worldwide to investigate the pharmacological, phytochemical, and clinical effects related to the anticancer activities. Plants with anticancer proprieties were classified into four groups: (a) plants only cited as anticancer, (b) plants pharmacologically investigated, (c) plants with bioactive compounds tested as anticancer, and (d) plants clinically investigated.

RESULTS

A total of 103 plant species belonging to 47 botanical families used by Moroccans to treat cancer have been recorded. Aristolochia fontanesii Boiss. & Reut, Marrubium vulgare L., and Allium sativum L. are the most referred species in Morocco. Medicinal plants used for cancer treatment were classified into four groups: 48 species were used traditionally as anticancer (group a), 41 species pharmacologically investigated for their anticancer activities (group b), 32 plants with bioactive compounds tested against cancer (group c), and eight plants were clinically investigated for their anticancer effects (group d). Out of 82 plants' extracts pharmacologically tested (from plants of group b), only 24 ones show a significant cytotoxic effect. A total of seventy-seven compounds are isolated from plants of group (c). However, only six ones were clinically evaluated, and most of them exhibit a beneficial effect on cancerous patients with few side effects.

CONCLUSION

Medicinal plants can be a promising candidate for alternative cancer therapy. Nevertheless, it is critical to increasing the clinical trials to confirm their beneficial effect on patients with cancer. Overall, this review can serve as a database for further studies.

Green Approaches for Cancer Management: an Effective Tool for Health Care

BACKGROUND

Cancer is one of the leading causes of an increasing number of death incidences in modern society. As the population increases, there is increased thrust for screening newer anticancer (phytoconstituents) agents to manage cancers. Around 35000 herbal phytoconstituents are obtained from plants, animals and marine sources to create awareness of green therapy in managing, reducing, minimizing side effects of modern chemotherapeutics and radiation therapy. The herbal plants are the richest sources of natural remedies and bioactive compounds that promote medicines' alternative systems as a green approach for managing various cancers. The terpenoids, saponins, volatile oils, and flavonoid phytoconstituents are most efficiently used to manage cancer with minimal side effects.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of the present study are to investigate the efficacious, potent and safe use of herbal phytoconstituents extracts in the management of cancers and study their mechanism of action through alteration of transcription proteins, blocking G-2/M phase, distortion of tubulin structure, generation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, cell cycle arrest, anti-proliferation induced cell apoptosis for target specific cancer treatment. The information was collected from databases such as ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, Academia, MedLine, and WoS.

METHODS

The Literature was surveyed and screened keywords like cancer therapeutics, metastasis, proliferation, cell apoptosis, cell lines, phytoconstituents for cancer management, and related disorders.

RESULTS

The findings suggested that the crude extracts act as an antioxidant, free radical scavenger, or anti-aging agent exploited in the management of cancers along with treatment of other infectious diseases like ulcers, gout, liver diseases, respiratory tract infection, renal disorders, blood disorders, CVD, anti-inflammatory and several wound infections.

CONCLUSION

The phytoactive moieties having herbal extracts help improve the compromised immunity status of affected patients and provide measures for scientific studies of newer anticancer agents in herbal industries.

Crocetin Exerts a Cardio-protective Effect on Mice with Coxsackievirus B3-induced Acute Viral Myocarditis

Previous research has proven that coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) is broadly considered virus used in the experimental model of animals, which causes myocarditis in humans. To investigate whether there exists a cardio-protective effect of crocetin in an experimental murine model of acute viral myocarditis (AVM). Male BALB/c mice were randomly assigned to three groups: control, myocarditis treated with placebo and myocarditis treated with crocetin (n = 40 animals per group). Myocarditis was established by intraperitoneal injection with CVB3. Twenty-four hours after infection, crocetin was intraperitoneally administered for 14 consecutive days. Twenty mice were randomly selected from each group to monitor a 14-day survival rate. On day 7 and day 14, eight surviving mice from each group were sacrificed and their hearts and blood were obtained to perform serological and histological examinations. Expression of ROCKs, interleukin-17 (IL-17), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), RORγt, and Foxp3 was quantified by RT-PCR. Plasma levels of TNFα, IL-1β and IL-17 were measured by ELISA. In addition, protein levels of IL-17 and ROCK2 in cardiac tissues were analyzed by Western blot. Crocetin treatment significantly increased survival, attenuated myocardial necrotic lesions, reduced CVB3 replication and expression of ROCK2 and IL-17 in the infected hearts. ROCK pathway inhibition was cardio-protective in viral myocarditis with increased survival, decreased viral replication, and inflammatory response. These findings suggest that crocetin is a potential therapeutic agent for patients with viral myocarditis.

Saffron bioactives crocin, crocetin and safranal: effect on oxidative stress and mechanisms of action

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is used as a spice for its organoleptic characteristics related to its coloring and flavoring properties, and it has been also used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. The main chemical components responsible for these properties are crocin, crocetin and safranal. These compounds have been shown to have a wide spectrum of biological activities, including several properties as antigenotoxic, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, hypotensive, hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antidegenerative and antidepressant, among others. This review article highlights the antioxidant effects of these bioactive compounds to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the mechanisms of action involved, since there are a multitude of diseases related to oxidative stress and the generation of free radicals (FRs). Recent studies have shown that the effects of crocin, crocetin and safranal against oxidative stress include the reduction in lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde [MDA] levels) and nitric oxide (NO) levels, and the increase in the levels of glutathione, antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase [SOD], catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase [GPx]) and thiol content. Therefore, due to the great antioxidant effects of these saffron compounds, it makes saffron a potential source of bioactive extracts for the development of bioactive ingredients, which can be used to produce functional foods.

Study of Synergistic and Protective Effects of Three Different Polar Saffron Extracts and Photon Radiation on Human Colorectal Cancer Cells (HT-29) and Normal Human Fibroblasts

Background: There are some hypotheses about radiation-sensitizing and radiation-protective effects of antioxidants. Saffron, dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L., is a precious medicinal plant that contains an impressive variety of plant compounds such as crocin, crocetin, and safranal that act as antioxidants. The present study examined the cytotoxic effects of saffron extracts with different polarity and their synergism or protective effects with radiation on a colorectal cancer cell line (HT-29) and normal human fibroblasts. Objectives: The aim was to find a natural agent to improve radiotherapy efficacy. Methods: HT-29 colorectal cancer cells and normal human fibroblasts were cultured in RPMI1640 medium, incubated with different concentrations of different saffron extracts (50-250 µg/ml), and then were exposed to a dose of 8 Gy of X-rays. The cytotoxicity effect was determined by the MTT assay. Results: Saffron extracts decreased cell viability in HT-29 colorectal cancer cells and normal human fibroblasts as a concentration-dependent manner. Combination radiotherapy with polar saffron extract in most doses showed synergistic effects on HT-29 cell death while it did not show any distinctive synergistic effect in normal cells. Semi-polar and non-Polar extracts just in low doses had synergistic effects on tumor cells. These two extracts did not show any protective effects on normal cells. Conclusions: Among the various saffron extracts, polar saffron extract and low doses of non-polar saffron extract in combination with radiation increase radiation sensitivity and cell death in tumor cells, while they do not increase radiation sensitivity in normal cells and even protect normal cells to some extent.

Investigation on penetration of saffron components through lipid bilayer bound to spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 using steered molecular dynamics simulation

A coronavirus identified as COVID-19 is the reason for an infection outbreak which is started in December 2019. NO completely effective drugs and treatments are not recognized for this virus. Recently, saffron and its compounds were used to treat different viral diseases. Saffron extract and its major ingredients have shown antiviral effects. In this study, the steered molecular dynamics simulation was used for investigating the effect of four main components of saffron that include: crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin as candidate for drug molecules, on COVID-19. The binding energies between drug molecules and spike protein and the main protease of the virus were evaluated. The obtained results based on Lennard-Jones and electrostatic potentials demonstrated that crocetin has a high affinity towards spike protein and also the main protease of the virus. Also, the quantum mechanics calculations elucidated that the crocetin could overcome energy barrier of lipid bilayer with strong dipole moment and polarizability. The pharmacokinetic and ADMET properties proved that crocetin could be a suitable drug candidate. So, crocetin could be a promising drug for treatment of COVID-19.

The involvement of NLRP3 inflammasome in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, and it is characterised by progressive deterioration in cognitive and memory abilities, which can severely influence the elderly population's daily living abilities. Although researchers have made great efforts in the field of AD, there are still no well-established strategies to prevent and treat this disease. Therefore, better clarification of the molecular mechanisms associated with the onset and progression of AD is critical to provide a theoretical basis for the establishment of novel preventive and therapeutic strategies. Currently, it is generally believed that neuroinflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. Inflammasome, a multiprotein complex, is involved in the innate immune system, and it can mediate inflammatory responses and pyroptosis, which lead to neurodegeneration. Among the various types of inflammasomes, the NLRP3 inflammasome is the most characterised in neurodegenerative diseases, especially in AD. The activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome causes the generation of caspase-1-mediated interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 in microglia cells, where neuroinflammation is involved in the development and progression of AD. Thus, the NLRP3 inflammasome is likely to be a crucial therapeutic molecular target for AD via regulating neuroinflammation. In this review, we summarise the current knowledge on the role and regulatory mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenic mechanisms of AD. We also focus on a series of potential therapeutic treatments targeting NLRP3 inflammasome for AD. Further clarification of the regulatory mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome in AD may provide more useful clues to develop novel AD treatment strategies.

Association between chronic stress and Alzheimer's disease: Therapeutic effects of Saffron

Chronic stress and high levels of glucocorticoids produce functional and structural changes in brain and especially in the hippocampus, an important limbic system structure that plays a key role in cognitive functions including learning and memory. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time. Indeed, cognitive dysfunction, neuronal atrophy, and synaptic loss are associated with both AD and chronic stress. Recent preclinical and clinical studies have highlighted a possible link between chronic stress, cognitive decline and the development of AD. It is suggested that Tau protein is an essential mediator of the neurodegenerative effects of stress and glucocorticoids towards the development of AD pathology. Recent findings from animal and humans studies demonstrated that saffron and its main constitutive crocin are effective against chronic stress-induced cognitive dysfunction and oxidative stress and slowed cognitive decline in AD. The inhibitory actions on acetylcholinesterase activity, aggregation of beta-amyloid protein into amyloid plaques and tau protein into neurofibrillary tangles, and also the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and the promotion of synaptic plasticity effects are among the possible mechanisms to explain the neuroprotective effects of saffron. New evidences demonstrate that saffron and its main component crocin might be a promising target for cognition improvement in AD and stress-related disorders.

Chemo-preventive effect of crocin against experimentally-induced hepatocarcinogenesis via regulation of apoptotic and Nrf2 signaling pathways

The results of the current study investigated the chemo-preventive effect of crocin against hepatocarcinogenesis in rats with particular focus on the evaluation of the modulatory impact of crocin on apoptotic and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathways. Thioacetamide (TAA) (200 mg/kg, I.P.) was used for experimental induction of hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. Crocin administration significantly attenuated TAA-induced cancerous lesions with concomitant attenuation of impaired liver functions. This was associated with significant enhancement in hepatic Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression with parallel suppression in Keap-1 expression. Inline, crocin induced a significant improvement in hepatic oxidative status with enhanced antioxidant batteries. Crocin administration significantly suppressed the hepatic content of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (c-JNK) with significant upregulation in TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and caspase-8 protein expression as well as p53 gene expression; biomarkers of apoptosis. Moreover, hepatic expression of the apoptotic BAX significantly increased and the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 significantly decreased in the liver specimen; biomarkers of intrinsic apoptosis. In conclusion; crocin attenuates experimentally induced hepato-carcinogenesis via modulation of oxidative/apoptotic signaling. Namely, crocin induced hepatic expression of Nrf2 with downstream modulation of endogenous HO-1 and Keap-1 signaling with modulation of various key players of apoptosis including; c-JNK, p53, TRAIL, caspase-8, BAX, and Bcl-2.

Crocus-derived compounds alter the aggregation pathway of Alzheimer's Disease: associated beta amyloid protein

Natural products have played a dominant role in the discovery of lead compounds for the development of drugs aimed at the treatment of human diseases. This electrospray ionization-ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry (ESI-IMS-MS)-based study demonstrates that dietary antioxidants, isolated components from the stigmas of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) may be effective in inhibiting Aβ fibrillogenesis, a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). This study reveals a substantial alteration in the monomer/oligomer distribution of Aβ_1-40, concomitant with re-direction of fibril formation, induced by the natural product interaction. These alterations on the Aβ_1-40 aggregation pathway are most prominent for trans-crocin-4 (TC4). Use of ESI-IMS-MS, electron microscopy alongside Thioflavin-T kinetics, and the interpretation of 3-dimensional Driftscope plots indicate a correlation of these monomer/oligomer distribution changes with alterations to Aβ_1-40 amyloid formation. The latter could prove instrumental in the development of novel aggregation inhibitors for the prevention, or treatment of AD.

Potential Nutraceutical Benefits of In Vivo Grown Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) As Analgesic, Anti-inflammatory, Anticoagulant, and Antidepressant in Mice

Crocus sativus, a medicinally important herbaceous plant, has been traditionally used to cure coughs, colds, insomnia, cramps, asthma, and pain. Moreover, the therapeutic applications of saffron include its immunomodulatory and anticancer properties. The current experimental analysis was performed to explore the potential nutraceutical efficacy of corm, leaf, petal, and stigma of saffron ethanolic extracts as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, and antidepressant using hot plate, carrageenan-induced paw edema, capillary tube and forced swim test, respectively in mice. The results indicated that among all the extracts, stigma ethanolic extract (SEE) represented maximum latency activity (72.85%) and edema inhibition (77.33%) followed by petal ethanolic extract (PEE) with latency activity and edema inhibition of 64.06 and 70.50%, respectively. Corm ethanolic extract (CEE) and leaf ethanolic extract (LEE) displayed mild analgesic activity of 22.40% and 29.07%, respectively. Additionally, LEE (53.29%) and CEE (47.47%) exhibited mild to moderate response against inflammation. The coagulation time of SEE (101.66 s) was almost equivalent to the standard drug, aspirin (101.66 s), suggesting a strong anticoagulant effect followed by PEE (86.5 s). LEE (66.83 s) represented moderate inhibitory effect on coagulation activity while CEE (42.83 s) showed neutral effect. Additionally, PEE and SEE also expressed itself as potential antidepressants with immobility time ≤76.66 s, while CEE (96.50 s) and LEE (106.83 s) indicated moderate to mild antidepressant efficacy. Based on the in vivo activities, saffron extract, particularly SEE and PEE, can be used as a potential nutraceutical and therapeutic agent due to its significant pharmacological activities.

TMPE Derived from Saffron Natural Monoterpene as Cytotoxic and Multidrug Resistance Reversing Agent in Colon Cancer Cells

Terpenes constitute one of the largest groups of natural products. They exhibit a wide range of biological activities including antioxidant, anticancer, and drug resistance modulating properties. Saffron extract and its terpene constituents have been demonstrated to be cytotoxic against various types of cancer cells, including breast, liver, lung, pancreatic, and colorectal cancer. In the present work, we have studied anticancer properties of TMPE, a newly synthesized monoterpene derivative of β-cyclocitral—the main volatile produced by the stigmas of unripe crocuses. TMPE presented selective cytotoxic activity to doxorubicin-resistant colon cancer cells and was identified to be an effective MDR modulator in doxorubicin-resistant cancer cells. Synergy between this derivative and doxorubicin was observed. Most probably, TMPE inhibited transport activity of ABCB1 protein without affecting its expression level. Analysis of TMPE physicochemical parameters suggested it was not likely to be transported by ABCB1. Molecular modeling showed TMPE being more reactive molecule than the parental compound—β-cyclocitral. Analysis of electrostatic potential maps of both compounds prompted us to hypothesize that reduced reactivity as well as susceptibility to electrophilic attack were related to the lower general toxicity of β-cyclocitral. All of the above pointed to TMPE as an interesting candidate molecule for MDR reversal in cancer cells.

The Relaxant Effect of Crocin on Rat Tracheal Smooth Muscle and Its Possible Mechanisms

Crocin, a component of saffron, showed hypotensive activity which is perhaps due to vascular smooth muscle relaxant effect. The relaxant effects of saffron on tracheal smooth muscle also could be due to its constituent, crocin. In the present study, the relaxant effects of crocin and its possible mechanisms on rat tracheal smooth muscle were investigated. The relaxant effects of three cumulative concentrations of crocin (30, 60, and 120 μM) or theophylline (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 mM) as positive control were examined on pre-contracted tracheal smooth muscle by methacholine or KCl in non-incubated or incubated conditions with different agents including atropine, chlorpheniramine, indomethacin, diltiazem, glibenclamide, and propranolol. In non-incubated tracheal smooth muscle, crocin showed significant relaxant effects on KCl induced muscle contraction (p < 0.001 for two higher concentrations). However, crocin did not show relaxant effect on methacholine induced tissue contraction. In incubated tissues with chlorpheniramine, indomethacin, diltiazem and propranolol, there were no significant differences in the relaxant effects of crocin between non-incubated and incubated tissues. However, the relaxant effects of crocin obtained in incubated tissues with atropine and glibenclamide were significant lower than non-incubated tracheal smooth muscle (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). The EC₅₀ value obtained in incubated tissue with propranolol was significantly increased. Theophylline showed significant relaxant effect on both KCl and methacholine induced tissue contraction (p < 0.01 to p < 0.001). A relatively potent relaxant effect of crocin on tracheal smooth muscle, lower than that of theophylline was shown. Muscarinic receptor blocking, potassium channels opening and ß₂-adrenoreceptors stimulation were also suggested as possible mechanisms of this effect.

Toxicity of Saffron Extracts on Cancer and Normal Cells: A Review Article

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Medicinal plants have played an important role in human health since the Stone Age. According to WHO, 80% of Asian and African people rely on traditional medicine and medicinal plants to conserve their health. Saffron has received much attention among the herbal compounds related to cancer treatment.

METHODS

This review aims to provide an overview of in-vitro and in-vivo evaluation molecule mechanism for anti-tumor activity, cancer preventing and protective effects of saffron extract. The review is based on the available data accessible in PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, Magiran.ir, and SID.ir databases.

RESULTS

Saffron has selective toxic and preventive effects on cancerous cells and without adverse effects on normal cells and prevents tumor formation. Saffron appears to reduce the toxic effects of anticancer drugs. Saffron has toxicity effects when used in high amounts, which are far greater than those  are used in human food culture.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the observed effects of saffron on the removal of cancer cells, saffron extract can be used in the treatment and prevention of cancer after confirmation in human clinical trials. According to the high IC50 of saffron extracts in normal cells, its toxicity against non-cancerous cells is low and its use is safe. Besides, the studies suggested the cytotoxic effects of saffron on some of the  more cancers, including nervous system cancer and common cancers. Further studies are required to determine the effective dose and influence of mechanism of saffron in various animal type of cancers.

Phytochemicals in Anticancer Drug Development

BACKGROUND

In spite of major technological advances in conventional therapies, cancer continues to remain the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Phytochemicals are gradually emerging as a rich source of effective but safer agents against many life-threatening diseases.

METHODS

Various phytochemicals with reported anticancer activity have been simply categorized into major phytoconstituents- alkaloids, polyphenols, saponins, tannins and terpenoids.

RESULTS

The adverse effects associated with currently available anticancer medications may be overcome by using plant-derived compounds either alone or in combination. Exploration of plant kingdom may provide new leads for the accelerated development of new anticancer agents.

CONCLUSION

Although numerous potent synthetic drugs have been introduced for cancer chemotherapy, yet their serious toxicity concerns to normal cells apart from drug resistance have emerged as the major obstacles for their clinical utility over a prolonged duration of time. Current status and potential of phytochemicals and their derivatives in cancer therapy have been briefly reviewed in the present manuscript.

Crocetin and Crocin from Saffron in Cancer Chemotherapy and Chemoprevention

INTRODUCTION

Cancer is a disorder which has a powerful impact on the quality life and life expectancy despite the increase in drugs and treatments available for cancer patients. Moreover, many new therapeutic options are known to have adverse reactions without any improvement in outcome than before. Nowadays, natural products or plant derivatives are used as chemoprevention drugs and chemotherapy is the new approach that uses specific cell premalignant transformation in the malignant form. Natural substances derived from plants, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, alkaloids and others, can be biologically active and have a wide spectrum of effects. The protective effects of Saffron carotenoids (crocin and crocetin) have been extensively studied mainly for their antioxidant properties, however, they have various other biological activities including tumor growth inhibition with the induction of cell death.

METHODS

The relevant information on Saffron and its carotenoids was collected from scientific databases (such as PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct). To identify all published articles in relation to saffron, crocin and crocetin, in different types of cancer, no language restriction has been used.

RESULTS

To date, crossing the words saffron and cancer, approximately 150 articles can be found. If crossing is made between crocin and cancer, approximately 60 articles can be found. With the crossing between crocetin and cancer, the number is approximately 55, while between carotenoids and cancer, the number exceeds 16.000 reports. In all the papers published to date, there are evidences that saffron and its carotenoids exert chemopreventive activity through anti-oxidant activity, cancer cells apoptosis, inhibition of cell proliferation, enhancement of cell differentiation, modulation of cell cycle progression and cell growth, modulation of tumor metabolism, stimulation of cell-to-cell communication and immune modulation.

CONCLUSION

Here, we have tried to offer an up-to-date overview of pre-clinical experimental investigations on the potential use of the main carotenoids of saffron in tumor models and focus the attention on the molecular mechanisms involved.

Interaction of saffron carotenoids with catalase: in vitro, in vivo and molecular docking studies

The effects of saffron carotenoids, crocetin (Crt) and crocin (Cro) on the structure, function and kinetics of catalase (CAT) were investigated. Both Crt and Cro quenched the fluorescence emission of CAT through the dynamic mechanism, but Crt (Ksv= 8.1 × 10⁴ mol^-1) was more effective than Cro (Ksv= 0.6 × 10⁴ mol^-1) at 300 °K. The UV-vis and circular dichroism spectra showed conformational changes of CAT in the presence of both carotenoids, but with different degrees. Kinetic studies showed strong inhibition of CAT by Crt, while, different concentrations of Cro showed different effects. Our in vitro data showed that Crt treatment significantly (p = 0.002) reduced the CAT activity in MCF-7, up to 24 h. The in vivo results showed that both Crt and Cro significantly increased the CAT activity in the tumor (p = 0.000 for both), and liver (p = 0.000 and p = 0.026 for Crt and Cro, respectively) tissues of 4T1-induced breast cancer in BALB/c mice, after 4 weeks of treatment. These findings are consistent with the binding, thermodynamic and molecular docking data. In conclusion, Crt and Cro with some differences in the structure affect CAT structure, function and activity, but in a slightly different manner.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Bioactivity and Bioavailability of the Major Metabolites of Crocus sativus L. Flower

Crocus sativus L. has been cultivated throughout history to obtain its flowers, whose dried stigmas give rise to the spice known as saffron. Crocetin esters, picrocrocin, and safranal are the main metabolites of this spice, which possess a great bioactivity, although the mechanisms of action and its bioavailability are still to be solved. The rest of the flower is composed by style, tepals, and stamens that have other compounds, such as kaempferol and delphinidin, which have an important antioxidant capacity, and these can be applied in foods, phytopharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. The aim of this work was to provide an updated and critical review of the research on the main compounds of Crocus sativus L. flower, including the adequate analytical methods for their identification and quantification, with a focus on their bioactivity and bioavailability.

Apoptotic Pathway as the Therapeutic Target for Anticancer Traditional Chinese Medicines

Cancer is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death and it plays a vital role in human development and tissue homeostasis. Mounting evidence indicates that apoptosis is closely related to the survival of cancer and it has emerged as a key target for the discovery and development of novel anticancer drugs. Various studies indicate that targeting the apoptotic signaling pathway by anticancer drugs is an important mechanism in cancer therapy. Therefore, numerous novel anticancer agents have been discovered and developed from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) by targeting the cellular apoptotic pathway of cancer cells and shown clinically beneficial effects in cancer therapy. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion for the role, pharmacology, related biology, and possible mechanism(s) of a number of important anticancer TCMs and their derivatives mainly targeting the cellular apoptotic pathway. It may have important clinical implications in cancer therapy.

Saffron (Crocus sativus) in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers: Current findings and potential mechanisms of action

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers are major causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide and include malignancies of the GI tract such as the stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine, colon, and rectum. Promising and selective anticancer effects of pharmacologically active components of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) have been shown in preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies. Saffron and its active components including crocin, crocetin, and safranal exert their anticancer effects through different mechanisms, including induction of apoptosis, influence on the cell cycle, and regulation of host immune response and anti-inflammatory activities. This review summarizes the recent literature on the chemopreventive properties of saffron in GI cancers to have a better understanding of the potential underlying mechanisms and hence the appropriate management of these malignancies.

Biologically active compounds and pharmacological activities of species of the genus Crocus: A review

The present article is the first comprehensive review on the chemical composition and pharmacological activities of the raw materials of Crocus species. In the present review, data on chemical constituents and pharmacological profile of Crocus sativus stigmas, as well as of other plant parts (perianth, stamens, leaves, corms) of different Crocus spp. are given. This review discusses all the classes of compounds (carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, terpenoids, phenol carboxylic acids, etc.) detected in raw materials of Crocus plants providing information on the current state of knowledge on phytochemicals of Crocus species. Almost all structural formulas of the compounds identified and isolated from Crocus species are given; all compounds are presented in accordance with the types of the studied raw materials. The latest hypotheses relating to the biosynthesis pathways of the main biologically active compounds of saffron (crocin, picrocrocin, safranal), as well as chemotaxonomy of Crocus genus are briefly summarized. The present review discusses the most thoroughly studied pharmacological activities (namely, antioxidant, antiparasitic, hypolipidemic, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antitumor, cytotoxic, antidepressant) of saffron stigmas extracts, of its individual phytochemicals (safranal, crocin, crocetin), as well as pharmacological activities of raw materials of other Crocus species. This comprehensive review will be informative for scientists searching for new properties of saffron stigmas, as well as for saffron producers, since the present review highlights the prospects for the use of waste products in the production of the expensive spice. In addition, the present review provides information on pharmacological properties and composition of other Crocus species as promising medicinal and food plants. In the present review the emphasis will be put on the chemical constituents of Crocus species and the intraspecies variation in phytochemicals and pharmacological activities.

A comprehensive review on biological activities and toxicology of crocetin

Natural products with high pharmacological potential and low toxicity have been considered as the novel therapeutic agents. Crocetin is an active constituent of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) stigma, which in its free-acid form is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. Crocetin exhibits various health-promoting properties including anti-tumor, neuroprotective effects, anti-diabetics, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperlipidemia, etc. These therapeutic effects can be achieved with different mechanisms such as improvement of oxygenation in hypoxic tissues, antioxidant effects, inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators, anti-proliferative activity and stimulation of apoptosis in cancer cells. It is also worth considering that crocetin could be tolerated without major toxicity at therapeutic dosage in experimental models. In the present review, we discuss the biosynthesis, pharmacokinetic properties of crocetin and provide a comprehensive study on the biological activities and toxicity along with the mechanism of actions and clinical trials data of crocetin.

Pharmacological Properties of Crocetin and Crocin (Digentiobiosyl Ester of Crocetin) from Saffron

Functional plant foods and medicinal herbs provide a wide variety of natural products for new drug research and development. Crocetin and crocin (digentiobiosyl ester of crocetin) are the major bioactive ingredients of saffron which is used as a costly spice, food colorant and traditional herbal medicine. These particular carotenoids have gained much research attention for their extensive pharmacological activities. Following oral administration, crocetin is rapidly absorbed into the blood circulation and widely distributed into the extra-vascular tissues of the body, whereas the water-soluble compound crocin is hardly absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract. Crocetin and crocin have been shown to be effective in the prevention and/or treatment of several diseases such as atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia, hemorrhagic shock, cancer and cerebral injury. The compounds exert their biological and pharmacological effects largely through their strong antioxidant activity. However, there seems to be substantial variation in the effectiveness of both phytochemicals when used in different diseases. The aim of this review is to discuss the pharmacokinetic and medicinal properties of crocetin and crocin based on related literature and our research results.

An evaluation of the effects of saffron supplementation on the asthma clinical symptoms and asthma severity in patients with mild and moderate persistent allergic asthma: a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Asthma is a heterogeneous disease which is usually associated with chronic airway inflammation. Saffron has anti-inflammatory effects and may has beneficial effects on asthma.

HYPOTHESIS

The present study was intended to survey the effects of saffron supplementation on blood pressure, lipid profiles, basophils, eosinophils and clinical symptoms in patients with allergic asthma.

STUDY DESIGN

Our study was a clinical trial.

METHODS

Subjects (N = 80, 32 women and 48 men, 41.25 ± 9.87 years old) with mild and moderate allergic asthma were randomized into two groups: the intervention group who received two capsules of saffron (100 mg/d), and the control group who received two capsules of placebo for 8 weeks. SPSS software (version 16.0) was used for the data analysis.

RESULTS

Saffron improved the frequency of clinical symptoms of the patients (i.e., frequency of the shortness of breath during the day and night time, use of salbutamol spray, waking up due to asthma symptoms and activity limitation) in comparison to the placebo (p < 0.001). Besides, asthma severity decreased almost significantly in the saffron group (p = 0.07). It was also found that saffron, in comparison with the placebo, significantly reduced the systolic and diastolic blood pressure, triglycerides and low density lipoprotein cholesterol. Moreover, eosinophils and basophils concentration reduced in the saffron group (p = 0.06 and 0.05 respectively).

CONCLUSION

Saffron seems to be an effective and safe option (in 8 weeks supplementation) to improve clinical symptoms of patients with allergic asthma but the toxicity and/or long-term effects of saffron intake are not known. Registration ID in IRCT (IRCT2017012132081N2).