Human aldo-keto reductases: Function, gene regulation, and single nucleotide polymorphisms

Discovery and Optimization of a Covalent AKR1C3 Inhibitor

Aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (AKR1C3) is a member of the AKR superfamily of enzymes that metabolize androgen, estrogen, and prostaglandin substrates that drive proliferation in hormone-dependent cancers. Interest in developing selective inhibitors has produced tool compounds for the inactivation or degradation of AKR1C3 with varying degrees of selectivity among the 14 known AKR proteins. Selectivity of AKR1C3 inhibitors across the AKR family is critical since a clinical candidate failed due to hepatotoxicity from off-target inhibition of AKR1D1. Here, we report development of a sulfonyl-triazole (SuTEx) covalent AKR1C3 inhibitor (RJG-2051) that selectively engages a noncatalytic tyrosine residue (Y24) on AKR1C3. Importantly, RJG-2051 exhibited negligible cross-reactivity with AKRs or other proteins across 1800+ tyrosine and lysine sites quantified by chemical proteomics. Our disclosure of a covalent inhibitor for potent AKR1C3 inactivation with proteome-wide selectivity in cells will expedite cell biological studies for testing the therapeutic potential of this metabolic target.

WDR26 depletion alters chromatin accessibility and gene expression profiles in mammalian cells

WD-repeat containing protein 26 (WDR26) is an essential component of the CTLH E3 ligase complex. Mutations in WDR26 lead to Skraban-Deardorff, an intellectual disability syndrome with clinical features resembling other disorders arising from defects in transcriptional regulation and chromatin structure. However, the role of WDR26 and its associated CTLH complex in regulating chromatin or transcription has not been elucidated. Here, we assessed how loss of WDR26 affects chromatin accessibility and gene expression. Transcriptome analysis of WDR26 knockout HeLa cells revealed over 2000 differentially expressed genes, while ATAC-Seq analysis showed over 32,000 differentially accessible chromatin regions, the majority mapping to intergenic and intronic regions and 13 % mapping to promoters. Above all, we found that WDR26 loss affected expression of genes regulated by AP-1 and NF-1 transcription factors and resulted in dramatic changes in their chromatin accessibility. Overall, our analyses implicate WDR26 and the CTLH complex in chromatin regulation.

Human AKR1C3 binds agonists of GPR84 and participates in an expanded polyamine pathway

Altered human aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (AKR1C3) expression has been associated with poor prognosis in diverse cancers, ferroptosis resistance, and metabolic diseases. Despite its clinical significance, the endogenous biochemical roles of AKR1C3 remain incompletely defined. Using untargeted metabolomics, we identified a major transformation mediated by AKR1C3, in which a spermine oxidation product "sperminal" is reduced to "sperminol." Sperminal causes DNA damage and activates the DNA double-strand break response, whereas sperminol induces autophagy in vitro. AKR1C3 also pulls down acyl-pyrones and pyrone-211 inhibits AKR1C3 activity. Through G protein-coupled receptor ligand screening, we determined that pyrone-211 is also a potent agonist of the semi-orphan receptor GPR84. Strikingly, mammalian fatty acid synthase produces acyl-pyrones in vitro, and this production is modulated by NADPH. Taken together, our studies support a regulatory role of AKR1C3 in an expanded polyamine pathway and a model linking fatty acid synthesis and NADPH levels to GPR84 signaling.

Aldose Reductase: A Promising Therapeutic Target for High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, famously known as the "Roof of the World", has witnessed a surge in individuals traveling or working there. However, a considerable percentage of these individuals may suffer from acute mountain sickness (AMS), with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) being a severe and potentially life-threatening manifestation. HAPE disrupts the balance of intrapulmonary tissue fluid, resulting in severe lung function impairment. Current therapeutic interventions for HAPE have limitations and are accompanied by significant side effects. Aldose reductase (AR), a crucial enzyme in the polyol metabolic pathway, has been implicated in various diseases. In this study, we sought to explore the role of AR in HAPE. Utilizing both in vivo and in vitro models, we investigated the impact of AR on hypoxia-induced pulmonary edema, vascular pressure, inflammatory factors, and oxidative stress. Our findings revealed that AR knockdown mitigated hypoxia-induced pulmonary edema, decreased the expression of vascular pressure and inflammatory factors, and enhanced the expression related to oxidative stress. These results indicate that AR may serve as a potential therapeutic target for HAPE, offering a plausible pathological basis and novel drug targets for the prevention and treatment of this condition.

Association between urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and risk of metabolic associated fatty liver disease

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of urinary PAHs on MAFLD.

METHODS

The study included 3,136 adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted between 2009 and 2016. Among them, 1,056 participants were diagnosed with MAFLD and were designated as the case group. The analysis of the relationship between monohydroxy metabolites of seven PAHs in urine and MAFLD was carried out using logistic regression and Bayesian kernel regression (BKMR) models.

RESULTS

In single-pollutant models, the concentration of 2-hydroxynaphthalene (2-OHNAP) was positively correlated with MAFLD (OR = 1.47, 95% CI 1.18, 1.84), whereas 3-hydroxyfluorene (3-OHFLU) and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHPYR) demonstrated a negative correlation with MAFLD (OR = 0.59, 95% CI 0.48 0.73; OR = 0.70, 95% CI 0.55, 0.89). Conversely, in multi-pollutant models, 2-OHNAP, 2-hydroxyfluorene (2-OHFLU), 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, and 3-hydroxyphenanthrene (2&3-OHPHE) displayed positive correlations with MAFLD (OR = 6.17, 95% CI 3.15, 12.07; OR = 2.59, 95% CI 1.37, 4.89). However, 3-OHFLU and 1-OHPYR continued to exhibit negative correlations with MAFLD (OR = 0.09, 95% CI 0.05, 0.15; OR = 0.62, 95% CI 0.43, 0.88). Notably, the BKMR analysis mixtures approach did not indicate a significant joint effect of multiple PAHs on MAFLD, but identified interactions between 3-OHFLU and 2-OHFLU, 1-OHPYR and 2-OHFLU, and 1-OHPYR and 3-OHFLU.

CONCLUSION

No significant association was found between mixed PAHs exposure and the risk of MAFLD. However, interactions were observed between 3-OHFLU and 2-OHFLU. Both 2-OHFLU and 2&3-OHPHE exposure are significant risk factors for MAFLD, whereas 3-OHFLU is a key protective factor for the disease.

Aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily website and database: An update

The aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily is a large family of proteins found across the kingdoms of life. Shared features of the family include 1) structural similarities such as an (α/β)8-barrel structure, disordered loop structure, cofactor binding site, and a catalytic tetrad, and 2) the ability to catalyze the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) reduced (NAD(P)H)-dependent reduction of a carbonyl group. A criteria of family membership is that the protein must have a measured function, and thus, genomic sequences suggesting the transcription of potential AKR proteins are considered pseudo-members until evidence of a functionally expressed protein is available. Currently, over 200 confirmed AKR superfamily members are reported to exist. A systematic nomenclature for the AKR superfamily exists to facilitate family and subfamily designations of the member to be communicated easily. Specifically, protein names include the root "AKR", followed by the family represented by an Arabic number, the subfamily-if one exists-represented by a letter, and finally, the individual member represented by an Arabic number. The AKR superfamily database has been dedicated to tracking and reporting the current knowledge of the AKRs since 1997, and the website was last updated in 2003. Here, we present an updated version of the website and database that were released in 2023. The database contains genetic, functional, and structural data drawn from various sources, while the website provides alignment information and family tree structure derived from bioinformatics analyses.

Aldo-keto reductases: Role in cancer development and theranostics

Aldo-keto reductases (AKRs) are a superfamily of enzymes that play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including the metabolism of xenobiotics, steroids, and carbohydrates. A growing body of evidence has unveiled the involvement of AKRs in the development and progression of various cancers. AKRs are aberrantly expressed in a wide range of malignant tumors. Dysregulated expression of AKRs enables the acquisition of hallmark traits of cancer by activating oncogenic signaling pathways and contributing to chemoresistance. AKRs have emerged as promising oncotherapeutic targets given their pivotal role in cancer development and progression. Inhibition of aldose reductase (AR), either alone or in combination with chemotherapeutic drugs, has evolved as a pragmatic therapeutic option for cancer. Several classes of synthetic aldo-keto reductase (AKR) inhibitors have been developed as potential anticancer agents, some of which have shown promise in clinical trials. Many AKR inhibitors from natural sources also exhibit anticancer effects. Small molecule inhibitors targeting specific AKR isoforms have shown promise in preclinical studies. These inhibitors disrupt the activation of oncogenic signaling by modulating transcription factors and kinases and sensitizing cancer cells to chemotherapy. In this review, we discuss the physiological functions of human AKRs, the aberrant expression of AKRs in malignancies, the involvement of AKRs in the acquisition of cancer hallmarks, and the role of AKRs in oncogenic signaling, and drug resistance. Finally, the potential of aldose reductase inhibitors (ARIs) as anticancer drugs is summarized.

The hormonal control of parturition

Parturition is a complex physiological process that must occur in a reliable manner and at an appropriate gestation stage to ensure a healthy newborn and mother. To this end, hormones that affect the function of the gravid uterus, especially progesterone (P4), 17β-estradiol (E2), oxytocin (OT), and prostaglandins (PGs), play pivotal roles. P4 via the nuclear P4 receptor (PR) promotes uterine quiescence and for most of pregnancy exerts a dominant block to labor. Loss of the P4 block to parturition in association with a gain in prolabor actions of E2 are key transitions in the hormonal cascade leading to parturition. P4 withdrawal can occur through various mechanisms depending on species and physiological context. Parturition in most species involves inflammation within the uterine tissues and especially at the maternal-fetal interface. Local PGs and other inflammatory mediators may initiate parturition by inducing P4 withdrawal. Withdrawal of the P4 block is coordinated with increased E2 actions to enhance uterotonic signals mediated by OT and PGs to promote uterine contractions, cervix softening, and membrane rupture, i.e., labor. This review examines recent advances in research to understand the hormonal control of parturition, with focus on the roles of P4, E2, PGs, OT, inflammatory cytokines, and placental peptide hormones together with evolutionary biology of and implications for clinical management of human parturition.

Classification and functional origins of stereocomplementary alcohol dehydrogenases for asymmetric synthesis of chiral secondary alcohols: A review

Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) mediated biocatalytic asymmetric reduction of ketones have been widely applied in the synthesis of optically active secondary alcohols with highly reactive hydroxyl groups ligated to the stereogenic carbon and divided into (R)- and (S)-configurations. Stereocomplementary ADHs could be applied in the synthesis of both enantiomers and are increasingly accepted as the "first of choice" in green chemistry due to the high atomic economy, low environmental factor, 100 % theoretical yield, and high environmentally friendliness. Due to the equal importance of complementary alcohols, development of stereocomplementary ADHs draws increasing attention. This review is committed to summarize recent advance in discovery of naturally evolved and tailor-made stereocomplementary ADHs, unveil the molecular mechanism of stereoselective catalysis in views of classification and functional basis, and provide guidance for further engineering the stereoselectivity of ADHs for the industrial biosynthesis of chiral secondary alcohol of industrial relevance.

The Impact of Long-Term Hypoxia on the Antioxidant Defense System in the Siberian Frog Rana amurensis

The Siberian frog Rana amurensis has a uniquely high tolerance to hypoxia among amphibians, as it is able to withstand several months underwater with almost no oxygen (0.2 mg/liter) vs. several days for other studied species. Since it was hypothesized that hypoxia actives the antioxidant defense system in hypoxia-tolerant animals, one would expect similar response in R. amurensis. Here, we studied the effect of hypoxia in the Siberian frog based on the transcriptomic data, activities of antioxidant enzyme, and content of low-molecular-weight antioxidants. Exposure to hypoxia upregulated expression of three relevant transcripts (catalase in the brain and two aldo-keto reductases in the liver). The activities of peroxidase in the blood and catalase in the liver were significantly increased, while the activity of glutathione S-transferase in the liver was reduced. The content of low-molecular-weight antioxidants (thiols and ascorbate) in the heart and liver was unaffected. In general, only a few components of the antioxidant defense system were affected by hypoxia, while most remained unchanged. Comparison to other hypoxia-tolerant species suggests species-specific adaptations to hypoxia-related ROS stress.

Clostridium Bacteria: Harnessing Tumour Necrosis for Targeted Gene Delivery

Necrosis is a common feature of solid tumours that offers a unique opportunity for targeted cancer therapy as it is absent from normal healthy tissues. Tumour necrosis provides an ideal environment for germination of the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium from endospores, resulting in tumour-specific colonisation. Two main species, Clostridium novyi-NT and Clostridium sporogenes, are at the forefront of this therapy, showing promise in preclinical models. However, anti-tumour activity is modest when used as a single agent, encouraging development of Clostridium as a tumour-selective gene delivery system. Various methods, such as allele-coupled exchange and CRISPR-cas9 technology, can facilitate the genetic modification of Clostridium, allowing chromosomal integration of transgenes to ensure long-term stability of expression. Strains of Clostridium can be engineered to express prodrug-activating enzymes, resulting in the generation of active drug selectively in the tumour microenvironment (a concept termed Clostridium-directed enzyme prodrug therapy). More recently, Clostridium strains have been investigated in the context of cancer immunotherapy, either in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors or with engineered strains expressing immunomodulatory molecules such as IL-2 and TNF-α. Localised expression of these molecules using tumour-targeting Clostridium strains has the potential to improve delivery and reduce systemic toxicity. In summary, Clostridium species represent a promising platform for cancer therapy, with potential for localised gene delivery and immunomodulation selectively within the tumour microenvironment. The ongoing clinical progress being made with C. novyi-NT, in addition to developments in genetic modification techniques and non-invasive imaging capabilities, are expected to further progress Clostridium as an option for cancer treatment.

Angular dihydropyranocoumarins from the flowers of Peucedanum japonicum and their aldo-keto reductase inhibitory activities

Twenty-one angular dihydropyranocoumarins and a linear furanocoumarin, including four previously undescribed compounds (1-4), were isolated from the flowers of Peucedanum japonicum (Umbelliferae). The structures of 1-4, along with their absolute stereochemistry, were determined to be (3'S,4'S)-3'-O-propanoyl-4'-O-(3‴-methyl-2‴-butenoyl)khellactone (1), (3'S,4'S)-3'-O-propanoyl-4'-O-(2‴-methyl-2‴Z-butenoyl)khellactone (2), (3'S,4'S)-3'-O-propanoyl-4'-O-(2‴-methylbutanoyl)khellactone (3), and (3'S,4'S)-3'-O-(2″-methylpropanoyl)-4'-O-(3‴-methyl-2‴-butenoyl)khellactone (4) using one- and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance, high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy, and electronic circular dichroism spectroscopy. In addition, the absolute configuration of the three angular dihydropyranocoumarins (5-7) was determined for the first time in this study. Among the previously reported compounds isolated in this study, 8 and 9 were isolated for the first time from the genus Peucedanum, whereas 10 and 11 were previously unreported and had not been isolated from P. japonicum to date. Furthermore, all isolated compounds were evaluated for their aldo-keto reductase 1C1 inhibitory activities on A549 human non-small-cell lung cancer cells. Compounds 10 and 12 exhibited substantial AKR1C1 inhibitory activities with IC50 values of 35.8 ± 0.9 and 44.2 ± 1.5 μM, respectively.

Phase 1 dose-escalation study evaluating the safety, pharmacokinetics, and clinical activity of OBI-3424 in patients with advanced or metastatic solid tumors

BACKGROUND

Report of a Phase 1 dose-escalation study of OBI-3424 monotherapy in patients with advanced solid tumors (NCT03592264).

METHODS

A classic 3 + 3 design was used to determine the maximum tolerated dose and recommended Phase 2 dose (RP2D) of OBI-3424 administered intravenously, as a single agent, at doses of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, or 12 mg/m2 (days 1 and 8 of a 21-day cycle, Schedule A) or 8, 10, 12, or 14 mg/m2 (day 1 of a 21-day cycle, Schedule B).

RESULTS

Dose-limiting hematologic toxicities at 12 mg/m2 in Schedule A led to dose and schedule modifications (Schedule B). In Schedule B, maximum tolerated dose was not reached at the maximum dose tested (14 mg/m2). Grade ≥3 anemia was noted in 3/6 patients treated at 14 mg/m2; the RP2D was 12 mg/m2 (Schedule B). Grade ≥3 treatment-emergent adverse events were experienced by 19/39 (49%) and included anemia (41%) and thrombocytopenia (26%); three patients experienced serious treatment-emergent adverse events (grade ≥3 anemia and thrombocytopenia). One patient had a partial response and 21/33 (64%) had stable disease.

CONCLUSIONS

The RP2D is 12 mg/m2 once every 3 weeks. OBI-3424 was well tolerated; dose-dependent, noncumulative thrombocytopenia and anemia were dose-limiting.

Cytochrome P450 and Other Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes As Therapeutic Targets

Cytochrome P450 and other families of drug-metabolizing enzymes are commonly thought of and studied for their ability to metabolize xenobiotics and other foreign entities as they are eliminated from the body. Equally as important, however, is the homeostatic role that many of these enzymes play in maintaining the proper levels of endogenous signaling molecules such as lipids, steroids, and eicosanoids as well as their ability to modulate protein-protein interactions involved in downstream signaling cascades. Throughout the years, many of these endogenous ligands or protein partners of drug-metabolizing enzymes have been associated with a wide range of disease states from cancer to various cardiovascular, neurologic, or inflammatory diseases, prompting an interest in whether modulation of drug-metabolizing enzyme activity could have a subsequent pharmacological impact or lessening of disease severity. Beyond direct regulation of endogenous pathways, drug-metabolizing enzymes have also been proactively targeted for their ability to activate prodrugs with subsequent pharmacological activity or enhance the efficacy of a coadministered drug by inhibiting the metabolism of that drug through a rationally designed drug-drug interaction (i.e., ritonavir and human immunodeficiency virus antiretroviral therapy). The focus of this minireview will be to highlight research aimed at characterizing cytochrome P450 and other drug-metabolizing enzymes as therapeutic targets. Examples of successfully marketed drugs as well as early research efforts will be discussed. Finally, emerging areas of research utilizing typical drug-metabolizing enzymes to impact clinical outcomes will be discussed. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Although generally thought of for their drug-metabolizing capabilities, enzymes such as the cytochromes P450, glutathione S-transferases, soluble epoxide hydrolases, and others play a significant role in regulating key endogenous pathways, making them potential drug targets. This minireview will cover various efforts over the years to modulate drug-metabolizing enzyme activity toward pharmacological outcomes.

Aldo-Keto Reductase 1C3 Inhibitor Prodrug Improves Pharmacokinetic Profile and Demonstrates In Vivo Efficacy in a Prostate Cancer Xenograft Model

Aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3) is overexpressed in castration-resistant prostate cancer where it acts to drive proliferation and aggressiveness by producing androgens. The reductive action of the enzyme leads to chemoresistance development against various clinical antineoplastics across a range of cancers. Herein, we report the continued optimization of selective AKR1C3 inhibitors and the identification of 5r, a potent AKR1C3 inhibitor (IC50 = 51 nM) with >1216-fold selectivity for AKR1C3 over closely related isoforms. Due to the cognizance of the poor pharmacokinetics associated with free carboxylic acids, a methyl ester prodrug strategy was pursued. The prodrug 4r was converted to free acid 5r in vitro in mouse plasma and in vivo. The in vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation revealed an increase in systemic exposure and increased the maximum 5r concentration compared to direct administration of the free acid. The prodrug 4r demonstrated a dose-dependent effect to reduce the tumor volume of 22Rv1 prostate cancer xenografts without observed toxicity.

Single-cell sequencing analysis reveals development and differentiation trajectory of Schwann cells manipulated by M. leprae

BACKGROUND

M. leprae preferentially infects Schwann cells (SCs) in the peripheral nerves leading to nerve damage and irreversible disability. Knowledge of how M. leprae infects and interacts with host SCs is essential for understanding mechanisms of nerve damage and revealing potential new therapeutic strategies.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We performed a time-course single-cell sequencing analysis of SCs infected with M. leprae at different time points, further analyzed the heterogeneity of SCs, subpopulations associated with M. leprae infection, developmental trajectory of SCs and validated by Western blot or flow cytometry. Different subpopulations of SCs exhibiting distinct genetic features and functional enrichments were present. We observed two subpopulations associated with M. leprae infection, a stem cell-like cell subpopulation increased significantly at 24 h but declined by 72 h after M. leprae infection, and an adipocyte-like cell subpopulation, emerged at 72 h post-infection. The results were validated and confirmed that a stem cell-like cell subpopulation was in the early stage of differentiation and could differentiate into an adipocyte-like cell subpopulation.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our results present a systematic time-course analysis of SC heterogeneity after infection by M. leprae at single-cell resolution, provide valuable information to understand the critical biological processes underlying reprogramming and lipid metabolism during M. leprae infection of SCs, and increase understanding of the disease-causing mechanisms at play in leprosy patients as well as revealing potential new therapeutic strategies.

Genome-wide analysis revealed the stepwise origin and functional diversification of HSDs from lower to higher plant species

Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSDs) is an oil-body sterol protein (steroleosin) with an NADP(H) binding domain that belongs to the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) superfamily. There are numerous studies on the characterization of HSDs in plants. However, thus far, the evolutionary differentiation and divergence analysis of these genes remain to be explored. The current study used an integrated method to elucidate the sequential evolution of HSDs in 64 sequenced plant genomes. Analyses were conducted on their origins, distribution, duplication, evolutionary paths, domain functions, motif composition, properties, and cis-elements. Results indicate that except for algae, HSD1 was widely distributed in plant species ranging from lower to higher plants, while HSD5 was restricted to terrestrial plants, and HSD2 was identified in fewer monocots and several dicot plants. Phylogenetic analysis of HSD proteins revealed that monocotyledonous HSD1 in moss and ferns appeared closest to the outgroup, V. carteri HSD-like, M. musculus HSD1, and H. sapiens HSD1. These data support the hypothesis that HSD1 originated in bryophytes and then in non-vascular and vascular plants, followed by HSD5 only in land plants. Gene structure analysis suggests that HSDs in plant species came up with a fixed number of six exons, and the intron phase was primarily 0, 1, 0, 0, and 0. Similarly, duplication analysis revealed that segmental duplications were the main reason for HSDs in plant species. Physicochemical properties suggest that dicotyledonous HSD1s and HSD5s were mainly acidic. The monocotyledonous HSD1s and HSD2s and the dicotyledonous HSD2s, HSD3s, HSD4s, and HSD6s were mainly basic, implying that HSDs in plants may have a variety of functions. Cis-regulatory elements and expression analysis revealed that HSDs in plants might have roles in several abiotic stresses. Due to the high expression of HSD1s and HSD5s in seeds, these HSDs in plants may have roles in fatty acid accumulation and degradation.

Identification and validation of metabolism-related genes signature and immune infiltration landscape of rheumatoid arthritis based on machine learning

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) causes irreversible joint damage, but the pathogenesis is unknown. Therefore, it is crucial to identify diagnostic biomarkers of RA metabolism-related genes (MRGs). This study obtained transcriptome data from healthy individuals (HC) and RA patients from the GEO database. Weighted gene correlation network analysis (WGCNA), the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO), and random forest (RF) algorithms were adopted to identify the diagnostic feature biomarker for RA. In addition, biomarkers were verified by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis. We established a mouse model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), which was confirmed by HE staining and bone structure micro-CT analysis, and then further verified the biomarkers by immunofluorescence. In vitro NMR analysis was used to analyze and identify possible metabolites. The correlation of diagnostic feature biomarkers and immune cells was performed using the Spearman-rank correlation algorithm. In this study, a total of 434 DE-MRGs were identified. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that the DE-MRGs were significantly enriched in small molecules, catabolic process, purine metabolism, carbon metabolism, and inositol phosphate metabolism. AKR1C3, MCEE, POLE4, and PFKM were identified through WGCNA, LASSO, and RF algorithms. The nomogram result should have a significant diagnostic capacity of four biomarkers in RA. Immune infiltration landscape analysis revealed a significant difference in immune cells between HC and RA groups. Our findings suggest that AKR1C3, MCEE, POLE4, and PFKM were identified as potential diagnostic feature biomarkers associated with RA's immune cell infiltrations, providing a new perspective for future research and clinical management of RA.

Characterization of human oxidoreductases involved in aldehyde odorant metabolism

Oxidoreductases are major enzymes of xenobiotic metabolism. Consequently, they are essential in the chemoprotection of the human body. Many xenobiotic metabolism enzymes have been shown to be involved in chemosensory tissue protection. Among them, some were additionally shown to be involved in chemosensory perception, acting in signal termination as well as in the generation of metabolites that change the activation pattern of chemosensory receptors. Oxidoreductases, especially aldehyde dehydrogenases and aldo-keto reductases, are the first barrier against aldehyde compounds, which include numerous odorants. Using a mass spectrometry approach, we characterized the most highly expressed members of these families in the human nasal mucus sampled in the olfactory vicinity. Their expression was also demonstrated using immunohistochemistry in human epitheliums sampled in the olfactory vicinity. Recombinant enzymes corresponding to three highly expressed human oxidoreductases (ALDH1A1, ALDH3A1, AKR1B10) were used to demonstrate the high enzymatic activity of these enzymes toward aldehyde odorants. The structure‒function relationship set based on the enzymatic parameters characterization of a series of aldehyde odorant compounds was supported by the X-ray structure resolution of human ALDH3A1 in complex with octanal.

NRF2 signaling pathway: A comprehensive prognostic and gene expression profile analysis in breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignant tumor in women and a major public health concern. NRF2 axis is a cellular protector signaling pathway protecting both normal and cancer cells from oxidative damage. NRF2 is a transcription factor that binds to the gene promoters containing antioxidant response element-like sequences. In this report, differential expression of NRF2 signaling pathway elements, as well as the correlation of NRF2 pathway mRNAs with various clinicopathologic characteristics, including molecular subtypes, tumor grade, tumor stage, and methylation status, has been investigated in breast cancer using METABRIC and TCGA datasets. In the current report, our findings revealed the deregulation of several NRF2 signaling elements in breast cancer patients. Moreover, there were negative correlations between the methylation of NRF2 genes and mRNA expression. The expression of NRF2 genes significantly varied between different breast cancer subtypes. In conclusion, substantial deregulation of NRF2 signaling components suggests an important role of these genes in breast cancer. Because of the clear associations between mRNA expression and methylation status, DNA methylation could be one of the mechanisms that regulate the NRF2 pathway in breast cancer. Differential expression of Hippo genes among various breast cancer molecular subtypes suggests that NRF2 signaling may function differently in different subtypes of breast cancer. Our data also highlights an interesting link between NRF2 components' transcription and tumor grade/stage in breast cancer.

A novel ferroptosis-related gene signature for predicting prognosis in multiple myeloma

Background

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a highly malignant hematological tumor with a poor overall survival (OS). Due to the high heterogeneity of MM, it is necessary to explore novel markers for the prognosis prediction for MM patients. Ferroptosis is a form of regulated cell death, playing a critical role in tumorigenesis and cancer progression. However, the predictive role of ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) in MM prognosis remains unknown.

Methods

This study collected 107 FRGs previously reported and utilized the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) cox regression model to construct a multi-genes risk signature model upon FRGs. The ESTIMATE algorithm and immune-related single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) were carried out to evaluate immune infiltration level. Drug sensitivity was assessed based on the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer database (GDSC). Then the synergy effect was determined with Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and SynergyFinder software.

Results

A 6-gene prognostic risk signature model was constructed, and MM patients were divided into high and low risk groups. Kaplan-Meier survival curves showed that patients in the high risk group had significantly reduced OS compared with patients in the low risk group. Besides, the risk score was an independent predictor for OS. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis confirmed the predictive capacity of the risk signature. Combination of risk score and ISS stage had better prediction performance. Enrichment analysis revealed immune response, MYC, mTOR, proteasome and oxidative phosphorylation were enriched in high risk MM patients. We found high risk MM patients had lower immune scores and immune infiltration levels. Moreover, further analysis found that MM patients in high risk group were sensitive to bortezomib and lenalidomide. At last, the results of the in vitro experiment showed that ferroptosis inducers (RSL3 and ML162) may synergistically enhance the cytotoxicity of bortezomib and lenalidomide against MM cell line RPMI-8226.

Conclusion

This study provides novel insights into roles of ferroptosis in MM prognosis prediction, immune levels and drug sensitivity, which complements and improves current grading systems.

Pharmacokinetics and Bioequivalence of the Lubiprostone Capsule in Healthy Chinese Subjects

A pharmacokinetic (PK) study and a bioequivalence (BE) study were conducted to investigate the PK characteristics and safety of lubiprostone in healthy Chinese subjects and to evaluate the BE between the test and the reference drugs. The PK study consisted of a fasting state cohort (a single dose of 24 µg of lubiprostone), a 2-period crossover fasting and fed state cohort (a single dose of 48 µg of lubiprostone), and a multiple-dose cohort (24 µg of lubiprostone twice daily). The BE study was a single-dose, 2-treatment, 4-period, replicated crossover study. The plasma concentration of 15-OH-lubiprostone (M3) was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The PK parameters were calculated using the noncompartment model with Phoenix WinNonlin. After a single dose of 24 ug of lubiprostone, the main PK parameters of M3 were 49.2 pg/mL, 74.0 h/pg/mL, and 1.1 hours for maximum plasma concentration (C_max ), area under the plasma concentration time curve from time 0 to the last time point, and t_1/2 , respectively. The main PK parameters of M3 showed dose-proportional characteristics in the dose range of 24-48 µg. Food affects the PK parameters of M3. Compared to the fasting state, time to maximum plasma concentration was delayed, C_max decreased slightly, while AUC increased significantly under the fed state. The test and reference products had similar PK parameters and were bioequivalent in the fed state.

Novel aldo-keto reductase AKR2E9 regulates aldehyde content in the midgut and antennae of the silkworm (Bombyx mori)

We studied the effects of green leaf volatiles (including reactive aldehydes) emitted by plants on insects that feed on these plants. The silkworm (Bombyx mori) is a model lepidopteran that eats mulberry leaves. Defense-related enzymes in silkworms can be targeted for developing new pest control methods. The aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily catalyzes aldehyde reduction by converting a carbonyl group into an alcohol group. Here, we characterized a novel silkworm AKR, designated as AKR2E9. Recombinant AKR2E9 was overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein was used, along with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate as a coenzyme, to reduce aldehydes present in mulberry (Morus alba) leaves. The catalytic efficiency of AKR2E9 toward various aldehyde substrates and its inhibitor sensitivity was lower than those of AKR2E8. High expression levels of akr2e9 messenger RNA (mRNA) were detected in the midgut and antennae of silkworms. In the antennae of adult silkworms, akr2e9 mRNA was more abundant than akr2e8 mRNA. The catalytic efficiency of AKR2E9 was low because of steric hindrance, due to which its active site is blocked. High expression levels of AKR2E9 in the midgut and antennae suggest that it may regulate the detoxification of toxic aldehydes in silkworms.

Allopregnanolone: Metabolism, Mechanisms of Action, and Its Role in Cancer

Allopregnanolone (3α-THP) has been one of the most studied progesterone metabolites for decades. 3α-THP and its synthetic analogs have been evaluated as therapeutic agents for pathologies such as anxiety and depression. Enzymes involved in the metabolism of 3α-THP are expressed in classical and nonclassical steroidogenic tissues. Additionally, due to its chemical structure, 3α-THP presents high affinity and agonist activity for nuclear and membrane receptors of neuroactive steroids and neurotransmitters, such as the Pregnane X Receptor (PXR), membrane progesterone receptors (mPR) and the ionotropic GABA_A receptor, among others. 3α-THP has immunomodulator and antiapoptotic properties. It also induces cell proliferation and migration, all of which are critical processes involved in cancer progression. Recently the study of 3α-THP has indicated that low physiological concentrations of this metabolite induce the progression of several types of cancer, such as breast, ovarian, and glioblastoma, while high concentrations inhibit it. In this review, we explore current knowledge on the metabolism and mechanisms of action of 3α-THP in normal and tumor cells.

Role of Human Aldo-Keto Reductases in the Nitroreduction of 1-Nitropyrene and 1,8-Dinitropyrene

1-Nitropyrene (1-NP) and 1,8-dinitropyrene (1,8-DNP) are diesel exhaust constituents and are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as probable (Group 2A) or possible (Group 2B) human carcinogens. These nitroarenes undergo metabolic activation by nitroreduction to result in the formation of DNA adducts. Human aldo-keto reductases (AKRs) 1C1-1C3 catalyze the nitroreduction of 3-nitrobenzanthrone (3-nitro-7H-benz[de]anthracen-7-one, 3-NBA), but the extent of AKR contribution toward the nitroreduction of additional nitroarenes, including 1-NP and 1,8-DNP, is currently unknown. In the present study, we investigated the ability of human recombinant AKRs to catalyze 1-NP and 1,8-DNP nitroreduction by measuring the formation of the respective six-electron reduced amine products in discontinuous ultraviolet-reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography enzymatic assays. We found that AKR1C1-1C3 were able to catalyze the formation of 1-aminopyrene (1-AP) and 1-amino-8-nitropyrene (1,8-ANP) in our reactions with 1-NP and 1,8-DNP, respectively. We determined kinetic parameters (Km, kcat, and kcat/Km) and found that out of the three isoforms, AKR1C1 had the highest catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) for 1-AP formation, whereas AKR1C3 had the highest catalytic efficiency for 1,8-ANP formation. Use of ultra-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry verified amine product identity and provided evidence for the formation of nitroso- and hydroxylamino-intermediates in our reactions. Our study expands the role of AKR1C1-1C3, which are expressed in human lung cells, in the metabolic activation of nitroarenes that can lead to DNA adduct formation, mutation, and carcinogenesis.

Nitroreduction: A Critical Metabolic Pathway for Drugs, Environmental Pollutants, and Explosives

Nitro group containing xenobiotics include drugs, cancer chemotherapeutic agents, carcinogens (e.g., nitroarenes and aristolochic acid) and explosives. The nitro group undergoes a six-electron reduction to form sequentially the nitroso-, N-hydroxylamino- and amino-functional groups. These reactions are catalyzed by nitroreductases which, rather than being enzymes with this sole function, are enzymes hijacked for their propensity to donate electrons to the nitro group either one at a time via a radical mechanism or two at time via the equivalent of a hydride transfer. These enzymes include: NADPH-dependent flavoenzymes (NADPH: P450 oxidoreductase, NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase), P450 enzymes, oxidases (aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase) and aldo-keto reductases. The hydroxylamino group once formed can undergo conjugation reactions with acetate or sulfate catalyzed by N-acetyltransferases or sulfotransferases, respectively, leading to the formation of intermediates containing a good leaving group which in turn can generate a nitrenium or carbenium ion for covalent DNA adduct formation. The intermediates in the reduction sequence are also prone to oxidation and produce reactive oxygen species. As a consequence, many nitro-containing xenobiotics can be genotoxic either by forming stable covalent adducts or by oxidatively damaging DNA. This review will focus on the general chemistry of nitroreduction, the enzymes responsible, the reduction of xenobiotic substrates, the regulation of nitroreductases, the ability of nitrocompounds to form DNA adducts and act as mutagens as well as some future directions.

Targeting of the intracellular redox balance by metal complexes towards anticancer therapy

The development of cancers is often linked to the alteration of essential redox processes, and therefore, oxidoreductases involved in such mechanisms can be considered as attractive molecular targets for the development of new therapeutic strategies. On the other hand, for more than two decades, transition metals derivatives have been leading the research on drugs as alternatives to platinum-based treatments. The success of such compounds is particularly due to their attractive redox kinetics properties, favorable oxidation states, as well as routes of action different to interactions with DNA, in which redox interactions are crucial. For instance, the activity of oxidoreductases such as PHD2 (prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing protein) which can regulate angiogenesis in tumors, LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) related to glycolysis, and enzymes, such as catalases, SOD (superoxide dismutase), TRX (thioredoxin) or GSH (glutathione) involved in controlling oxidative stress, can be altered by metal effectors. In this review, we wish to discuss recent results on how transition metal complexes have been rationally designed to impact on redox processes, in search for effective and more specific cancer treatments.

Association of urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites and cardiovascular disease among US population: A cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

The main aim of the study was to illustrate the association between urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their metabolites with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including congestive heart failure (CHF), coronary heart disease (CHD), angina, heart attack, and stroke among the US population.

METHODS

The National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-16, nationally representative data were utilized for this study. A cross-sectional observational study was designed to assess the strength of the association between urinary PAH and CVDs. The NHANES survey used a stratified multistage probability sample strategy for obtaining representative samples. Logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the association between PAH and the prevalence of CVDs.

RESULTS

In our study, the average ages of the three different PAHs tertiles were 42.56 ± 19.68, 42.21 ± 19.51, and 43.39 ± 17.99 years, respectively. A positive association was found between the second and third tertile of urinary PAH and increased prevalence of coronary heart disease (tertile-2: OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.09-1.42; tertile-3: OR = 1.97, 95% CI = 1.69-2.28), angina (tertile-2: OR = 1.3, 95% CI = 1.13-1.49; tertile-3: OR = 2.07, 95% CI = 1.76-2.42), heart attack (tertile-2: OR = 1.28, 95% CI = 1.12-1.47; tertile-3: OR = 1.71, 95% CI = 1.48-1.96) and stroke (tertile-2: OR = 1.17, 95% CI = 1.02-1.33; tertile-3: OR = 1.66, 95% CI = 1.43-1.93) in total participants, respectively, with p-values less than 0.05.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study found a positive association between urinary PAHs and the prevalence of various CVDs among the US population.

Steroidogenic enzymes in the hippocampus: Transcriptional regulation aspects

Neurosteroids are steroids synthesized de novo from cholesterol in brain regions, and regulate processes associated with the development and functioning of the nervous system. Enzymes and proteins involved in the synthesis of these steroids have been detected in several brain regions, including hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex. Hippocampus has long been associated with learning and memory functions, while the loss of its functionality has been linked to neurodegenerative pathologies. In this sense, neurosteroids are critical for the maintenance of hippocampal functions and neuroprotective effects. Moreover, several factors have been shown to deregulate expression of steroidogenic enzymes in the rodent brain, including aging, enrichment experiences, diet habits, drug/alcohol consumption, hormone fluctuations, neurodegenerative processes and other diseases. These transcriptional deregulations are mediated mainly by transcription factors and epigenetic mechanisms. An epigenetic modification of chromatin involves changes in bases and associated proteins in the absence of changes in the DNA sequence. One of the most well-studied mechanisms related to gene silencing is DNA methylation, which involves a reversible addition of methyl groups in a cytosine base. Importantly, these epigenetic marks could be maintained over time and could be transmitted transgenerationally. The aim of this chapter is to present the most relevant steroidogenic enzymes described in rodent hippocampus; to discuss about their transcriptional regulation under different conditions; to show the main gene control regions and to propose DNA methylation as an epigenetic mechanism through which the expression of these enzymes could be controlled.

Analogues of Natural Chalcones as Efficient Inhibitors of AKR1C3

Naturally occurring substances are valuable resources for drug development. In this respect, chalcones are known to be antiproliferative agents against prostate cancer cell lines through various mechanisms or targets. Based on the literature and preliminary results, we aimed to study and optimise the efficiency of a series of chalcones to inhibit androgen-converting AKR1C3, known to promote prostate cancer. A total of 12 chalcones with different substitution patterns were synthesised. Structure-activity relationships associated with these modifications on AKR1C3 inhibition were analysed by performing enzymatic assays and docking simulations. In addition, the selectivity and cytotoxicity of the compounds were assessed. In enzymatic assays, C-6' hydroxylated derivatives were more active than C-6' methoxylated derivatives. In contrast, C-4 methylation increased activity over C-4 hydroxylation. Docking results supported these findings with the most active compounds fitting nicely in the binding site and exhibiting strong interactions with key amino acid residues. The most effective inhibitors were not cytotoxic for HEK293T cells and selective for 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases not primarily involved in steroid hormone metabolism. Nevertheless, they inhibited several enzymes of the steroid metabolism pathways. Favourable substitutions that enhanced AKR1C3 inhibition of chalcones were identified. This study paves the way to further develop compounds from this series or related flavonoids with improved inhibitory activity against AKR1C3.

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-induced oxidative stress in Shiraz, Iran: urinary levels, health risk assessment and mediation effect of MDA on the risk of metabolic syndromes

PURPOSE

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been identified as carcinogenic and endocrine disrupter compounds that cause Metabolic Syndrome (MetS). Oxidative stress can lead to carcinogenesis and MetS in exposed people. Therefore, the relationship between urinary metabolite of PAH (OH-PAHs) level and the oxidative stress biomarker (Malondialdehyde) effect as the mediator in increasing the risk of MetS due to PAH exposure and risk assessment was investigated in Shiraz, Iran.

METHODS

The first morning void urinary and blood samples were obtained from participants and analyzed. Physical examinations and anthropometric measurements were performed on the day of sampling. An automatic biochemistry analyzer was used to measure the blood cells. The participants' socio-demographic information was gathered using a questionnaire and direct interviews with participants.

RESULTS

The MetS prevalence was 26%. Malondialdehyde could act as a mediator between exposure to 1-HydroxyPyrene and increase in fast blood sugar, exposure to 2-HydroxyNaphthalene and increase in systolic blood pressure and exposure to 2-HydroxyFluorene and increase in SBP. Hazard quotients varied from 0.009 to 14.92 in women, and from 0.005 to 8.43 for Fluorene and Naphthalene in men, respectively. The Hazard Indexes were greater than one meaning that the non-cancer health risk related to the PAH exposure could be identified in the participants.

CONCLUSION

Although oxidative stress has been suggested to lead to MetS and the high HI levels obtained in the current study, future researches are essential to achieve more reliable findings and monitoring the environmental influencing factors in PAH exposure.

Bombyx mori-derived aldo-keto reductase AKR2E8 detoxifies aldehydes present in mulberry leaves

Lepidopterans are agricultural pests. Since the silkworm is a model for lepidopterans, analysis of the enzymes produced by silkworms is of great interest for developing methods of pest control. The aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily catalyzes the reduction of aldehydes by converting a carbonyl group to an alcohol group. Here, we characterized a new AKR present in the silkworm Bombyx mori, which has been designated as AKR2E8. Amino acid sequence and phylogenetic analyses showed that AKR2E8 is similar to human AKR1B1 and AKR1B10. Three amino acid residues in the active site were identical among AKR2E8, AKR1B1, and AKR1B10. Recombinant AKR2E8 overexpressed in Escherichia coli used nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate as a coenzyme to reduce the aldehydes present in mulberry (Morus alba) leaves. AKR2E8 was found to reduce benzaldehyde, hexanal, heptanal, nonanal, trans-2-nonenal, and citral. No nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent activity was detected. Akr2e8 mRNA was detected in the testes, ovaries, and fat body; the highest expression was found in the midgut. The substrate specificity and highest observed expression of AKR2E8 in the midgut suggests that AKR2E8 may play a major role in aldehyde detoxification in silkworms. The findings of this study may assist in the development of pest control methods for controlling the population of lepidopterans, such as silkworms, that damage crops.

Female Reproductive Systems: Hormone Dependence and Receptor Expression

The female reproductive system which consists of the ovaries, uterus (myometrium, endometrium), Fallopian tubes, cervix and vagina is exquisitely sensitive to the actions of steroid hormones. The ovaries play a key role in the synthesis of bioactive steroids (oestrogens, androgens, progestins) that act both within the tissue (intracrine/paracrine) as well as on other reproductive organs following release into the blood stream (endocrine action). Sex steroid receptors encoded by the oestrogen (ESR1, ESR2), progesterone (PR) and androgen (AR) receptor genes, which are members of the superfamily of ligand activated transcription factors are widely expressed within these tissues. These receptors play critical role(s) in regulation of cell proliferation, ovulation, endometrial receptivity, myometrial cell function and inflammatory cell infiltration. Our understanding of their importance has been informed by studies on human tissues and cells, which have employed immunohistochemistry as well as a wide range of molecular and genetic methods to identify which processes are dependent steroid ligand activation. The development of mice with targeted deletions of each of these receptors has provided complementary data that has extended our appreciation of cell-cell interactions in the fine tuning of reproductive tissue function. This large body of work has formed the basis of new and improved therapeutics to treat conditions such as infertility.

Relationship Between Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Systematic Review

Objective: The primary aim of this systematic review was to examine the relationship of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and elaborate the current knowledge and recent advances in the area of PAH and its effects on CVDs and discuss the growing epidemiological evidence linking PAH to CVDs on the health of human populations. In this systematic review, the increased risk of cardiovascular diseases and their relationship with PAHs were discussed in detail.

Methods: On 05th April 2021, a systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed/Medline and Web of Science search engines in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria. The search was limited to articles that were written in English and dealt with human issues. All original peer-review publications were considered for inclusion. Comments, case reports, reviews, duplicated papers, and conference reports were excluded. Data was collected from included papers by two independent reviewers.

Results: Conclusively, 20 research articles published between 2005 and 2021 were chosen for the final analysis. The systemic review included 20 studies with a variety of geographical studies. The most common research category among the nominated studies were time-series studies followed by retrospective cohort, cross-sectional, quasi-experimental, panel, and case-control studies. Most of the studies were conducted in the United States, whereas others were showed in various geographical countries around the world, such as Denmark, Germany, Finland, Netherlands, France, China, Norway, Korea, Sweden, Saudi Arabia, and Belgium. Eight studies assessed the association between PAH exposure and CVDs, four articles observed this relationship with blood pressure (BP), two observed association between atherosclerotic CVD and PAH, one congenital heart disease, cardiovascular events, and two with obesity. Furthermore, in some investigations, a favorable association between PAH exposure and hypertension as well as PAH exposure and obesity was found.

Conclusion: In conclusion, this systematic review examined the relationship of PAH exposure with CVDs and CVD-related risk factors by searching several digital databases. After a comprehensive literature searches and summarizing findings from 20 articles, the authors concluded that a positive relationship was observed between PAH exposure and CVD risks.

Restoring Tumour Selectivity of the Bioreductive Prodrug PR-104 by Developing an Analogue Resistant to Aerobic Metabolism by Human Aldo-Keto Reductase 1C3

PR-104 is a phosphate ester pre-prodrug that is converted in vivo to its cognate alcohol, PR-104A, a latent alkylator which forms potent cytotoxins upon bioreduction. Hypoxia selectivity results from one-electron nitro reduction of PR-104A, in which cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) plays an important role. However, PR-104A also undergoes ‘off-target’ two-electron reduction by human aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3), resulting in activation in oxygenated tissues. AKR1C3 expression in human myeloid progenitor cells probably accounts for the dose-limiting myelotoxicity of PR-104 documented in clinical trials, resulting in human PR-104A plasma exposure levels 3.4- to 9.6-fold lower than can be achieved in murine models. Structure-based design to eliminate AKR1C3 activation thus represents a strategy for restoring the therapeutic window of this class of agent in humans. Here, we identified SN29176, a PR-104A analogue resistant to human AKR1C3 activation. SN29176 retains hypoxia selectivity in vitro with aerobic/hypoxic IC50 ratios of 9 to 145, remains a substrate for POR and triggers γH2AX induction and cell cycle arrest in a comparable manner to PR-104A. SN35141, the soluble phosphate pre-prodrug of SN29176, exhibited superior hypoxic tumour log cell kill (>4.0) to PR-104 (2.5–3.7) in vivo at doses predicted to be achievable in humans. Orthologues of human AKR1C3 from mouse, rat and dog were incapable of reducing PR-104A, thus identifying an underlying cause for the discrepancy in PR-104 tolerance in pre-clinical models versus humans. In contrast, the macaque AKR1C3 gene orthologue was able to metabolise PR-104A, indicating that this species may be suitable for evaluating the toxicokinetics of PR-104 analogues for clinical development. We confirmed that SN29176 was not a substrate for AKR1C3 orthologues across all four pre-clinical species, demonstrating that this prodrug analogue class is suitable for further development. Based on these findings, a prodrug candidate was subsequently identified for clinical trials.

Comprehensive chemical proteomics analyses reveal that the new TRi-1 and TRi-2 compounds are more specific thioredoxin reductase 1 inhibitors than auranofin

Anticancer drugs that target cellular antioxidant systems have recently attracted much attention. Auranofin (AF) is currently evaluated in several clinical trials as an anticancer agent that targets the cytosolic and mitochondrial forms of the selenoprotein thioredoxin reductase, TXNRD1 and TXNRD2. Recently, two novel TXNRD1 inhibitors (TRi-1 and TRi-2) have been developed that showed anticancer efficacy comparable to AF, but with lower mitochondrial toxicity. However, the cellular action mechanisms of these drugs have not yet been thoroughly studied. Here we used several proteomics approaches to determine the effects of AF, TRi-1 and TRi-2 when used at IC50 concentrations with the mouse B16 melanoma and LLC lung adenocarcinoma cells, as these are often used for preclinical mouse models in evaluation of anticancer drugs. The results demonstrate that TRi-1 and TRi-2 are more specific TXNRD1 inhibitors than AF and reveal additional AF-specific effects on the cellular proteome. Interestingly, AF triggered stronger Nrf2-driven antioxidant responses than the other two compounds. Furthermore, AF affected several additional proteins, including GSK3A, GSK3B, MCMBP and EEFSEC, implicating additional effects on glycogen metabolism, cellular differentiation, inflammatory pathways, DNA replication and selenoprotein synthesis processes. Our proteomics data provide a resource for researchers interested in the multidimensional analysis of proteome changes associated with oxidative stress in general, and the effects of TXNRD1 inhibitors and AF protein targets in particular.

Regulation Network and Prognostic Significance of Aldo-Keto Reductase (AKR) Superfamily Genes in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Purpose

The aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily members have been proposed with multiple roles in various tumors. Here, a comprehensive analysis on the integral role of AKR genes was conducted to evaluate the expression profile, regulation network, and prognostic significance in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Materials and Methods

Transcriptome datasets of HCC were obtained from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were used to build a novel risk score model, and then were further used to identify independent prognostic factors for overall survival (OS) of HCC. A prognostic nomogram was developed and validated. The expression of these critical AKR members was also evaluated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry in HCC specimens.

Results

Eight differentially expressed AKR genes were identified in HCC. The dysregulation of most AKR genes was negatively correlated with DNA methylation, and a regulation network with transcription factors (TFs) was also established. Then, three critical AKR genes (AKR1B10, AKR1D1, and AKR7A3) were screened out to build a novel risk score model. Worse OS was observed in high-risk patients. Besides, a prognostic nomogram based on the model was further established and validated in both the TCGA and GSE14520 cohorts, which showed superior performance in predicting the OS of HCC patients. Notably, close correlations were identified between the risk score and tumor immune microenvironment, somatic mutation profiles, and drug susceptibilities of HCC. Finally, the upregulated AKR1B10 and downregulated AKR1D1 and AKR7A3 were further verified in HCC tumor and adjacent tissues from our institution.

Conclusion

The dysregulated AKR genes could be mediated by DNA methylation and TFs in HCC. The risk model established with superior prognostic performance further suggested the significant role of AKR genes involved in the progression of HCC.

A novel selective AKR1C3-activated prodrug AST-3424/OBI-3424 exhibits broad anti-tumor activity

AST-3424/OBI-3424 (denoted by 3424) is a novel prodrug bis-alkylating agent activated by AKR1C3. AKR1C3 is overexpressed in many types of cancer, particularly in liver, non-small cell lung, gastric, renal and CRPC cancer. Currently 3424 is being studied in phase 1/2 clinical trials for the treatment of solid and hematologic cancers, and it represents potentially a novel, selective anti-cancer agent for multiple indications. In this study, AKR1C3-dependent activation of 3424 was investigated in vitro using recombinant human AKR1C3. AKR1C3-dependent cytotoxicity of 3424 was determined in a wide range of human cancer cell lines with different AKR1C3 expression levels. In addition, anti-tumor activity of 3424 was also investigated in a broad panel of CDX and PDX models. AKR1C3-dependent activation of prodrug 3424 was evident by monitoring the decrease of 3424 and generation of the active form, 2660. Kinetic analysis indicated that AKR1C3 exhibited higher catalytic efficiency towards 3424 compared to the physiological substrates. There was a strong correlation between 3424 cytotoxic potency and AKR1C3 expression. The racemic mixture induced DNA cross-linking in a concentration dependent manner. Tumor growth inhibition of 3424 was shown to be better than or comparable to the standard of care chemotherapy at clinically achievable doses as a single agent in various CDX models with high expression of AKR1C3, including liver HepG2, lung H460, castration-resistant prostate VCaP, gastric SNU-16, and kidney A498 cancer cell lines. The excellent anti-tumor efficacy of 3424 was further demonstrated in PDX models which have high level of AKR1C3 expression, but not in a model with low level of AKR1C3 expression. In the combination therapy, we showed that 3424 could enhance the efficacy of the standard care of chemotherapy in the CDX models. The results described here highlight that 3424 exhibits AKR1C3-dependent cytotoxicity in vitro and anti-tumor activity in vivo in a wide range of human cancer types, which support further development of 3424 as an anti-cancer agent for treating different types of cancers and the use of AKR1C3 as a biomarker to profile cancer patients and further guide patient selection for therapy with 3424.

Aldo-Keto Reductases and Cancer Drug Resistance

Human aldo-keto reductases (AKRs) catalyze the NADPH-dependent reduction of carbonyl groups to alcohols for conjugation reactions to proceed. They are implicated in resistance to cancer chemotherapeutic agents either because they are directly involved in their metabolism or help eradicate the cellular stress created by these agents (e.g., reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxides). Furthermore, this cellular stress activates the Nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (NRF2)-Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 pathway. As many human AKR genes are upregulated by the NRF2 transcription factor, this leads to a feed-forward mechanism to enhance drug resistance. Resistance to major classes of chemotherapeutic agents (anthracyclines, mitomycin, cis-platin, antitubulin agents, vinca alkaloids, and cyclophosphamide) occurs by this mechanism. Human AKRs also catalyze the synthesis of androgens and estrogens and the elimination of progestogens and are involved in hormonal-dependent malignancies. They are upregulated by antihormonal therapy providing a second mechanism for cancer drug resistance. Inhibitors of the NRF2 system or pan-AKR1C inhibitors offer promise to surmount cancer drug resistance and/or synergize the effects of existing drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Aldo-keto  reductases (AKRs) are overexpressed in a large number of human tumors and mediate resistance to cancer chemotherapeutics and antihormonal therapies. Existing drugs and new agents in development may surmount this resistance by acting as specific AKR isoforms or AKR pan-inhibitors to improve clinical outcome.

Variability of the Genes Involved in the Cellular Redox Status and Their Implication in Drug Hypersensitivity Reactions

Adverse drug reactions are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Of the great diversity of drugs involved in hypersensitivity drug reactions, the most frequent are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs followed by β-lactam antibiotics. The redox status regulates the level of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS). RONS interplay and modulate the action of diverse biomolecules, such as inflammatory mediators and drugs. In this review, we address the role of the redox status in the initiation, as well as in the resolution of inflammatory processes involved in drug hypersensitivity reactions. We summarize the association findings between drug hypersensitivity reactions and variants in the genes that encode the enzymes related to the redox system such as enzymes related to glutathione: Glutathione S-transferase (GSTM1, GSTP, GSTT1) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX1), thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD1 and TXNRD2), superoxide dismutase (SOD1, SOD2, and SOD3), catalase (CAT), aldo-keto reductase (AKR), and the peroxiredoxin system (PRDX1, PRDX2, PRDX3, PRDX4, PRDX5, PRDX6). Based on current evidence, the most relevant candidate redox genes related to hypersensitivity drug reactions are GSTM1, TXNRD1, SOD1, and SOD2. Increasing the understanding of pharmacogenetics in drug hypersensitivity reactions will contribute to the development of early diagnostic or prognosis tools, and will help to diminish the occurrence and/or the severity of these reactions.

A Novel AKR1C3 Specific Prodrug TH3424 With Potent Antitumor Activity in Liver Cancer

Overexpression of AKR1C3, an aldo-keto reductase, was recently discovered in liver cancers. In this study, an inverse correlation between AKR1C3 expression and survival of patients with liver cancer was observed. AKR1C3 inhibitors, however, failed to suppress liver cancer cell growth. The prodrug TH3424, which releases a DNA alkylating reagent upon reduction by AKR1C3, was developed to target tumors with overexpression of AKR1C3. TH3424 showed specific killing of liver cancer cells with AKR1C3 overexpression both in vitro and in vivo. In patient-derived mouse xenograft models, TH3424 at doses as low as 1.5 mg/kg eliminated liver tumors with no apparent toxicity. Therefore, TH3424 is a promising drug candidate for liver cancer and other types of cancers overexpressing AKR1C3.

Mediation of the association between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposure and telomere attrition by oxidative stress: A prospective cohort study

Previous studies have reported associations between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) exposure and telomere attrition, but the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. This study aimed to explore the mediation role of oxidative stress on the effects of PAHs exposure on telomere attrition in a cohort study of 1180 coke-oven workers. We determined baseline urinary concentrations of ten urinary PAH metabolites, two oxidative stress biomarkers [8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and 8-iso-prostaglandin-F2α (8-isoPGF2α)] and peripheral leukocytes telomere length (TL) in both baseline and follow-up visits. Mediation analysis was applied to assess effects of oxidative stress biomarkers on the PAHs-TL attrition associations. The baseline 8-OHdG had a significant dose-response relationship with TL decline [β(95 %CI) = 0.07(0.03-0.12), P = 0.001] and TL ratio [β(95 %CI)]=0.07 (0.02-0.12), P = 0.003]. Mediation analyses indicated that 8-OHdG mediated a separate 39.1 %, 47.0 %, 43.3 %, and 58.0 % of the associations between 1-hydroxynaphthalene (1-OHNa), 2-OHNa, ΣOHNa, 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) and TL decline (P = 0.016, 0.008, 0.012, and 0.014, respectively). Additionally, 8-OHdG mediated a separate 44.8 %, 49.4 %, 49.2 %, and 35.5 % of the associations between 1-OHNa, 2-OHNa, ΣOHNa, 1-OHP and TL ratio (P = 0.012, 0.008, 0.012, and 0.046, respectively). Our study proposed the positive association of 8-OHdG with TL attrition and revealed the mediation roles of 8-OHdG in PAHs-TL attrition associations.

The Universal Soldier: Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidant Functions of Serum Albumin

As a carrier of many biologically active compounds, blood is exposed to oxidants to a greater extent than the intracellular environment. Serum albumin plays a key role in antioxidant defence under both normal and oxidative stress conditions. This review evaluates data published in the literature and from our own research on the mechanisms of the enzymatic and non-enzymatic activities of albumin that determine its participation in redox modulation of plasma and intercellular fluid. For the first time, the results of numerous clinical, biochemical, spectroscopic and computational experiments devoted to the study of allosteric modulation of the functional properties of the protein associated with its participation in antioxidant defence are analysed. It has been concluded that it is fundamentally possible to regulate the antioxidant properties of albumin with various ligands, and the binding and/or enzymatic features of the protein by changing its redox status. The perspectives for using the antioxidant properties of albumin in practice are discussed.

Ferroptosis: a new unexpected chance to treat metastatic melanoma?

Human skin melanoma is one of the most aggressive and difficult to treat human malignancies, with an increasing incidence over the years. While the resection of the early diagnosed primary tumor remains the best clinical approach, advanced/metastatic melanoma still remains with a poor prognosis. Indeed, although enormous progress in the therapeutic treatment of human tumors has been made in recent years, patients affected by metastatic melanoma are still poorly affected by these clinical advances. Therefore, new valuable therapeutic approaches are urgently needed, to design and define effective treatments to consistently increase the overall survival rate of patients affected by this malignancy. In this review we summarize the main signaling pathways studied to kill human skin melanoma, and introduce the ferroptotic cell death as a new pathway to be explored to eradicate this tumor.

Functional characterization of an aldose reductase (bmALD1) obtained from the silkworm Bombyx mori

We describe a new member of the aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily in the silkworm Bombyx mori. On the basis of its amino acid sequence and phylogenetic tree, this AKR belongs to the AKR1B family and has been designated as bmALD1. In the current study, recombinant bmALD1 was overexpressed, purified to homogeneity and kinetically characterized. We discovered that bmALD1 uses NADPH as a coenzyme to reduce carbonyl compounds such as DL-glyceraldehyde, glucose and 2-nonenal. No NADH-dependent activity was detected. To the best of our knowledge, bmALD1 is only the third AKR characterized in silkworm which, given its substrate specificity, could play a major role in glucose metabolism and antioxidant reactions. Our data provide an increased understanding of insect AKR function.

Reprint of: Myometrial activation: Novel concepts underlying labor

Term labour is a state of physiological inflammation orchestrated by multiple uterine tissues (both fetal and maternal). This physiological inflammation preceding and accompanying labour onset is characterized by an increase in cytokine and chemokine secretion by the fetal membranes, as well as uterine tissues (i.e., decidua and myometrium). Pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines activate circulating maternal peripheral leukocytes as well as the uterine vascular endothelium to permit leukocyte infiltration into the uterus. This inflammatory milieu, in the absence of infection, is required for the initiation of labour as the uterine-infiltrated leukocytes secrete matrix metalloproteinases to induce fetal membrane rupture and cervical ripening as well as various labour mediators, which promote contractions of the myometrium. Myometrial activation at term and the onset of labour contractions are directly related to the changes in the ovarian/placental hormone progesterone and its downstream mediators (i.e., the progesterone receptors, PRA/B), which are also critical for maintenance of pregnancy. Our recent data provides direct evidence in support of local and functional P4 withdrawal in the uterine muscle (myometrium) via the activator protein-1 (AP-1) mediated pathway. This review outlines known mechanisms regulating activation of human labour, including progesterone and cytokine signaling. Understanding of the molecular mechanism of myometrial activation and labour onset could facilitate the development of new therapeutics for high-risk pregnant women to prevent premature uterine activation and preterm birth.

The Effect of Mung Bean (Vigna radiata (L.)) Coat Extract on Mouse Liver Metabolism During Progesterone Withdrawal

Mung bean (Vigna radiata) is an immunomodulatory medicinal plant, which is recognized as a component of a traditional postpartum diet. The liver plays a crucial role in fatty acid synthesis under the control of various hormones that are affected by pregnancy. This study was designed to establish whether the mung bean water extract, which contains prostaglandins that can regulate corpus luteum maturation, provided any benefits to liver metabolism after the dynamic hormonal change associated with pregnancy. Female C57BL/6J mice were used, and all mice received daily injections of progesterone (5.0 mg/kg) for 5 days, after which progesterone was withdrawn for 3 days. Gel-free/label-free proteomic analysis revealed that the abundance of several proteins was affected in the liver. Hormone manipulation induced changes in lipid metabolism-related protein abundance; oral administration of mung bean coat extract (MBC) for 3 days mitigated the changes and downregulated the expression of Cpt1α, Akr1β, and Srebp1 in the liver. Together with immunological leukocyte modulation assessed via proteomic analysis, we suggest that MBC may exert health-promoting effects through the modulation of lipid synthesis during postpartum recovery.

Non-linear relationships between seasonal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine levels among Chinese young students

Limited data are available on seasonal associations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) exposure with oxidative DNA damage. We conducted a pilot study with 20 postgraduates, and measured urinary levels of mono-hydroxyl PAHs (OH-PAHs) and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) for 7 consecutive days in the four seasons. We assessed the relationships of urinary OH-PAHs with urinary 8-OHdG in the whole year as well as cold- and warm-seasons. Summed OH-PAHs (∑OH-PAHs) were higher in cold season than in warm season. Each ln-unit (ln-transformed unit) increase in ∑OH-PAHs in the whole year corresponded to a 34%, 16% or 23% increase in urinary 8-OHdG levels at lag0, lag1 or lag2 day as well as a 26% increase in urinary 8-OHdG levels at lag0-2 days (cumulative effects). Each ln-unit increase in ∑OH-PAHs corresponded to a 36%, 26% or 46% increase in urinary 8-OHdG levels in cold season at lag0 day, lag1 day or lag2 day as well as a 36% increase in urinary 8-OHdG in warm season at lag0 day. Distributed non-linear cumulative lag models (DLNMs) indicated that each ln-unit increase in ∑OH-PAHs within the range of 5.7-8.1 nmol/mmol Cr had a stronger effect (coefficient β: 1.11-2.97 nmol/mmol Cr) on urinary 8-OHdG rather than non-cumulative DLNMs (coefficient β: 1.08-1.43 nmol/mmol Cr) as well as the non-linear dose-response relationships of ∑OH-PAHs with urinary 8-OHdG. PAHs exposure exhibited the lagged and cumulative effects on urinary 8-OHdG levels.

Identification of novel epithelial ovarian cancer loci in women of African ancestry

Women of African ancestry have lower incidence of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) yet worse survival compared to women of European ancestry. We conducted a genome-wide association study in African ancestry women with 755 EOC cases, including 537 high-grade serous ovarian carcinomas (HGSOC) and 1,235 controls. We identified four novel loci with suggestive evidence of association with EOC (p < 1 × 10-6 ), including rs4525119 (intronic to AKR1C3), rs7643459 (intronic to LOC101927394), rs4286604 (12 kb 3' of UGT2A2) and rs142091544 (5 kb 5' of WWC1). For HGSOC, we identified six loci with suggestive evidence of association including rs37792 (132 kb 5' of follistatin [FST]), rs57403204 (81 kb 3' of MAGEC1), rs79079890 (LOC105376360 intronic), rs66459581 (5 kb 5' of PRPSAP1), rs116046250 (GABRG3 intronic) and rs192876988 (32 kb 3' of GK2). Among the identified variants, two are near genes known to regulate hormones and diseases of the ovary (AKR1C3 and FST), and two are linked to cancer (AKR1C3 and MAGEC1). In follow-up studies of the 10 identified variants, the GK2 region SNP, rs192876988, showed an inverse association with EOC in European ancestry women (p = 0.002), increased risk of ER positive breast cancer in African ancestry women (p = 0.027) and decreased expression of GK2 in HGSOC tissue from African ancestry women (p = 0.004). A European ancestry-derived polygenic risk score showed positive associations with EOC and HGSOC in women of African ancestry suggesting shared genetic architecture. Our investigation presents evidence of variants for EOC shared among European and African ancestry women and identifies novel EOC risk loci in women of African ancestry.