Strategies to enhance drug delivery to solid tumors by harnessing the EPR effects and alternative targeting mechanisms

Wireless discharge of piezoelectric nanogenerator opens voltage-gated ion channels for calcium overload-mediated tumor treatment

Calcium overload-mediated tumor treatment conventionally necessitates calcium-containing drugs. However, these drugs are susceptible to calcium ion leakage during in vivo delivery, potentially causing adverse effects such as hypercalcemia and hypertension. Furthermore, voltage-gated ion channels (VGICs) on the tumor cell membrane stringently regulate calcium ion influx to preserve intracellular calcium homeostasis. To address these issues, a calcium-free piezoelectric nanogenerator, (K, Na) NbO3 (KNN), capable of local and wireless discharge (at a voltage of up to 0.4 mV) into tumors under ultrasound (US) excitation, is designed to open VGICs. Given the significantly higher extracellular calcium ion concentration compared to intracellular levels (approximately 15,000-fold), a substantial influx of calcium ions ensures, leading to intracellular calcium overload. Concurrently, US stimulates KNN to undergo piezoelectric catalysis, converting water into reactive oxygen species (ROS). The synergistic effect of calcium overload and high ROS oxidation induces mitochondrial damage, culminating in tumor elimination. Additionally, the calcium ion influx induces polarization of tumor-associated macrophages from an immunosuppressive M2 phenotype to an immunity-promoting M1 phenotype, thereby enhancing systemic anti-tumor immune responses. This study demonstrates that local electric field within tumors can open VGICs for efficient and safe calcium overload-mediated tumor treatment, showing great potential for clinical translation.

Bufotalin loaded biomimetic nanodrug for combined chemo/photodynamic therapy of cancer

The combination of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) for enhancing cancer therapeutic efficiency has attracted tremendous attention recently. However, limitations, such as low local concentration and uncontrollable release of therapeutic agents, reduce combined treatment efficacy. In the present study, we engineered a biomimetic nanodrug employing hollow Prussian blue nanoparticles (HPB NPs) to co-load the chemical agent bufotalin (CS-5) and the photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) for combined chemo/PDT therapy against cancer. HPB NPs with catalase (CAT)-mimetic activity significantly improved the efficacy of PDT by catalyzing the decomposition of H2O2 into O2, thus alleviating hypoxia, which conversely amplified the efficiency of combination therapy. In vivo assay demonstrated that the encapsulation of a hybrid membrane on the HPB NPs prolonged blood circulation life 3.4-fold compared to free drug. Additionally, this strategy of combinational chemo/PDT therapy exhibits a remarkable cytotoxic effect against gastric cancer (BGC-823) and breast cancer (4T1) through the induction of ferroptosis and pyroptosis while simultaneously activating the immune response, with minimal adverse effects on normal organs. Thus, the co-delivery system based on biomimetic nanocarriers appears to be a promising platform for combined chemo/PDT therapy in tumor treatment.

Targeting breast cancer: the promise of phage-based nanomedicines

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality among women worldwide, characterized by its aggressive nature, propensity for metastasis, and resistance to standard treatment modalities. Traditional therapies, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation, often encounter significant limitations such as systemic toxicity and lack of specificity.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to evaluate the recent advancements in phage-based nanomedicines as a novel approach for targeted breast cancer therapy, focusing on their mechanisms of action, therapeutic benefits, and the challenges faced in clinical implementation.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature review was conducted, analyzing studies that investigate the application of bacteriophages in cancer therapy, particularly in breast cancer. The review highlights the integration of nanotechnology with phage therapy, examining the potential for enhanced targeting and reduced side effects.

RESULTS

Phage-based nanomedicines have shown promise in selectively targeting breast cancer cells while sparing healthy tissues, thereby improving therapeutic efficacy and safety profiles. The unique properties of bacteriophages, including their ability to be engineered for specific targeting and their natural ability to induce immune responses, present significant advantages over conventional treatments.

CONCLUSION

The integration of phage therapy with nanotechnology represents a promising frontier in the fight against breast cancer. This review underscores the need for continued research to address existing challenges and to explore the full potential of phage-based nanomedicines in improving patient outcomes in breast cancer treatment.

Injectable and implantable hydrogels for localized delivery of drugs and nanomaterials for cancer chemotherapy: A review

Multiple chemotherapeutic strategies have been developed to tackle the complexity of cancer. Still, the outcome of chemotherapeutic regimens remains impaired by the drugs' weak solubility, unspecific biodistribution and poor tumor accumulation after systemic administration. Such constraints triggered the development of nanomaterials to encapsulate and deliver anticancer drugs. In fact, the loading of drugs into nanoparticles can overcome most of the solubility concerns. However, the ability of systemically administered drug-loaded nanomaterials to reach the tumor site has been vastly overestimated, limiting their clinical translation. The drugs' and drug-loaded nanomaterials' systemic administration issues have propelled the development of hydrogels capable of performing their direct/local delivery into the tumor site. The use of these macroscale systems to mediate a tumor-confined delivery of the drugs/drugs-loaded nanomaterials grants an improved therapeutic efficacy and, simultaneously, a reduction of the side effects. The manufacture of these hydrogels requires the careful selection and tailoring of specific polymers/materials as well as the choice of appropriate physical and/or chemical crosslinking interactions. Depending on their administration route and assembling process, these matrices can be classified as injectable in situ forming hydrogels, injectable shear-thinning/self-healing hydrogels, and implantable hydrogels, each type bringing a plethora of advantages for the intended biomedical application. This review provides the reader with an insight into the application of injectable and implantable hydrogels for performing the tumor-confined delivery of drugs and drug-loaded nanomaterials.

Breaking the Chains of Therapeutic Blockade: Pyroptosis-Induced Photothermal-Chemotherapy with Targeted Nanoprobes in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

There is an important clinical need and social significance, especially for young patients, to explore a new breast-conserving strategy that is not dependent on biomarkers for anti-triple-negative breast cancer. Disulfiram, historically employed for the treatment of chronic alcoholism, has recently emerged as a promising antitumor agent in combination with Cu2+. However, reported disulfiram-Cu2+ codelivery regimens often suffer from instability as well as inadequate drug metabolism, which is detrimental to the production and action of the antitumor active ingredient copper(II) bis(diethyldithiocarbamate). To address this obstacle, this study tested nanosystems ICG-CuET@PLGA-CS-HA (IC@PCH) nanoparticles (NPs) carrying the chemotherapeutic agent copper(II) bis(diethyldithiocarbamate) and photosensitizer indocyanine green for the efficient delivery of antitumor drugs. Benefiting from the involvement of hyaluronic acid, the prepared IC@PCH NPs not only targeted CD44 on the surface of tumor cells but also showed a longer in vivo circulation time. The in vitro and in vivo results demonstrated that IC@PCH NP-mediated photothermal-chemotherapy treatment led to pyroptosis via the NLRP3/caspase-1 classical pathway, which had a significant therapeutic effect on triple-negative breast cancer. In addition, targeting IC@PCH NPs allows photoacoustic-magnetic resonance-fluorescence trimodal imaging, which is capable of detecting more insidious cancer foci and opens up new avenues for precise cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Improved Drug Delivery through Amide-Functionalized Polycaprolactones: Enhanced Loading Capacity and Sustained Drug Release

Polymeric micelles are effective for drug delivery but often face instability, low drug loading capacity (DLC), and premature drug leakage. Herein, we report that disubstituted γ-amide functionalized ε-caprolactone (ε-CL) monomers double the substituent density per polymeric unit, enhancing micelle properties and improving drug delivery applications. Three hydrophobic ε-CL monomers with two propyl groups, two benzyl groups, and a combination of propyl and benzyl groups were synthesized. The obtained monomers were polymerized by ring-opening polymerization using poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as a macroinitiator and the hydrophilic block. The synthesized copolymers successfully self-assembled to form micelles, and doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded into all micelles. Poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(N-propyl-N-benzyl-7-oxopane-4-carboxamide) (PEG-b-PBnPyCL) exhibited 7.33 wt % DLC with pH-responsive drug release in acidic conditions. In addition, the DOX-loaded micelles of PEG-b-PBnPyCL exhibited nearly 20% cell viability in MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. These results contribute to advancing polymeric micelles as drug carriers with clinical translation potential.

Progress of extracellular vesicles-based system for tumor therapy

The increasing number of new cancer cases and cancer-related deaths worldwide highlights the urgent need to develop novel anti-tumor treatment methods to alleviate the current challenging situation. Nearly all organisms are capable of secreting extracellular vesicles (EVs), and these nano-scale EVs carrying biological molecules play an important role in intercellular communication, further affecting various physiological and pathological processes. Notably, EVs from different sources have differences in their characteristics and functions. Consequently, diverse EVs have been utilized as drug or vaccine delivery carriers for improving anti-tumor treatment due to their good safety, ease of modification and unique properties, and achieved satisfactory results. Meanwhile, the clinical trials of EV-based platform for tumor therapy are also continuously being conducted. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the recent research progress of EV-based tumor treatment methods, including the introduction of main sources and unique functions of EVs, the application of EVs in tumor treatment as well as their prospects and challenges. Additionally, considering the unique advantages of artificial EVs over natural EVs, we also highlighted their characteristics and applications in tumor treatments. We believe that this review will help researchers develop novel EV-based anti-tumor platforms through a bottom-up design and accelerate the development in this field.

Progress on the functions and mechanisms of natural products in anti-glioma therapy

Glioma, the most prevalent primary tumor of the central nervous system (CNS), is also the most lethal primary malignant tumor. Currently, there are limited chemotherapeutics available for glioma treatment, necessitating further research to identify and develop new chemotherapeutic agents. A significant approach to discovering anti-glioma drugs involves isolating antitumor active ingredients from natural products (NPs) and optimizing their structures. Additionally, targeted drug delivery systems (TDDSs) are employed to enhance drug solubility and stability and overcome the blood-brain barrier (BBB). TDDSs can penetrate deep into the brain, increase drug concentration and retention time in the CNS, and improve the targeting efficiency of NPs, thereby reducing adverse effects and enhancing anti-glioma efficacy. This paper reviews the research progress of anti-glioma activities of NPs, including alkaloids, polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, quinones, and their synthetic derivatives over the past decade. The review also summarizes anti-glioma mechanisms, such as suppression of related protein expression, regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, control of apoptosis signaling pathways, reduction of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) expression, blocking of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and reversal of immunosuppression. Furthermore, the functions and advantages of NP-based TDDSs in anti-glioma therapy are examined. The key information presented in this review will be valuable for the research and development of NP-based anti-glioma drugs and related TDDSs.

Preparation and property study of self-assembled nanoparticles from thiolated fucoidan and doxorubicin

In cancer therapy, addressing the tumor microenvironment remains a critical challenge. This study presented a novel drug delivery system based on thiolated fucoidan (FUC-SH), a marine-derived polysaccharide possessing immunomodulatory properties. FUC-SH was synthesized via cysteine conjugation and self-assembled with doxorubicin (DOX) to form stable nanoparticles through electrostatic interactions and disulfide crosslinking. These nanoparticles exhibited pH/GSH dual-responsive drug release properties, enabling selective drug release in tumor microenvironments. Characterization revealed an average particle size of 141.62 ± 16.94 nm, a Zeta potential of -23.1 ± 2.67 mV, and a high drug-loading efficiency (70.97 ± 1.70 %). Cellular assays demonstrated enhanced tumor-targeted cytotoxicity and immune-stimulating effects, including elevated ROS and cytokine production in RAW 264.7 macrophages. This study focused on in vitro evaluations and the findings highlighted the potential of FUC-SH/DOX nanoparticles as a multifunctional platform for tumor-targeted therapy, while the future studies planned to explore in vivo efficacy.

Nanoparticle-mediated dual targeting of stromal and immune components to overcome fibrotic and immunosuppressive barriers in hepatocellular carcinoma

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are key drivers of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through their promotion of fibrosis and immune suppression activity. To overcome this stroma-immune barrier, we developed D/F@MRL, a stroma-immune co-targeting nanoplatform that enables the spatiotemporal coordination of CAF reprogramming and immune activation. In D/F@MRL, MMP-2-responsive hybrid liposomes (MRL) was employed to co-load digoxin (Dig) and PD-L1-degrading nanofibers (NFs). Upon encountering the MMP-2-enriched HCC stroma, D/F@MRL undergoes enzymatic cleavage, thereby enabling the targeted release of Dig and NFs within the HCC microenvironment. Mechanistically, Dig inhibits the phosphorylation of SMAD3 in CAFs, while PD-L1 degradation destabilizes the TGFβ receptor, synergistically silencing TGF-β/Smad signaling to reprogram CAFs. This combination not only disrupts the fibrotic barrier but also creates a feed-forward loop that further enhances drug penetration, while reinforcing the immune activation driven by Dig-induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) and PD-L1 degradation. In the humanized immune PDX model, D/F@MRL successfully reprogrammed CAFs and robustly remodeled the stromal and immune microenvironments without causing systemic toxicity, highlighting its promising potential for clinical translation. By integrating CAF reprogramming with ICD and immune checkpoint inhibition, this strategy overcame the limitations of single-target therapies, induced robust immune activation, further provided a clinic-transformative approach for fibrotic malignancies.

Combination Therapy for Overcoming Multidrug Resistance in Breast Cancer Through Hedgehog Signaling Pathway Regulation

Background/Objectives: The ineffective delivery of drugs into tumors and the existence of multidrug resistance (MDR) are the primary causes of chemotherapy failure. Downregulation of the Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) pathway has been shown to reduce P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expression on cell membranes and to resist MDR. Methods: In this study, we combine cyclopamine (CYP, a potent Shh antagonist) with paclitaxel (PTX, an antitumor drug that can produce MDR) in a nano-drug delivery system (CYP NP and PTX NP) for the treatment of drug-resistant breast cancer. Nanoparticles were characterized for size, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency. P-gp expression, nanoparticle accumulation, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis were evaluated in MCF-7 and MCF-7/Adr cells. Penetration ability was assessed using 3D multicellular tumor spheroids. Antitumor efficacy and nanoparticle biodistribution were validated in MCF-7/Adr-bearing nude mice models. Results: Our engineered CYP nanoparticles (~200 nm) demonstrated prolonged intratumoral retention, enabling sustained Shh pathway inhibition and P-gp functional suppression. This size-optimized formulation created a favorable tumor microenvironment for the smaller PTX nanoparticles (~30 nm), facilitating deeper tumor penetration and enhanced cellular uptake. Meanwhile, by down-regulating P-gp expression, CYP NPs could convert drug-resistant cells to PTX-sensitive cells in both cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction through the Shh pathway. The combination of CYP NP and PTX NP augmented the antitumor effects in MCF-7/Adr-bearing nude mice models. Conclusions: The CYP NP and PTX NP combination offers a new therapeutic strategy in cancer treatment.

Sustainable Synthesis, Characterization, Cellular Effects of Gold Nanoparticles and Their Applications as Therapeutics in Cancer Therapy

In recent years, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have attracted much attention due to their extensive applications in fields such as biomedicine, electronics, catalysis, and environmental science. However, traditional chemical methods for AuNPs synthesis present certain challenges, such as the use of harsh chemicals and high energy consumption. These limitations have led to the development of alternative, sustainable synthesis methods that are efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly. These methods focus on the principle of green chemistry, utilizing renewable biomass sources (e.g., plant tissues, bacteria, fungi, and algae) and nontoxic solvents to minimize environmental impact. Biomolecules derived from biomass, such as polyphenols, proteins, and unsaturated fatty acids, enable the synthesis of AuNPs under mild and eco-friendly conditions. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in the sustainable synthesis and applications of AuNPs. It summarizes the specific active compounds that drive the reduction and stabilization of AuNPs. It also explores the characterization techniques and underlying mechanisms involved in synthesis. Furthermore, their cellular effects and long-term safety are discussed, along with their extensive applications in biomedical fields, including bioimaging and cancer therapies. Finally, the potential of AuNPs is summarized, highlighting future perspectives as well as emerging opportunities and challenges in biological applications.

Iron oxide based magnetic nanoparticles for hyperthermia, MRI and drug delivery applications: a review

Iron-oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have garnered substantial attention in both research and technological domains due to their exceptional chemical and physical properties. These nanoparticles have mitigated the adverse effects of conventional treatment procedures by facilitating advanced theranostic approaches in integration with biomedicine. These IONPs have been extensively utilized in MRI (as contrast agents in diagnosis), drug delivery (as drug carriers), and hyperthermia (treatment), demonstrating promising results with potential for further enhancement. This study elucidates the operational principles of these NPs during diagnosis, drug delivery, and treatment, and emphasizes their precision and efficacy in transporting therapeutic agents to targeted sites without drug loss. It also analyses various challenges associated with the application of these IONPs in this field, such as biocompatibility, agglomeration, and toxicity. Furthermore, diverse strategies have been delineated to address these challenges. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the applications of IONPs in the field of biomedicine and treatment, along with the associated challenges. It offers significant assistance to researchers, professionals, and clinicians in the field of biomedicine.

Pure drug nanomedicines - where we are?

Pure drug nanomedicines (PDNs) encompass active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), including macromolecules, biological compounds, and functional components. They overcome research barriers and conversion thresholds associated with nanocarriers, offering advantages such as high drug loading capacity, synergistic treatment effects, and environmentally friendly production methods. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in PDNs, focusing on their essential components, design theories, and manufacturing techniques. The physicochemical properties and in vivo behaviors of PDNs are thoroughly analyzed to gain an in-depth understanding of their systematic characteristics. The review introduces currently approved PDN products and further explores the opportunities and challenges in expanding their depth and breadth of application. Drug nanocrystals, drug-drug cocrystals (DDCs), antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), and nanobodies represent the successful commercialization and widespread utilization of PDNs across various disease domains. Self-assembled pure drug nanoparticles (SAPDNPs), a next-generation product, still require extensive translational research. Challenges persist in transitioning from laboratory-scale production to mass manufacturing and overcoming the conversion threshold from laboratory findings to clinical applications.

Combating chemoresistance: Current approaches & nanocarrier mediated targeted delivery

Chemoresistance, a significant challenge in effective cancer treatment needs clear elucidation of the underlying molecular mechanism for the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Alterations in transporter pumps, oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes, mitochondrial function, DNA repair processes, autophagy, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer stemness, epigenetic modifications, and exosome secretion lead to chemoresistance. Despite notable advancements in targeted cancer therapies employing both small molecules and macromolecules success rates remain suboptimal due to adverse effects like drug efflux, target mutation, increased mortality of normal cells, defective apoptosis, etc. This review proposes an advanced nanotechnological technique precisely targeting molecular determinants of chemoresistance which holds promise for enhancing cancer treatment efficacy. Further, the review explores various cancer hallmarks and pathways implicated in chemoresistance, current therapeutic modalities, and their limitations. It advocates the combination of nanoparticle-conjugated conventional drugs and natural compounds to specifically target molecular pathways that can potentially reverse or minimize chemoresistance incidences in cancer patients.

Formulation and evaluation of polymeric nanoparticles to improve in vivo chemotherapeutic efficacy of mangiferin against breast cancer

Mangiferin (Mgf), a naturally occurring polyphenol, can act as an apoptosis inducer for various cancer cells. Thus, it is holding the prospect of being a promising chemotherapeutic agent. However, a discrepancy between the in vitro results and in vivo observations seems to exist that apprehends its potential usefulness. The in vivo chemotherapeutic capacity of Mgf is greatly challenged because of the unfavorable pharmacokinetic credentials. The present study aims to overcome the biopharmaceutical limitations and improve the chemotherapeutic efficacy by incorporating it within nano-scale delivery system. Stable and sphere-shaped Mgf-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (MNPs) were formulated using the nanoprecipitation method and characterized. Further, MNPs were assessed through multiple in vitro and in vivo preclinical evaluations for their chemotherapeutic efficacy, with an ambition to improve the performance in the biological system. Sphere-shaped MNPs exhibited satisfactory drug loading and release profile. The Mgf-loaded nanoformulation also exhibited better cytotoxic potential against breast cancer cells compared to native Mgf owing to its better penetrability into cancer cells. MNPs were also found to confer superior in vivo chemotherapeutic efficacy in breast cancer-bearing mice evidenced by the reduction of tumor load. Improved anti-cancer potential of MNPs over free Mgf was also established through different bioassays. Moreover, the nanoparticles did not confer systemic toxicity to levels of concern. To conclude, the current study pleads for MNPs as a safe and efficacious tool in the fight against breast cancer for futuristic translations.

Nanotechnology in Imatinib delivery: advancing cancer treatment through innovative nanoparticles

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have improved target medicines' therapeutic efficacy and specificity in cancer therapy. Imatinib, one of the tyrosine kinase inhibitors widely used for treating chronic myeloid leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), faces many drawbacks, such as poor solubility, reduced bioavailability, and the development of resistance. The paper critically reviews advances in nanotechnology-based approaches toward the delivery of Imatinib, relating to polymeric, lipid-based, carbon-based, and stimuli-responsive nanoparticles. These methods enhance solubility, stability, and targeted distribution and are often used to facilitate the co-delivery of other anticancer drugs with considerable problems in cancer treatment. Although much potential for these technologies exists, scalability, safety, and regulatory approval, among other features, need resolution before real cost can meet clinical efficacy. Further directions would go toward bio-inspired system development, enhancing regulatory frameworks, and cost-effective manufacturing processes that bring nanotechnology into the realm of standard treatment for cancer.

Nanobiotechnology: traditional re-interpreting personalized medicine through targeted therapies and regenerative solutions

Nanobiotechnology is transforming personalized medicine by leveraging the unique properties of nanomaterials to address key challenges in targeted drug delivery, regenerative medicine, and diagnostics. The development of nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and metallic nanoparticles, has enabled precise drug delivery with enhanced bioavailability and reduced systemic toxicity. Concurrently, nanostructured scaffolds have advanced regenerative medicine by supporting stem cell differentiation, modulating cellular microenvironments, and enhancing tissue repair. These nanoscale innovations have also led to highly sensitive biosensors and imaging agents, significantly improving early disease detection and biomarker monitoring. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, including nanoparticle-induced cytotoxicity, immunogenicity, scalability issues, and regulatory hurdles requiring extensive evaluation of long-term biocompatibility and pharmacokinetics. Addressing these limitations, recent breakthroughs in AI-assisted nanotechnology and CRISPR-Cas9-mediated gene editing are driving next-generation precision medicine, integrating nanoscale therapeutics with computational approaches to enhance efficacy. Future directions focus on nanorobotics, bioengineered nanovaccines, and theranostic platforms capable of simultaneous diagnosis and treatment, paving the way for real-time, patient-specific interventions. The successful translation of nanomedicine into clinical practice will require interdisciplinary collaboration across nanoscience, bioengineering, and translational medicine to refine nanoparticle functionalization, optimize safety profiles, and ensure equitable access to nanotherapeutics. This review provides a comprehensive overview of these advancements, challenges, and emerging opportunities in nanobiotechnology-driven precision medicine.

Anticancer therapeutic potential of multimodal targeting agent- "phosphorylated galactosylated chitosan coated magnetic nanoparticles" against N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are extensively used as carriers in targeted drug delivery and has several advantages in the field of magnetic hyperthermia, chemodynamic therapy and magnet assisted radionuclide therapy. The characteristics of SPIONs can be tailored to deliver drugs into tumor via "passive targeting" and they can also be coated with tissue-specific agents to enhance tumor uptake via "active targeting". In our earlier studies, we developed HCC specific targeting agent- "phosphorylated galactosylated chitosan"(PGC) for targeting asialoglycoprotein receptors. Considering their encouraging results, in this study we developed a multifunctional targeting system- "phosphorylated galactosylated chitosan-coated magnetic nanoparticles"(PGCMNPs) for targeting HCC. PGCMNPs were synthesized by co-precipitation method and characterized by DLS, XRD, TEM, VSM, elemental analysis and FT-IR spectroscopy. PGCMNPs were evaluated for in vitro antioxidant properties, uptake in HepG2 cells, biodistribution, in vivo toxicity and were also evaluated for anticancer therapeutic potential against NDEA-induced HCC in mice model in terms of tumor status, electrical properties, antioxidant defense status and apoptosis. The characterization studies confirmed successful formation of PGCMNPs with superparamagnetic properties. The internalization studies demonstrated (99-100)% uptake of PGCMNPs in HepG2 cells. These results were also supported by biodistribution studies in which increased iron content (296%) was noted inside the hepatocytes. Further, PGCMNPs exhibited no in vivo toxicity. The anticancer therapeutic potential was evident from observation that PGCMNPs treatment decreased tumor bearing animals (41.6%) and significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lowered tumor multiplicity. Overall, this study indicated that PGCMNPs with improved properties are efficiently taken-up by hepatoma cells and has therapeutic potential against HCC. Further, this agent can be tagged with 32P and hence can offer multimodal cancer treatment options via radiation ablation as well as magnetic hyperthermia.

Recent Advances in Nanoenzymes Based Therapies for Glioblastoma: Overcoming Barriers and Enhancing Targeted Treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive and malignant brain tumor originating from glial cells, characterized by high recurrence rates and poor patient prognosis. The heterogeneity and complex biology of GBM, coupled with the protective nature of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), significantly limit the efficacy of traditional therapies. The rapid development of nanoenzyme technology presents a promising therapeutic paradigm for the rational and targeted treatment of GBM. In this review, the underlying mechanisms of GBM pathogenesis are comprehensively discussed, emphasizing the impact of the BBB on treatment strategies. Recent advances in nanoenzyme-based approaches for GBM therapy are explored, highlighting how these nanoenzymes enhance various treatment modalities through their multifunctional capabilities and potential for precise drug delivery. Finally, the challenges and therapeutic prospects of translating nanoenzymes from laboratory research to clinical application, including issues of stability, targeting efficiency, safety, and regulatory hurdles are critically analyzed. By providing a thorough understanding of both the opportunities and obstacles associated with nanoenzyme-based therapies, future research directions are aimed to be informed and contribute to the development of more effective treatments for GBM.

NIR-II Fluorescence Imaging-guided Photothermal Activated Pyroptosis For Precision Therapy Of Glioma

The resistance of cancer cells to apoptosis poses a significant challenge in cancer therapy, driving the exploration of alternative cell death pathways such as pyroptosis, known for its rapid and potent effects. While initial efforts focused on chemotherapy-induced pyroptosis, concerns about systemic inflammation highlight the need for precise activation strategies. Photothermal therapy emerges as a promising non-invasive technique, minimizing pyroptosis-related side effects by targeting tumors spatially and temporally. However, accurately pinpointing tumors to avoid collateral damage remains a challenge. Thus, we utilize NIR-II fluorescence imaging to achieve precise PTT-induced pyroptosis activation in glioma. A polymer semiconductor-based PTT agent was developed with high optical stability, integrated with mesoporous silica to enhance its biocompatibility. These nanoparticles, stabilized through PEG modification and targeted with cRGD peptides, effectively induced pyroptosis in vitro. Furthermore, this design facilitated precise tumor imaging guidance and subsequent pyroptosis activation in vivo, presenting a promising strategy for glioma therapy with minimized adverse effects.

Acid-triggered size reduction of nanomedicines for enhancing tumor therapy efficacy

Nanomedicines whose size can be varied on demand may synchronously achieve excellent tumor accumulation and penetration. In this study, by taking advantage of the pH sensitivity of a boronate ester, we synthesized acid-triggered size-reducing polymer nanoparticles (named PCD) by cross-linking β-cyclodextrin-cored multiarm polymers through the boronate ester. In PCD, the antitumor agent doxorubicin was loaded via the pH-sensitive hydrazone linkage. The in vitro and in vivo properties of PCD were investigated using a non-responsive nanoparticle (named UCD) as a reference. In the neutral condition of the bloodstream, PCD was stable and exhibited a suitable size for long circulation time. Upon entering tumors, PCD decomposed into stable and smaller multiarm polymers, which could deeply penetrate tumors. The high tumor accumulation and penetration of PCD offered significantly better anti-tumor efficacy than UCD.

Nanosuspension Innovations: Expanding Horizons in Drug Delivery Techniques

Nanosuspensions (NS), with their submicron particle sizes and unique physicochemical properties, provide a versatile solution for enhancing the administration of medications that are not highly soluble in water or lipids. This review highlights recent advancements, future prospects, and challenges in NS-based drug delivery, particularly for oral, ocular, transdermal, pulmonary, and parenteral routes. The conversion of oral NS into powders, pellets, granules, tablets, and capsules, and their incorporation into film dosage forms to address stability concerns is thoroughly reviewed. This article summarizes key stabilizers, polymers, surfactants, and excipients used in NS formulations, along with ongoing clinical trials and recent patents. Furthermore, a comprehensive analysis of various methods for NS preparation is provided. This article also explores various in vitro and in vivo characterization techniques, as well as scale-down technologies and bottom-up methods for NS preparation. Selected examples of commercial NS drug products are discussed. Rapid advances in the field of NS could resolve issues related to permeability-limited absorption and hepatic first-pass metabolism, offering promise for medications based on proteins and peptides. The evolution of novel stabilizers is essential to overcome the current limitations in NS formulations, enhancing their stability, bioavailability, targeting ability, and safety profile, which ultimately accelerates their clinical application and commercialization.

A nanotheranostics with hypoxia-switchable fluorescence and photothermal effect for hypoxia imaging-guided immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment modulation

Modulating the immunosuppressive tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is considered a promising strategy for cancer treatment. However, effectively modulating the immunosuppressive TIME within hypoxic zones remains a significant challenge. In this work, we developed a hypoxia-responsive amphiphilic drug carrier using boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) dye-modified chitosan (CsB), and then fabricated a hypoxia-targeted nanotheranostic system, named CsBPNs, through self-assembly of CsB and pexidartinib (5-((5-Chloro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridin-3-yl)methyl)-N-((6-(trifluoromethyl)pyridin-3-yl)methyl), PLX3397), an immunotherapeutic drug targeting tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), for synergistic photothermal/immunotherapy and hypoxia imaging. CsBPNs demonstrated uniform size, good stability, and hypoxia-switchable fluorescence and photothermal effects, enabling deep penetration and hypoxia imaging capacities in three-dimensional tumor cell spheres and tumor tissues. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that CsBPNs under laser irradiation promoted TAMs repolarization, reversed the immunosuppressive TIME, and enhanced the therapeutic outcome of PLX3397 in solid tumors by facilitating deep delivery into hypoxic regions and synergistic photothermal therapy. This work provides a new strategy for detecting and modulating the immunosuppressive TIME in hypoxic zones, potentially enabling more precise and effective photo-immunotherapy in the future.

Innovative integration of nanomedicines and phototherapy to modulate autophagy for enhanced tumor eradication

Nanomedicines, by significantly enhancing the solubility, stability, and targeted delivery of therapeutic agents, have emerged as transformative tools in light-induced therapies, particularly in the context of oncology. These advancements are attributed to their ability to mediate autophagy through light activation, thereby revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the state-of-the-art integration of nanomedicines with phototherapy techniques, emphasizing their role in modulating autophagy within cancer cells. It delineates the potential of light-responsive nanomaterials to induce selective tumor cell death by precisely regulating over-activated autophagy pathways. Additionally, it discusses innovative strategies for combining nanomedicines with phototherapy and other clinical modalities for tumor treatment, as well as integrating autophagy with various forms of programmed cell death to address challenges related to drug resistance and therapeutic efficacy. By synthesizing recent advancements and delineating future research directions, this review offers a thorough perspective on the optimization of light-induced autophagy through nanomedicines, highlighting novel strategies for enhancing cancer treatment efficacy.

Advances in Dendritic Systems and Dendronized Nanoparticles: Paradigm Shifts in Cancer Targeted Therapy and Diagnostics

Cancer has emerged as a global health crisis, claiming millions of lives annually. Dendrimers and dendronized nanoparticles, a novel class of nanoscale molecules with highly branched three-dimensional macromolecular structures, have gained significant attention in cancer treatment and diagnosis due to their unique properties. These dendritic macromolecules offer a precisely controlled branching architecture, enabling functionalization with specific targeting molecules to enhance the selective delivery of therapeutic agents to tumor cells while minimizing systemic toxicity. Through surface modifications and the incorporation of various components, dendrimers demonstrate remarkable adaptability as nanocarriers for biomedical imaging and theranostic applications. Surface functionalization strategies, including PEGylation and ligand attachment (e.g., folic acid, RGD peptide, lactobionic acid), further enhance biocompatibility and facilitate targeted tumor cell imaging. Leveraging their improved biocompatibility and target specificity, dendritic nanosystems offer heightened sensitivity and precision in cancer diagnostics. Notably, the encapsulation of metal nanoparticles within dendrimers, such as gold nanoparticles, has shown promise in enhancing tumor imaging capabilities. Ongoing advancements in nanotechnology are poised to increase the sophistication and complexity of dendrimer-based systems, highlighting their potential as nanocarriers in drug delivery platforms, with a growing number of clinical trials on the horizon. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the potential and future prospects of dendrimers and dendrimer-based nanocarriers in targeted cancer therapy and diagnosis, exploring their ability to enhance biocompatibility, reduce toxicity, and improve therapeutic outcomes across various malignancies.

pH-sensitive metal-organic framework carrier decorated with chitosan for controlled drug release

Satisfactory chemotherapeutic efficiency depends on improving the insufficient selectivity of chemotherapeutic drugs and decreasing damages to healthy tissues/cells, hence, the reasonable design and construction of drug carriers are of great significance in tumor treatment. Herein, the pH-sensitive MOF carrier was developed via the decoration of 4-formylphenylboronic acid (4-FPBA) for controlled 5'-deoxy-5-fluorocytidine (DFCR) release with selectivity. Besides, chitosan (CS) was introduced as the "gatekeeper" for the prevention of drug leakage. In vitro tests prove the good biocompatibility of the MOF carrier and desired tumor cells killing efficiency. Notably, the designed drug carrier decorated with CS in our work demonstrates a prospective candidate in tumor microenvironment-triggered DFCR release in tumor therapy.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Radiogenomic Analysis Reveals Genomic Determinants for Nanoparticle Delivery into Tumors

Even though the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect is applicable for the passive targeting of solid tumors, many nanodrugs have failed to achieve meaningful clinical outcomes due to the heterogeneity of EPR effect. Therefore, understanding the mechanism of the EPR effect is crucial to overcome the obstacles nanomedicines face in clinical translation. The aim of this study was to establish a reliable method to increase awareness of the critical influencing factors of nanoparticle (NP) transport into tumors based on the EPR effect using a combined radiogenomics and clinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique and gene set pathway enrichment analysis. Employing poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-coated Fe3O4 NPs as the contrast agent, the monolayer and multilayer distribution of the NPs were observed and quantitatively analyzed by MRI, improving the accuracy of evaluating vascular permeability by MRI. By performing Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses of genes and pathways, we identified a variety of genes affecting vascular permeability, such as Cldn1, Dlg2, Bves, Prkag3, Cldn10, and Cldn8, which are related to tight junctions and control the permeability of blood vessels in tumors. The method presented here provides an MRI-supported approach to increase the breadth of data collected from genetic screens, reveals genetic evidence of the presence of NPs in tumors and lays a foundation for clinical patient stratification and personalized treatment.

Synthesis, characterisation, and anti-tumour activity of nano-immuno-conjugates for enhanced photodynamic therapy of oesophageal cancer stem cells

In recent times, oesophageal cancer has been listed as the eleventh most prevalent type of cancer. It is a lethal disease attributed to a high mortality rate, tumour metastasis and poor treatment outcome. A subset of oesophageal cancer referred to as stem cells (CSCs) has been revealed to drive carcinogenesis, metastasis, and treatment failure. Therefore, it is essential to target these CSCs to improve the efficacy of treatment for oesophageal cancer. In this present study, we employed a strategy to target oesophageal CSCs with a nano-immuno-conjugate (NIC) consisting of AlPcS4Cl, gold nanoparticle (AuNPs) and anti-CD271 antibody synthesised using a chemical reaction. The synthesised NIC was characterised using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, transmission electron microscope (TEM), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and zeta potential (ZP). The in vitro anti-tumour action of NIC-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) was performed on oesophageal CSCs using cell viability/cytotoxicity assays and morphological examination via light microscopy. The characterisation analysis confirmed the successful synthesis of the NIC. The synthesised nano-immuno-conjugates showed significant cytotoxicity and reduction in cell viability in the HKESC-1 oesophageal CSCs. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed the rapid internalisation of the targeted NIC in key cellular organelles of the CSCs, resulting in enhanced effects. Interestingly, NIC exhibited cytocompatibility with non-tumour WS1 cells, thus supporting its clinical application as a safe anti-tumour agent for enhanced PDT. The study demonstrates the improved effects of NIC-mediated PDT as targeted therapeutics against oesophageal CSCs.

Application of high intensity focused ultrasound combined with nanomaterials in anti-tumor therapy

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) has demonstrated its safety, efficacy and noninvasiveness in the ablation of solid tumor. However, its further application is limited by its inherent deficiencies, such as postoperative recurrence caused by incomplete ablation and excessive intensity affecting surrounding healthy tissues. Recent research has indicated that the integration of nanomaterials with HIFU exhibits a promising synergistic effect in tumor ablation. The concurrent utilization of nanomaterials with HIFU can help overcome the limitations of HIFU by improving targeting and ablation efficiency, expanding operation area, increasing operation accuracy, enhancing stability and bio-safety during the process. It also provides a platform for multi-therapy and multi-mode imaging guidance. The present review comprehensively expounds upon the synergistic mechanism between nanomaterials and HIFU, summarizes the research progress of nanomaterials as cavitation nuclei and drug carriers in combination with HIFU for tumor ablation. Furthermore, this review highlights the potential for further exploration in the development of novel nanomaterials that enhance the synergistic effect with HIFU on tumor ablation.

Ion-Engineered Clay Nanozyme via Tumor Microenvironment Remodeling for Enhanced Tumor Therapy

Metal ions show tremendous promise for tumor therapy due to their critical roles in many important catalytic circulations and immune processes. However, the valence state variability and systemic side-effects of metal ions cause ineffective ion enrichment in tumor cells, which limit their further application. Here, a Mn3+ ion delivery system (Mn-HNT) is constructed based on halloysite nanotubes (HNT) via an ion-engineered strategy. Due to the stabilizing effect of HNT on Mn3+ ions, Mn-HNT not only maintained the valence state of Mn3+ ions, but also presented strong catalase (CAT)- and glutathione oxidase (GSHOx)-like catalytic activity to catalyze O2 generation and GSH consumption to relieve the inhibition of tumor microenvironment on photodynamic therapy (PDT). After further coordination with the photosensitizer porphyrin (TCPP), obtained TCPP-Mn-HNT not only inherited the catalytic properties of Mn-HNT to produce oxygen and consume GSH, but acted as photosensitizer for ROS accumulation to effectively destroy tumor cells. Moreover, TCPP-Mn-HNT can promote the maturation of dendritic cells (≈2.8 times), and present the tumor antigen triggered by PDT to T cells to strengthen high-efficient tumor therapy. The study provides new opportunities for designing metal ion delivery system with versatile biofunctions and offers a paradigm of synergistic metal-ion-mediated tumor therapy.

Intratracheal Administration of Itraconazole-Loaded Hyaluronated Glycerosomes as a Promising Nanoplatform for the Treatment of Lung Cancer: Formulation, Physiochemical, and In Vivo Distribution

BACKGROUND

Itraconazole (ITZ) is an antiangiogenic agent recognized as a potent suppressor of endothelial cell growth that suppresses angiogenesis. Nevertheless, its exploitation is significantly restricted by its low bioavailability and systematic side effects. The objective of this study was to utilize glycerosomes (GLY), glycerol-developed vesicles, as innovative nanovesicles for successful ITZ pulmonary drug delivery.

METHODS

The glycerosomes were functionalized with hyaluronic acid (HA-GLY) to potentiate the anticancer efficacy of ITZ and extend its local bio-fate. ITZ-HA-GLY were fabricated using soybean phosphatidylcholine, tween 80, HA, and sonication time via a thin-film hydration approach according to a 24 full factorial design. The impact of formulation parameters on ITZ-HA-GLY physicochemical properties, as well as the optimal formulation option, was evaluated using Design-Expert®. Sulphorhodamine-B (SRB) colorimetric cytotoxicity assay of the optimized ITZ-HA-GLY versus ITZ suspension was explored in the human A549 cell line. The in vivo pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution examined subsequent to intratracheal administrations of ITZ suspension, and ITZ-HA-GLY were scrutinized in rats.

RESULTS

The optimized ITZ-HA-GLY unveiled vesicles of size 210.23 ± 6.43 nm, zeta potential of 41.06 ± 2.62 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 73.65 ± 1.76%. Additionally, ITZ-HA-GLY manifested a far lower IC50 of 13.03 ± 0.2 µg/mL on the A549 cell line than that of ITZ suspension (28.14 ± 1.6 µg/mL). Additionally, the biodistribution analysis revealed a higher concentration of ITZ-HA-GLY within the lung tissues by 3.64-fold as compared to ITZ suspension. Furthermore, the mean resistance time of ITZ-HA-GLY declined more slowly with 14 h as compared to ITZ suspension, confirming the accumulation of ITZ inside the lungs and their promising usage as a target for the treatment of lung disease.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that the improved ITZ-HA-GLY demonstrates significant promise and represents an exciting prospect in intratracheal delivery systems for lung cancer treatment, meriting further investigation.

Sodium lanthanide tungstate-based nanoparticles as bimodal contrast agents for in vivo high-field MRI and CT imaging

Research on high-field magnetic resonance imaging (HF-MRI) has been increased in recent years, aiming to improve diagnosis accuracy by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio and hence image quality. Conventional contrast agents (CAs) have important limitations for HF-MRI, with the consequent need for the development of new CAs. Among them, the most promising alternatives are those based on Dy3+ or Ho3+ compounds. Notably, the high atomic number of lanthanide cations would bestow a high capability for X-ray attenuation to such Dy or Ho-based compounds, which would also allow them to be employed as CAs for X-ray computed tomography (CT). In this work, we have prepared uniform NaDy(WO4)2 and NaHo(WO4)2 nanoparticles (NPs), which were dispersible under conditions that mimic the physiological media and were nontoxic for cells, meeting the main requirements for their use in vivo. Both NPs exhibited satisfactory magnetic relaxivities at 9.4 T, thus making them a promising alternative to clinical CAs for HF-MRI. Furthermore, after their intravenous administration in tumor-bearing mice, both NPs exhibited significant accumulation inside the tumor at 24 h, attributable to passive targeting by the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Therefore, our NPs are suitable for the detection of tumors through HF-MRI. Finally, NaDy(WO4)2 NPs showed a superior X-ray attenuation capability than iohexol (commercial CT CA), which, along with their high r2 value, makes them suitable as the dual-probe for both HF-MRI and CT imaging, as demonstrated by in vivo experiments conducted using healthy mice.

M. Advances in nanomaterials for precision drug delivery: Insights into pharmacokinetics and toxicity

By integrating the cutting-edge principles of nanotechnology with medical science, nanomedicine offers unprecedented opportunities to develop advanced drug delivery systems that surpass the limitations of conventional therapies. These nanoscale systems are designed to enhance treatments' efficacy, specificity, and safety by optimizing pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, ensuring that therapeutic agents reach their intended targets with minimal side effects. The article provides an in-depth analysis of nanomaterials' pivotal role in overcoming challenges related to drug delivery, including the ability to bypass biological barriers, improve bioavailability, and achieve controlled release of drugs. Despite these promising advancements, the transition of nanomedicine from research to clinical practice faces significant hurdles. The review highlights key obstacles such as patient heterogeneity, physiological variability, and the complex ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion) profiles of nanocarriers, which complicate treatment predictability and effectiveness. Moreover, the article addresses the issues of limited tissue penetration, variable patient responses, and the need for standardized protocols in nanomaterial characterization, all of which hinder the widespread clinical adoption of nanomedicine. Nevertheless, the potential of nanomedicine in revolutionizing personalized cancer therapy remains immense. The article advocates for increased translational research and international collaboration to overcome these challenges, paving the way for fully realizing nanomedicine's capabilities in precision oncology and beyond.

Morphology-Mediated Tumor Deep Penetration for Enhanced Near Infrared II Photothermal and Chemotherapy of Colorectal Cancer

The low permeability and heterogeneous distribution of drugs (including nanomedicines) have limited their deep penetration into solid tumors. Herein we report the design of gold nanoparticles with virus-like spikes (AuNVs) to mimic viral shapes and facilitate tumor penetration. Mechanistic studies revealed that AuNVs mainly entered cells through macropinocytosis, then transported to the Golgi/endoplasmic reticulum system via Rab11-regulated pathway, and finally exocytosed through recycling endosomes, leading to high cellular uptake, effective transcytosis, and deep tumor penetration compared to gold nanospheres (AuNPs) and gold nanostars (AuNSs). The high tumor accumulation and deep tumor penetration of mitoxantrone (MTO) facilitated by AuNVs endowed effective chemophotothermal therapy when exposed to a near-infrared II laser, significantly reducing tumor sizes in a mouse model of colorectal cancer. This study reveals a potent mechanism of viral-like structures in tissue penetration and highlights their potential as effective drug delivery carriers.

Epidrugs in the clinical management of atherosclerosis: Mechanisms, challenges and promises

Atherosclerosis is a complex and multigenic pathology associated with significant epigenetic reprogramming. Traditional factors (age, sex, obesity, hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia, hypertension) and non-traditional factors (foetal indices, microbiome alteration, clonal hematopoiesis, air pollution, sleep disorders) induce endothelial dysfunction, resulting in reduced vascular tone and increased vascular permeability, inflammation and shear stress. These factors induce paracrine and autocrine interactions between several cell types, including vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, monocytes/macrophages, dendritic cells and T cells. Such cellular interactions lead to tissue-specific epigenetic reprogramming regulated by DNA methylation, histone modifications and microRNAs, which manifests in atherosclerosis. Our review outlines epigenetic signatures during atherosclerosis, which are viewed as potential clinical biomarkers that may be adopted as new therapeutic targets. Additionally, we emphasize epigenetic modifiers referred to as 'epidrugs' as potential therapeutic molecules to correct gene expression patterns and restore vascular homeostasis during atherosclerosis. Further, we suggest nanomedicine-based strategies involving the use of epidrugs, which may selectively target cells in the atherosclerotic microenvironment and reduce off-target effects.

Naphthalene Diimide-Based Polycyclic Conjugated Molecule Composite CoFe2O4 Nanohybrids for Photoacoustic Imaging-Mediated Photo-/Sonic Therapy

The complex and harsh tumor microenvironment imped the efficacy of single-modality tumor therapy. With the advantages of biosafety, organic/inorganic nanohybrids have attracted more and more interest of researchers, and it is critical to investigate the development of highly efficient nanohybrids for multimodality combination therapy of cancers. Herein, a naphthalene diimide-based polycyclic conjugated molecule (NDI-S) is designed and synthesized, which has broader light absorption in the near infrared (NIR) region, outstanding photothermal conversion ability, and excellent photostability. Inorganic CoFe2O4 is synthesized via a solvothermal technique, which can produce much more reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a sonosensitizer when activated by ultrasonic (US). NDI-S and CoFe2O4 are then nanoprecipitated to create the organic/inorganic nanohybrids, NDI-S@CoFe2O4. According to the results of in vitro and in vivo experiments, NDI-S@CoFe2O4 can serve as a multifunctional nanoplatform for multimodal treatment of tumors in combination with photothermal/photodynamic/sonodynamic- therapy under the guidance of photoacoustic imaging, which provides a new vision of the development of organic/inorganic nanohybrids for cancer theranostics.

Advancing Breast Cancer Therapeutics: Targeted Gene Delivery Systems Unveiling the Potential of Estrogen Receptor-Targeting Ligands

Although curcumin has been well known as a phytochemical drug that inhibits tumor promotion by modulating multiple molecular targets, its potential was not reported as a targeting ligand in the field of drug delivery system. Here, we aimed to assess the tumor-targeting efficiency of curcumin and its derivatives such as phenylalanine, cinnamic acid, coumaric acid, and ferulic acid. Curcumin exhibited a high affinity for estrogen receptors through a pull-down assay using the membrane proteins of MCF-7, a breast cancer cell line, followed by designation of a polymer-based gene therapy system. As a basic backbone for gene binding, dextran grafted with branched polyethylenimine was synthesized, and curcumin and its derivatives were linked to lysine dendrimers. In vitro and in vivo antitumor effects were evaluated using plasmid DNA expressing anti-bcl-2 short hairpin RNA. All synthesized gene carriers showed excellent DNA binding, protective effects against nuclease, and gene transfection efficiency in MCF-7 and SKBr3 breast cancer cells. Preincubation with curcumin or 17α-estradiol resulted in a marked dose-dependent decrease in gene transfer efficiency and suggested targeting specificity of curcumin. Our study indicates the potential of curcumin and its derivatives as novel targeting ligands for tumor cells and tissues.

Mitochondrial metabolism blockade nanoadjuvant reversed immune-resistance microenvironment to sensitize albumin-bound paclitaxel-based chemo-immunotherapy

Currently, the efficacy of albumin-bound paclitaxel (PTX@Alb) is still limited due to the impaired PTX@Alb accumulation in tumors partly mediated by the dense collagen distribution. Meanwhile, acquired immune resistance always occurs due to the enhanced programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression after PTX@Alb treatment, which then leads to immune tolerance. To fill these gaps, we newly revealed that tamoxifen (TAM), a clinically widely used adjuvant therapy for breast cancer with mitochondrial metabolism blockade capacity, could also be used as a novel effective PD-L1 and TGF-β dual-inhibitor via inducing the phosphorylation of adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) protein. Following this, to obtain a more significant effect, TPP-TAM was prepared by conjugating mitochondria-targeted triphenylphosphine (TPP) with TAM, which then further self-assembled with albumin (Alb) to form TPP-TAM@Alb nanoparticles. By doing this, TPP-TAM@Alb nanoparticles effectively decreased the expression of collagen in vitro, which then led to the enhanced accumulation of PTX@Alb in 4T1 tumors. Besides, TPP-TAM@Alb also effectively decreased the expression of PD-L1 and TGF-β in tumors to better sensitize PTX@Alb-mediated chemo-immunotherapy by enhancing T cell infiltration. All in all, we newly put forward a novel mitochondrial metabolism blockade strategy to inhibit PTX@Alb-resistant tumors, further supporting its better clinical application.

The menace of severe adverse events and deaths associated with viral gene therapy and its potential solution

Over the past decade, in vivo gene replacement therapy has significantly advanced, resulting in market approval of numerous therapeutics predominantly relying on adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV). While viral vectors have undeniably addressed several critical healthcare challenges, their clinical application has unveiled a range of limitations and safety concerns. This review highlights the emerging challenges in the field of gene therapy. At first, we discuss both the role of biological barriers in viral gene therapy with a focus on AAVs, and review current landscape of in vivo human gene therapy. We delineate advantages and disadvantages of AAVs as gene delivery vehicles, mostly from the safety perspective (hepatotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, inflammatory responses etc.), and outline the mechanisms of adverse events in response to AAV. Contribution of every aspect of AAV vectors (genomic structure, capsid proteins) and host responses to injected AAV is considered and substantiated by basic, translational and clinical studies. The updated evaluation of recent AAV clinical trials and current medical experience clearly shows the risks of AAVs that sometimes overshadow the hopes for curing a hereditary disease. At last, a set of established and new molecular and nanotechnology tools and approaches are provided as potential solutions for mitigating or eliminating side effects. The increasing number of severe adverse reactions and, sadly deaths, demands decisive actions to resolve the issue of immune responses and extremely high doses of viral vectors used for gene therapy. In response to these challenges, various strategies are under development, including approaches aimed at augmenting characteristics of viral vectors and others focused on creating secure and efficacious non-viral vectors. This comprehensive review offers an overarching perspective on the present state of gene therapy utilizing both viral and non-viral vectors.

Polyester nanoparticles delivering chemotherapeutics: Learning from the past and looking to the future to enhance their clinical impact in tumor therapy

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), specifically those comprised of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters, have been heralded as a game-changing drug delivery platform. In fact, poly(α-hydroxy acids) such as polylactide (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) have been heavily researched in the past three decades as the material basis of polymeric NPs for drug delivery applications. As materials, these polymers have found success in resorbable sutures, biodegradable implants, and even monolithic, biodegradable platforms for sustained release of therapeutics (e.g., proteins and small molecules) and diagnostics. Few fields have gained more attention in drug delivery through polymeric NPs than cancer therapy. However, the clinical translational of polymeric nanomedicines for treating solid tumors has not been congruent with the fervor or funding in this particular field of research. Here, we attempt to provide a comprehensive snapshot of polyester NPs in the context of chemotherapeutic delivery. This includes a preliminary exploration of the polymeric nanomedicine in the cancer research space. We examine the various processes for producing polyester NPs, including methods for surface-functionalization, and related challenges. After a detailed overview of the multiple factors involved with the delivery of NPs to solid tumors, the crosstalk between particle design and interactions with biological systems is discussed. Finally, we report state-of-the-art approaches toward effective delivery of NPs to tumors, aiming at identifying new research areas and re-evaluating the reasons why some research avenues have underdelivered. We hope our effort will contribute to a better understanding of the gap to fill and delineate the future research work needed to bring polyester-based NPs closer to clinical application. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

HER-2 Receptor and αvβ3 Integrin Dual-Ligand Surface-Functionalized Liposome for Metastatic Breast Cancer Therapy

Human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer metastasis remains the primary cause of mortality among women globally. Targeted therapies have revolutionized treatment efficacy, with Trastuzumab (Trast), a monoclonal antibody, targeting HER2-positive advanced breast cancer. The tumor-homing peptide iRGD enhances the intratumoral accumulation and penetration of therapeutic agents. Liposomes serve as versatile nanocarriers for both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. Gefitinib (GFB) is a potential anticancer drug against HER2-positive breast cancer, while Lycorine hydrochloride (LCH) is a natural compound with anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties. This study developed TPGS-COOH-coated liposomes co-loaded with GFB and LCH, prepared by the solvent injection method, and surface-functionalized with Trast and iRGD. The dual surface-decorated liposomes (DSDLs) were characterized for their particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), surface chemistry, surface morphology, and their crystallinity during in-vitro drug release, drug encapsulation, and in-vitro cell line studies on SK-BR-3 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. The half-maximum inhibitory concentration (IC-50) values of single decorated liposomes (SDLs), iRGD-LP, and Trast-LP, as well as DSDLs (iRGD-Trast-LP) on SK-BR-3 cells, were 6.10 ± 0.42, 4.98 ± 0.36, and 4.34 ± 0.32 μg/mL, respectively. Moreover, the IC-50 values of SDLs and DSDLs on MDA-MB-231 cells were 15.12 ± 0.68, 13.09 ± 0.59, and 11.08 ± 0.48 μg/mL, respectively. Cellular uptake studies using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) showed that iRGD and Trast functionalization significantly enhanced cellular uptake in both cell lines. The wound-healing assay demonstrated a significant reduction in SDL and DSDL-treated MDA-MB-231 cell migration compared to the control. Additionally, the blood compatibility study showed minimal hemolysis (less than 5% RBC lysis), indicating good biocompatibility and biosafety. Overall, these findings suggest that TPGS-COOH-coated, GFB and LCH co-loaded, dual-ligand (iRGD and Trast) functionalized, multifunctional liposomes could be a promising therapeutic strategy for treating HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer.

Reactive oxygen species driven prodrug-based nanoscale carriers for transformative therapies

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) drive processes in various pathological conditions serving as an attractive target for therapeutic strategies. This review highlights the development and use of ROS-dependent prodrug-based nanoscale carriers that has transformed many biomedical applications. Incorporating prodrugs into nanoscale carriers not only improves their stability and solubility but also enables site-specific drug delivery ultimately enhancing the therapeutic effectiveness of the nanoscale carriers. We critically examine recent advances in ROS-responsive nanoparticulate platforms, encompassing liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanocarriers. These platforms facilitate precise control over drug release upon encountering elevated ROS levels at disease sites, thereby minimizing off-target effects and maximizing therapeutic efficiency. Furthermore, we investigate the potential of combination therapies in which ROS-activated prodrugs are combined with other therapeutic agents and underscore their synergistic potential for treating multifaceted diseases. This comprehensive review highlights the immense potential of ROS-dependent prodrug-based nanoparticulate systems in revolutionizing biomedical applications; such nanoparticulate systems can facilitate selective and controlled drug delivery, reduce toxicity, and improve therapeutic outcomes for ROS-associated diseases.

Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles against lung cancer and their application as inhalable formulation

Lung cancer is a leading cause of global cancer mortality, often treated with chemotherapeutic agents. However, conventional approaches such as oral or intravenous administration of drugs yield low bioavailability and adverse effects. Nanotechnology has unlocked new gateways for delivering medicine to their target sites. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are one of the nano-scaled delivery platforms that have been studied to exploit advantages of liposomes and polymers, enhancing stability, drug loading, biocompatibility and controlled release. Pulmonary administration of drug-loaded LPHNPs enables direct lung deposition, rapid onset of action and heightened efficacy at low doses of drugs. In this manuscript, we will review the potential of LPHNPs in management of lung cancer through pulmonary administration.

Current advance of nanotechnology in diagnosis and treatment for malignant tumors

Cancer remains a significant risk to human health. Nanomedicine is a new multidisciplinary field that is garnering a lot of interest and investigation. Nanomedicine shows great potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Specifically engineered nanoparticles can be employed as contrast agents in cancer diagnostics to enable high sensitivity and high-resolution tumor detection by imaging examinations. Novel approaches for tumor labeling and detection are also made possible by the use of nanoprobes and nanobiosensors. The achievement of targeted medication delivery in cancer therapy can be accomplished through the rational design and manufacture of nanodrug carriers. Nanoparticles have the capability to effectively transport medications or gene fragments to tumor tissues via passive or active targeting processes, thus enhancing treatment outcomes while minimizing harm to healthy tissues. Simultaneously, nanoparticles can be employed in the context of radiation sensitization and photothermal therapy to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of malignant tumors. This review presents a literature overview and summary of how nanotechnology is used in the diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors. According to oncological diseases originating from different systems of the body and combining the pathophysiological features of cancers at different sites, we review the most recent developments in nanotechnology applications. Finally, we briefly discuss the prospects and challenges of nanotechnology in cancer.

Metal-based nanoparticle in cancer treatment: lessons learned and challenges

Cancer, being one of the deadliest diseases, poses significant challenges despite the existence of traditional treatment approaches. This has led to a growing demand for innovative pharmaceutical agents that specifically target cancer cells for effective treatment. In recent years, the use of metal nanoparticles (NPs) as a promising alternative to conventional therapies has gained prominence in cancer research. Metal NPs exhibit unique properties that hold tremendous potential for various applications in cancer treatment. Studies have demonstrated that certain metals possess inherent or acquired anticancer capabilities through their surfaces. These properties make metal NPs an attractive focus for therapeutic development. In this review, we will investigate the applicability of several distinct classes of metal NPs for tumor targeting in cancer treatment. These classes may include gold, silver, iron oxide, and other metals with unique properties that can be exploited for therapeutic purposes. Additionally, we will provide a comprehensive summary of the risk factors associated with the therapeutic application of metal NPs. Understanding and addressing these factors will be crucial for successful clinical translation and to mitigate any potential challenges or failures in the translation of metal NP-based therapies. By exploring the therapeutic potential of metal NPs and identifying the associated risk factors, this review aims to contribute to the advancement of cancer treatment strategies. The anticipated outcome of this review is to provide valuable insights and pave the way for the advancement of effective and targeted therapies utilizing metal NPs specifically for cancer patients.

Oral Nanoformulations in Cardiovascular Medicine: Advances in Atherosclerosis Treatment

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the formation of atherosclerotic plaques on the walls of the arteries, causing them to narrow. If this occurs in the coronary arteries, the blood vessels may be completely blocked, resulting in myocardial infarction; if it occurs in the blood vessels of the brain, the blood vessels may be blocked, resulting in cerebral infarction, i.e., stroke. Studies have shown that the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis involves the processes of inflammation, lipid infiltration, oxidative stress, and endothelial damage, etc. SIRT, as a key factor regulating the molecular mechanisms of oxidative stress, inflammation, and aging, has an important impact on the pathogenesis of plaque formation, progression, and vulnerability. Statistics show that AS accounts for about 50 per cent of deaths in Western countries. Currently, oral medication is the mainstay of AS treatment, but its development is limited by side effects, low bioavailability and other unfavourable factors. In recent years, with the rapid development of nano-preparations, researchers have combined statins and natural product drugs within nanopreparations to improve their bioavailability. Based on this, this paper summarises the main pathogenesis of AS and also proposes new oral nanoformulations such as liposomes, nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, and nanocapsules to improve their application in the treatment of AS.

Comparison of passive targeted delivery of inorganic and organic nanocarriers among different types of tumors

In this study, we have considered four types of nanoparticles (NPs): polylactic acid (PLA), gold (Au), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and silica (SiO2) with similar sizes (TEM: 50-110 nm and DLS: 110-140 nm) to examine their passive accumulation in three different tumors: colon (CT26), melanoma (B16-F10), and breast (4T1) cancers. Our results demonstrate that each tumor model showed a different accumulation of NPs, in the following order: CT26 > B16-F10 > 4T1. The Au and PLA NPs were evidently characterized by a higher delivery efficiency in case of CT26 tumors compared to CaCO3 and SiO2 NPs. The Au NPs demonstrated the highest accumulation in B16-F10 cells compared to other NPs. These results were verified using SPECT, ex vivo fluorescence bioimaging, direct radiometry and histological analysis. Thus, this work contributes to new knowledge in passive tumor targeting of NPs and can be used for the development of new strategies for delivery of bioactive compounds.

Mitochondria-Targeted Nanoadjuvants Induced Multi-Functional Immune-Microenvironment Remodeling to Sensitize Tumor Radio-Immunotherapy

It is newly revealed that collagen works as a physical barrier to tumor immune infiltration, oxygen perfusion, and immune depressor in solid tumors. Meanwhile, after radiotherapy (RT), the programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) overexpression and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) excessive secretion would accelerate DNA damage repair and trigger T cell exclusion to limit RT efficacy. However, existing drugs or nanoparticles can hardly address these obstacles of highly effective RT simultaneously, effectively, and easily. In this study, it is revealed that inducing mitochondria dysfunction by using oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors like Lonidamine (LND) can serve as a highly effective multi-immune pathway regulation strategy through PD-L1, collagen, and TGF-β co-depression. Then, IR-LND is prepared by combining the mitochondria-targeted molecule IR-68 with LND, which then is loaded with liposomes (Lip) to create IR-LND@Lip nanoadjuvants. By doing this, IR-LND@Lip more effectively sensitizes RT by generating more DNA damage and transforming cold tumors into hot ones through immune activation by PD-L1, collagen, and TGF-β co-inhibition. In conclusion, the combined treatment of RT and IR-LND@Lip ultimately almost completely suppressed the growth of bladder tumors and breast tumors.

Hyperpolarized 129Xe Atoms Sense the Presence of Drug Molecules in Nanohosts Revealed by Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Assessing the effectiveness of nanomedicines involves evaluating the drug content at the target site. Currently, most research focuses on monitoring the signal responses from loaded drugs, neglecting the changes caused by the nanohosts. Here, we propose a strategy to quantitatively evaluate the content of loaded drugs by detecting the signal variations resulting from the alterations in the microenvironment of the nanohosts. Specifically, hyperpolarized (HP) 129Xe atoms are employed as probes to sense the nanohosts' environment and generate a specific magnetic resonance (MR) signal that indicates their accessibility. The introduction of drugs reduces the available space in the nanohosts, leading to a crowded microenvironment that hinders the access of the 129Xe atoms. By employing 129Xe atoms as a signal source to detect the alterations in the microenvironment, we constructed a three-dimensional (3D) map that indicated the concentration of the nanohosts and established a linear relationship to quantitatively measure the drug content within the nanohosts based on the corresponding MR signals. Using the developed strategy, we successfully quantified the uptake of the nanohosts and drugs in living cells through HP 129Xe MR imaging. Overall, the proposed HP 129Xe atom-sensing approach can be used to monitor alterations in the microenvironment of nanohosts induced by loaded drugs and provides a new perspective for the quantitative evaluation of drug presence in various nanomedicines.