Enhanced secretion of satiety-promoting gut hormones in healthy humans after consumption of white bread enriched with cellular chickpea flour: A randomized crossover study

Impact of flour particle size and origin on the bread structure and the postprandial glycemic, insulinemic and appetite responses in healthy adults

Consumption of bakery products prepared with finely milled flour is associated with elevated postprandial glycemia, increased hunger, and reduced satiety. The milling process disrupts the plant cell walls of cereal grains and legumes, enhancing the accessibility of encapsulated starch to digestive enzymes. This study investigates the effects of flour origin (wheat and chickpea) and particle size in three wholemeal breads on physicochemical properties, postprandial glucose, insulin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) responses, and subjective appetite sensations in healthy individuals. In the test breads, 30% of refined wheat flour was substituted with cracked whole wheat (1.8-2.0 mm) to make whole grain bread (WGB), finely milled chickpea flour (CFM), or larger particle-chickpea flour (1.4-1.8 mm, CLP). Wheat bread (WB) served as the control. In all three test breads, 28% of refined wheat flour was substituted with wholemeal wheat flour. Compared to WB and WGB, CFM and CLP had a harder and more chewy texture, and a lower specific volume (p < 0.05). WGB, CFM, and CLP had reduced porosity and lightness (L*) compared to WB (p < 0.05). In a randomized crossover study (RCT), fifteen normoglycemic individuals participated in four separate sessions. The glucose incremental area under the curve (iAUC) was lower for CLP compared to those of both WB and CFM (p < 0.05). While insulin responses were similar across all breads, GLP-1 iAUC was significantly higher following CLP consumption compared to WB (p < 0.05), whereas no significant differences were observed among the other test breads in the postprandial GLP-1 response. CLP consumption resulted in a lower iAUC for hunger and desire to eat, and a higher iAUC for fullness, as evaluated using Visual Analogue Scales (VAS), compared to WB (p < 0.05). Incorporation of large-particle chickpea flour into bread can effectively reduce postprandial glycemia, increase GLP-1 secretion and contribute to the enhancement of satiety. Such formulations may offer promising dietary strategies for glycemic control and appetite regulation.

Dose-dependent impact of intact cell fraction on in vitro starch digestion of common bean-based flour blends

Pulse flours consisting of isolated cotyledon cells (ICC) have been incorporated in foods with delayed amylolysis. To optimize the cost-benefit ratio, understanding how the dosage of cellular ingredient affects starch digestibility is essential. Therefore, dose-response relationships were established to evaluate the sensitivity of amylolysis kinetics to the inclusion of intact cells in whole common bean-based flours. Conventional raw-milled and innovative cellular flours of Epic red common beans were blended in different proportions, creating a range of blends with varying microstructures. Obtained dose-response relationships were validated for Montcalm red and black bean. For all varieties, an increasing dosage of cellular ingredient decreased amylolysis rates, while not affecting final extents. Bean variety-dependent linear dose-response relationships were established between the fraction of raw-milled flour and amylolysis. Dosages of intact cells decreased the amylolysis rate in a bean-specific manner, creating potential for impacted postprandial responses.

Pulse and legume consumption is associated with a more optimal nutrient intake and a higher EAT-Lancet index in a representative UK population

PURPOSE

Diets high in pulses and legumes have been associated with improved cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk markers but the relationship is less well studied in UK populations. To address this, associations between consumption of pulses (dried beans, peas and lentils) and legumes (pulses, fresh peas and green beans) with nutrient intake and status, a sustainable diet quality score (EAT-Lancet index), CVD risk markers and food expenditure was assessed in representative UK populations.

METHODS

A secondary analysis of data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008-2019) and the Living Costs and Food Survey (2001-2022) was conducted. To assess the relationships, regression models controlling for covariates were used.

RESULTS

Children and adults consumed mean ± SD 10.6 ± 27.0 g/day and 15.0 ± 21.0 g/day of pulses, and 16.7 ± 32.5 g/day and 27.3 ± 26.0 g/day of legumes, respectively. Diets rich in pulses and legumes were associated with higher intakes of energy, fibre, vitamin E, thiamine, folate, biotin, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, and manganese; lower intakes of saturated fats, total and free sugars and higher plasma selenium and total carotenoid concentrations (all P < 0.05). Consumption of a portion (80 g) of pulses and legumes was associated with a 3.7 point increase in EAT-Lancet index (P < 0.001). Average expenditure on pulses and legumes/person/week in 2022 was £1.68 and £2.90, equivalent to 0.33% and 0.56% of weekly income respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Pulse and legume-rich diets are broadly associated with a more optimum nutrient intake, higher micronutrient status and a more sustainable diet. Strategies are needed to increase pulse and legume consumption in UK populations.

Substitution of wheat semolina with intact chickpea cells: A study on extruded pasta quality

Intact cells, e.g. isolated from chickpea (intact chickpea cells, ICC) is getting attention as a new functional ingredient for lowering the glycaemic response. ICC applied to various foods, e.g. bread, biscuits and noodles, that do not require high shear, have shown improved nutritional functionality. However, the retention of cell intactness at high shear operation, e.g. extrusion, is not known. Thus, the manuscripts investigate the application of ICC in pasta replacing the wheat semolina (30 %) at three extrusion screw speeds of 200, 400 and 600 rpm. The control pasta was made from either 100 % semolina or 30 % semolina with chickpea flour (CF), where almost all intact cellular structure is broken. Based on the confocal laser microscopic observation, ICC retained cellular integrity at extrusion speeds from 200 to 600 rpm, leading to reduction in starch digestibility of pasta (55.28-64.46 %) compared to semolina (75.14-84.09 %) and CF-blended pasta (64.53-74.65 %). CF and ICC substituted pasta had higher protein and dietary fibre content, but lower starch content compared to semolina-based pasta. The physiochemical analysis including X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal properties and pasting properties for the starch structure in pasta samples showed that the shear force leads to the disruption of starch structure during the extrusion process and is dependent upon the screw speed. Cooking properties demonstrated reduced optimum cooking times and increased cooking loss with chickpea substitutions, influenced by different chemical compositions and weaker gluten networks. Overall, substituting semolina with CF and ICC alters pasta's nutritional profile and cooking behaviour, highlighting potential applications in functional food development.

Phenolic Compounds and Anthocyanins in Legumes and Their Impact on Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Metabolism: Comprehensive Review

Inflammation, oxidative stress, and metabolic diseases are intricately linked in a complex, self-reinforcing relationship. Inflammation can induce oxidative stress, while oxidative stress can trigger inflammatory responses, creating a cycle that contributes to the development and progression of metabolic disorders; in addition, these effects can be observed at systemic and local scales. Both processes lead to cellular damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and insulin resistance, particularly affecting adipose tissue, the liver, muscles, and the gastrointestinal tract. This results in impaired metabolic function and energy production, contributing to conditions such as type 2 diabetes, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Legumes are a good source of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins that exert an antioxidant effect-they directly neutralize reactive oxygen species and free radicals, reducing oxidative stress. In vivo, in vitro, and clinical trial studies demonstrate that these compounds can modulate key cellular signaling pathways involved in inflammation and metabolism, improving insulin sensitivity and regulating lipid and glucose metabolism. They also exert anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting proinflammatory enzymes and cytokines. Additionally, anthocyanins and phenolics may positively influence the gut microbiome, indirectly affecting metabolism and inflammation.

The influence of pulse cell wall structure and cellular protein matrix on the in vitro digestion kinetics of starch: A dual encapsulation mechanism

The intrinsic characteristics and extrinsic processing of whole-pulse food modulate the starch digestion rate and extent. This study investigated the dual encapsulation mechanism of cell wall structure and protein matrix on the in vitro digestion properties of intracellular starch, using an isolated whole-pulse food model of intact pea cotyledon cells subjected to alkaline buffer and enzymatic treatments. Results showed that intact cells with the maximum protein matrix content (18.9 %) exhibited the lowest peak temperature (71.4 °C, uncooked and 58.1 °C, cooked), enthalpy change (3.4 J/g, uncooked and 2.0 J/g, cooked), relative crystallinity (11.6 %), and starch digestion rate (0.0248 min-1) and extent (11.9 %) compared to alkaline buffer and enzymatic treatments. Even after enzymatic treatment, cells with minimal protein matrix content (1.8 %) exhibited a starch digestion rate (0.0387 min-1) and extent (39.7 %), which were still lower than those of isolated starch (0.0480 min-1 and 56.8 %). These findings indicate that the protein matrix and cell walls act as a dual encapsulation system to slow starch hydrolysis. This provides a theoretical basis and technical guidance for developing low-glycemic whole-pulse foods.

The nutritional contribution and relationship with health of bread consumption: a narrative review

Bread consumption dates back thousands of years, being one of the oldest and most widespread staple food worldwide. While bread is often associated with taste, pleasure, and tradition, its perception as a vehicle of nutrition and health remains complex. Today, there is no scientific consensus on whether bread consumption is beneficial or deleterious to human health. The objective of this review is therefore to present and discuss epidemiological and clinical evidence on the nutritional contribution of bread and its relationship with health. We also present different aspects of bread such as flour type and inclusions that may modulate this relationship. Studies included in this review investigate bread as part of a dietary pattern as well as the effect of bread alone on overweight, cardiometabolic health, and digestive health. Bread is an integral part of diets around the world, with a significant contribution to key nutrients. Although evidence on the impact of bread consumption on health is still lacking and depends on the overall diet, whole grain breads have shown consistent beneficial effects on human health. Substitution modeling studies and well-designed clinical trials are warranted to fill the research gaps and understand the role of bread consumption in health and disease.

Lentils based pasta affect satiation, satiety and food intake in healthy volunteers

Plant-based diets represent a valid strategy to improve human health and increase food sustainability. The availability of legume-based products, a good source of proteins and fibers, could help consumers to promote healthy dietary patterns. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of different legume-based pastas on energy intake and appetite in healthy volunteers. Four ad libitum (protocol 1) and iso-caloric pre-load meals (protocol 2) were tested using a randomized repeated measure design. The test meals consisted of lentils pasta (LP), chickpeas pasta (CP); durum wheat pasta (DWP) and gluten free pasta (GFP), served with tomato sauce. Protocol 1: the ad libitum lunch meal was consumed then EI registered. Protocol 2: subjective appetite was assessed by visual analogue scale before and after the pre-load meal for 2 h until an ad libitum buffet was served to assess EI. Twenty (age: 39.2 ± 8.41 years; BMI: 23.4 ± 3.4 kg/m2) and 40 (age: 42.6 ± 8.7 years; BMI: 23.8 ± 4.2 kg/m2) healthy subjects were respectively recruited for each protocol. ANCOVA analysis showed an overall effect of meals and sex on EI within meal and at the subsequent meal, resulting in a lower EI after LP compared to DWP (p < 0.05). Appetite sensations were significantly influenced solely after the pre-load meal, where repeated measures ANCOVA showed increased post-prandial satiety after LP and CP (p < 0.05) compared to DWP in females, whereas a reduction in desire to eat and higher fullness was found following LP compared to the other meals in both sexes (p < 0.05). Overall, lentil-based pasta seemed to acutely affect EI both within and at the subsequent meal, especially in females. Consumption of legume-based pasta might enhance legume intake by modulating appetite feelings and increasing food sustainability. However, further studies are needed to support these results in the long-term and considering different target populations.

Bean Consumption during Childhood Is Associated with Improved Nutritional Outcomes in the First Two Years of Life

Bean consumption during childhood may play a role in promoting early-life health given their high nutritional quality. To examine the associations of children's bean consumption with the socio-demographic characteristics of the child and mother and the child's nutrient intake, we analyzed data from the WIC-ITFPS-2, which followed children and their mothers at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 18, and 24 months (m) following birth. Caregivers (mostly mothers) responded to an interview-administered 24 h recall on their child's dietary intake at each time point. The intake of dried beans, chili, yellow beans, and lima beans was quantified. Correlate measures included socio-demographic characteristics. Outcome measures of interest focused on the intake of macronutrients (grams and % kcals) and micronutrients at 11 (infancy) and 24 m (toddler) only. To ensure statistical power, we only examined the associations of dried beans and chili with socio-demographics (Chi-square tests) and nutritional outcomes (ANOVA) at 11 and 24 m. The proportion of children who consumed dried beans or chili was very low in the first 6 m of age, started to increase at 7 m (1.2% and 0.4%) and 11 m (4.9% and 2.3%), and reached a high level at 18 m (10.5%) and 24 m (5.9%), respectively. Consumption of yellow or lima beans was rare (<0.1%). At 11 and 24 m, dried bean consumption was higher in children who were White (vs. Black). Dried bean and chili consumption was higher in children who were of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity (vs. non-Hispanic or non-Latino ethnicity). Children who consumed dried beans and chili at 11 or 24 m had a higher intake of total energy, protein, total fiber, potassium, folate, and magnesium compared with non-consumers. The bean consumption was low amongst children, differed by race and ethnicity, and was associated with improved macro- and micronutrient intake in children at 11 and 24 m.

Designing healthier and more sustainable ultraprocessed foods

The food industry has been extremely successful in creating a broad range of delicious, affordable, convenient, and safe food and beverage products. However, many of these products are considered to be ultraprocessed foods (UPFs) that contain ingredients and are processed in a manner that may cause adverse health effects. This review article introduces the concept of UPFs and briefly discusses food products that fall into this category, including beverages, baked goods, snacks, confectionary, prepared meals, dressings, sauces, spreads, and processed meat and meat analogs. It then discusses correlations between consumption levels of UPFs and diet-related chronic diseases, such as obesity and diabetes. The different reasons for the proposed ability of UPFs to increase the risk of these chronic diseases are then critically assessed, including displacement of whole foods, high energy densities, missing phytochemicals, contamination with packaging chemicals, hyperpalatability, harmful additives, rapid ingestion and digestion, and toxic reaction products. Then, potential strategies to overcome the current problems with UPFs are presented, including reducing energy density, balancing nutritional profile, fortification, increasing satiety response, modulating mastication and digestion, reengineering food structure, and precision processing. The central argument is that it may be possible to reformulate and reengineer many UPFs to improve their healthiness and sustainability, although this still needs to be proved using rigorous scientific studies.

Dietary impact on fasting and stimulated GLP-1 secretion in different metabolic conditions - a narrative review

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), a gastrointestinal peptide and central mediator of glucose metabolism, is secreted by L cells in the intestine in response to food intake. Postprandial secretion of GLP-1 is triggered by nutrient-sensing via transporters and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). GLP-1 secretion may be lower in adults with obesity/overweight (OW) or type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) than in those with normal glucose tolerance (NGT), but these findings are inconsistent. Because of the actions of GLP-1 on stimulating insulin secretion and promoting weight loss, GLP-1 and its analogs are used in pharmacologic preparations for the treatment of T2DM. However, physiologically stimulated GLP-1 secretion through the diet might be a preventive or synergistic method for improving glucose metabolism in individuals who are OW, or have impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or T2DM. This narrative review focuses on fasting and postprandial GLP-1 secretion in individuals with different metabolic conditions and degrees of glucose intolerance. Further, the influence of relevant diet-related factors (e.g., specific diets, meal composition, and size, phytochemical content, and gut microbiome) that could affect fasting and postprandial GLP-1 secretion are discussed. Some studies showed diminished glucose- or meal-stimulated GLP-1 response in participants with T2DM, IGT, or OW compared with those with NGT, whereas other studies have reported an elevated or unchanged GLP-1 response in T2DM or IGT. Meal composition, especially the relationship between macronutrients and interventions targeting the microbiome can impact postprandial GLP-1 secretion, although it is not clear which macronutrients are strong stimulants of GLP-1. Moreover, glucose tolerance, antidiabetic treatment, grade of overweight/obesity, and sex were important factors influencing GLP-1 secretion. The results presented in this review highlight the potential of nutritional and physiologic stimulation of GLP-1 secretion. Further research on fasting and postprandial GLP-1 concentrations and the resulting metabolic consequences under different metabolic conditions is needed.

Glycaemic variability, assessed with continuous glucose monitors, is associated with diet, lifestyle and health in people without diabetes

Background

Continuous glucose monitors (CGMs) provide high-frequency information regarding daily glucose variation and are recognised as effective for improving glycaemic control in individuals living with diabetes. Despite increased use in individuals with non-diabetic blood glucose concentrations (euglycemia), their utility as a health tool in this population remains unclear.

Objectives

To characterise variation in time in range (TIR) and glycaemic variability in large populations without diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance; describe associations between CGM-derived glycaemic metrics and metabolic and cardiometabolic health traits; identify key diet and lifestyle factors associated with TIR and glycaemic variability.

Design

Glycaemic variability (coefficient of variation) and time spent in both the ADA secondary target range (TIRADA; 3.9-7.8 mmol/L) and a more stringent range (TIR3.9-5.6; 3.9-5.6 mmol/L) were calculated during free-living in PREDICT 1, PREDICT 2, and PREDICT 3 euglycaemic community-based volunteer cohorts. Associations between CGM derived glycaemic metrics, markers of cardiometabolic health, diet (food frequency questionnaire and logged diet records), diet-habits, and lifestyle were explored.

Results

Data from N=4135 participants (Mean SD; Age: 47 12 y; Sex: 83% Female, BMI: 27 6 kg/m2). Median glycaemic variability was 14.8% (IQR 12.6-17.6%), median TIRADA was 95.8% (IQR 89.6-98.6%) and TIR3.9-5.6 was 75.0% (IQR 64.6-82.8%). Greater TIR3.9-5.6 was associated with lower HbA1c, ASCVD 10y risk and HOMA-IR (all p < 0.05). Lower glycaemic variability was associated with lower % energy derived from carbohydrate (rs: 0.17, p < 0.01), ultra-processed foods (NOVA 4, % EI; rs: 0.12, p = 0.01) and a longer overnight fasting duration (rs: -0.10, p = 0.01).

Conclusions

A stringent TIR target provides sensitivity to detect changes in HOMA-IR, ASCVD 10 y risk and HbA1c that were not detected using ADA secondary targets. Associations among TIR, glycaemic variability, dietary intake (e.g. carbohydrate and protein) and habits (e.g. nocturnal fasting duration) highlight potential strategic targets to improve glycaemic metrics derived from continuous glucose monitors.

Effectiveness of Chickpeas on Blood Sugar: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Diabetes affects one in eleven adults globally, with rising cases in the past 30 years. Type 1 and type 2 cause blood sugar problems, increasing cardiovascular risks. Dietary control, including chickpeas, is suggested but needs more research. Comprehensive searches were conducted across multiple databases for the randomized controlled trial efficacy of chickpea consumption to lower blood sugar levels to a healthy range, with data extraction and risk of bias assessment performed independently by two researchers. Statistical analysis was performed using RevMan 5.4, expressing continuous data as mean differences and risk ratios with 95% confidence intervals, and a summary of the findings is provided considering the variations in study characteristics. A total of 118 articles were initially identified from seven databases, primarily from Anglo-American countries, resulting in 12 selected studies after the identification and screening processes. These studies involved 182 participants, focusing on healthy or normoglycemic adults, and assessed the effects of chickpeas compared to various foods such as wheat, potatoes, pasta, sauce, cheese, rice, and corn. A meta-analysis involving a subset of studies demonstrated that chickpeas were more effective in reducing blood glucose iAUC compared to potatoes and wheat. Chickpeas offer the potential for blood sugar control through low starch digestibility, high fiber, protein, and hormonal effects. Although insulin benefits are seen, statistical significance varies, supporting their role in diabetic diets focusing on nutrient-rich foods over processed carbs.

A comparison of the effects of resistant starch types on glycemic response in individuals with type 2 diabetes or prediabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) diagnoses are predicted to reach 643 million by 2030, increasing incidences of cardiovascular disease and other comorbidities. Rapidly digestible starch elevates postprandial glycemia and impinges glycemic homeostasis, elevating the risk of developing T2D. Starch can escape digestion by endogenous enzymes in the small intestine when protected by intact plant cell walls (resistant starch type 1), when there is a high concentration of amylose (resistant starch type 2) and when the molecule undergoes retrogradation (resistant starch type 3) or chemical modification (resistant starch type 4). Dietary interventions using resistant starch may improve glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity. However, few studies have explored the differential effects of resistant starch type. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to compare the effects of the resistant starch from intact plant cell structures (resistant starch type 1) and resistant starch from modified starch molecules (resistant starch types 2-5) on fasting and postprandial glycemia in subjects with T2D and prediabetes.

Methods

Databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, Ovid MEDLINE, Cochrane, and Web of Science) were systematically searched for randomized controlled trials. Standard mean difference (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were determined using random-effects models. Sub-group analyses were conducted between subjects with T2D versus prediabetes and types of resistant starch.

Results

The search identified 36 randomized controlled trials (n = 982), 31 of which could be included in the meta-analysis. Resistant starch type 1 and type 2 lowered acute postprandial blood glucose [SMD (95% CI) = -0.54 (-1.0, -0.07)] and [-0.96 (-1.61, -0.31)]. Resistant starch type 2 improved acute postprandial insulin response [-0.71 (-1.31, -0.11)]. In chronic studies, resistant starch type 1 and 2 lowered postprandial glucose [-0.38 (-0.73, -0.02), -0.29 (-0.53, -0.04), respectively] and resistant starch type 2 intake improved fasting glucose [-0.39 (-0.66, -0.13)] and insulin [-0.40 (-0.60, -0.21)].

Conclusion

Resistant starch types 1 and 2 may influence glucose homeostasis via discrete mechanisms, as they appear to influence glycemia differently. Further research into resistant starch types 3, 4, and 5 is required to elucidate their effect on glucose metabolism. The addition of resistant starch as a dietary intervention for those with T2D or prediabetes may prevent further deterioration of glycemic control.