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Reich M, Simon MJ, Polke B, Paris I, Werner G, Schrader C, Spieth L, Davis SS, Robinson S, de Melo GL, Schlaphoff L, Buschmann K, Berghoff S, Logan T, Nuscher B, de Weerd L, Edbauer D, Simons M, Suh JH, Sandmann T, Kariolis MS, DeVos SL, Lewcock JW, Paquet D, Capell A, Di Paolo G, Haass C. Peripheral expression of brain-penetrant progranulin rescues pathologies in mouse models of frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Sci Transl Med 2024; 16:eadj7308. [PMID: 38838131 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adj7308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Progranulin (PGRN) haploinsufficiency is a major risk factor for frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) pathology (FTLD-GRN). Multiple therapeutic strategies are in clinical development to restore PGRN in the CNS, including gene therapy. However, a limitation of current gene therapy approaches aimed to alleviate FTLD-associated pathologies may be their inefficient brain exposure and biodistribution. We therefore developed an adeno-associated virus (AAV) targeting the liver (L) to achieve sustained peripheral expression of a transferrin receptor (TfR) binding, brain-penetrant (b) PGRN variant [AAV(L):bPGRN] in two mouse models of FTLD-GRN, namely, Grn knockout and GrnxTmem106b double knockout mice. This therapeutic strategy avoids potential safety and biodistribution issues of CNS-administered AAVs and maintains sustained concentrations of PGRN in the brain after a single dose. AAV(L):bPGRN treatment reduced several FTLD-GRN-associated pathologies including severe motor function deficits, aberrant TDP-43 phosphorylation, dysfunctional protein degradation, lipid metabolism, gliosis, and neurodegeneration in the brain. The potential translatability of our findings was tested in an in vitro model using cocultured human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived microglia lacking PGRN and TMEM106B and wild-type hiPSC-derived neurons. As in mice, aberrant TDP-43, lysosomal dysfunction, and neuronal loss were ameliorated after treatment with exogenous TfR-binding protein transport vehicle fused to PGRN (PTV:PGRN). Together, our studies suggest that peripherally administered brain-penetrant PGRN replacement strategies ameliorate FTLD-GRN relevant phenotypes including TDP-43 pathology, neurodegeneration, and behavioral deficits. Our data provide preclinical proof of concept for the use of this AAV platform for treatment of FTLD-GRN and potentially other CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Reich
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN), LMU Munich, 82152 Planegg, Germany
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Matthew J Simon
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Beate Polke
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Iñaki Paris
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Georg Werner
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Schrader
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Lena Spieth
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sonnet S Davis
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Sophie Robinson
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN), LMU Munich, 82152 Planegg, Germany
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Lennart Schlaphoff
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN), LMU Munich, 82152 Planegg, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Katrin Buschmann
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Berghoff
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Todd Logan
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Brigitte Nuscher
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Lis de Weerd
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Dieter Edbauer
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Mikael Simons
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Jung H Suh
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Thomas Sandmann
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Sarah L DeVos
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Dominik Paquet
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Anja Capell
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Christian Haass
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
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Cook AK, Greathouse KM, Manuel PN, Cooper NH, Eberhardt JM, Freeman CD, Weber AJ, Herskowitz JH, Arrant AE. Dendritic spine head diameter is reduced in the prefrontal cortex of progranulin haploinsufficient mice. Mol Brain 2024; 17:33. [PMID: 38840181 PMCID: PMC11155153 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-024-01095-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in the progranulin (GRN) gene are an autosomal dominant cause of Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD). These mutations typically result in haploinsufficiency of the progranulin protein. Grn+/- mice provide a model for progranulin haploinsufficiency and develop FTD-like behavioral abnormalities by 9-10 months of age. In previous work, we demonstrated that Grn+/- mice develop a low dominance phenotype in the tube test that is associated with reduced dendritic arborization of layer II/III pyramidal neurons in the prelimbic region of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), a region key for social dominance behavior in the tube test assay. In this study, we investigated whether progranulin haploinsufficiency induced changes in dendritic spine density and morphology. Individual layer II/III pyramidal neurons in the prelimbic mPFC of 9-10 month old wild-type or Grn+/- mice were targeted for iontophoretic microinjection of fluorescent dye, followed by high-resolution confocal microscopy and 3D reconstruction for morphometry analysis. Dendritic spine density in Grn+/- mice was comparable to wild-type littermates, but the apical dendrites in Grn+/- mice had a shift in the proportion of spine types, with fewer stubby spines and more thin spines. Additionally, apical dendrites of Grn+/- mice had longer spines and smaller thin spine head diameter in comparison to wild-type littermates. These changes in spine morphology may contribute to altered circuit-level activity and social dominance deficits in Grn+/- mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Cook
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Kelsey M Greathouse
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Phaedra N Manuel
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Noelle H Cooper
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Juliana M Eberhardt
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Cameron D Freeman
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Audrey J Weber
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Jeremy H Herskowitz
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Andrew E Arrant
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
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Smith DM, Aggarwal G, Niehoff ML, Jones SA, Banerjee S, Farr SA, Nguyen AD. Biochemical, Biomarker, and Behavioral Characterization of the Grn R493X Mouse Model of Frontotemporal Dementia. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04190-9. [PMID: 38696065 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04190-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the progranulin gene (GRN) are a major cause of frontotemporal dementia due to progranulin haploinsufficiency; complete deficiency of progranulin causes neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Several progranulin-deficient mouse models have been generated, including both knockout mice and knockin mice harboring a common patient mutation (R493X). However, the GrnR493X mouse model has not been characterized completely. Additionally, while homozygous GrnR493X and Grn knockout mice have been extensively studied, data from heterozygous mice is still limited. Here, we performed more in-depth characterization of heterozygous and homozygous GrnR493X knockin mice, which includes biochemical assessments, behavioral studies, and analysis of fluid biomarkers. In the brains of homozygous GrnR493X mice, we found increased phosphorylated TDP-43 along with increased expression of lysosomal genes, markers of microgliosis and astrogliosis, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and complement factors. Heterozygous GrnR493X mice did not have increased TDP-43 phosphorylation but did exhibit limited increases in lysosomal and inflammatory gene expression. Behavioral studies found social and emotional deficits in GrnR493X mice that mirror those observed in Grn knockout mouse models, as well as impairment in memory and executive function. Overall, the GrnR493X knockin mouse model closely phenocopies Grn knockout models. Lastly, in contrast to homozygous knockin mice, heterozygous GrnR493X mice do not have elevated levels of fluid biomarkers previously identified in humans, including neurofilament light chain (NfL) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in both plasma and CSF. These results may help to inform pre-clinical studies that use this Grn knockin mouse model and other Grn knockout models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise M Smith
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, USA
| | - Geetika Aggarwal
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, USA
| | - Michael L Niehoff
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, St. Louis, USA
| | - Spencer A Jones
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, USA
| | - Subhashis Banerjee
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, USA
| | - Susan A Farr
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, USA
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, St. Louis, USA
| | - Andrew D Nguyen
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA.
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA.
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, USA.
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4
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Huang G, Jian J, Liu CJ. Progranulinopathy: A diverse realm of disorders linked to progranulin imbalances. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2024; 76:142-159. [PMID: 37981505 PMCID: PMC10978308 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2023.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Progranulin (PGRN), encoded by the GRN gene in humans, was originally isolated as a secreted growth factor that implicates in a multitude of processes ranging from regulation of tumorigenesis, inflammation to neural proliferation. Compelling evidence indicating that GRN mutation can lead to various common neuronal degenerative diseases and rare lysosomal storage diseases. These findings have unveiled a critical role for PGRN as a lysosomal protein in maintaining lysosomal function. The phenotypic spectrum of PGRN imbalance has expanded to encompass a broad spectrum of diseases, including autoimmune diseases, metabolic, musculoskeletal and cardiovascular diseases. These diseases collectively referred to as Progranulinopathy- a term encompasses the wide spectrum of disorders influenced by PGRN imbalance. Unlike its known extracellular function as a growth factor-like molecule associated with multiple membrane receptors, PGRN also serves as an intracellular co-chaperone engaged in the folding and traffic of its associated proteins, particularly the lysosomal hydrolases. This chaperone activity is required for PGRN to exert its diverse functions across a broad range of diseases, encompassing both the central nervous system and peripheral systems. In this comprehensive review, we present an update of the emerging role of PGRN in Progranulinopathy, with special focus on elucidating the intricate interplay between PGRN and a diverse array of proteins at various levels, ranging from extracellular fluids and intracellular components, as well as various pathophysiological processes involved. This review seeks to offer a comprehensive grasp of PGRN's diverse functions, aiming to unveil intricate mechanisms behind Progranulinopathy and open doors for future research endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiwu Huang
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Joint Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinlong Jian
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chuan-Ju Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Cell Biology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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5
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Sürücü Kara İ, Köse E, Çavdarlı B, Eminoğlu FT. Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 11 diagnosed patient with bi-allelic variants in GRN gene: case report and review of literature. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2024; 37:280-288. [PMID: 38253347 DOI: 10.1515/jpem-2023-0411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 11 (NCL11) is a rare disease that presents with progressive cognitive decline, epilepsy, visual impairment, retinal atrophy, cerebellar ataxia and cerebellar atrophy. We present herein a case of NCL11 in a patient diagnosed with neuromotor developmental delay, epilepsy, bronchiolitis obliterans and hypothyroidism. CASE PRESENTATION A 4-year-old male patient was admitted to our clinic with global developmental delay and a medical history that included recurrent hospitalizations for pneumonia at the age of 17 days, and in months 4, 5 and 7. Family history revealed a brother with similar clinical findings (recurrent pneumonia, hypothyroidism, hypotonicity, swallowing dysfunction and neuromotor delay) who died from pneumonia at the age of 22 months. Computed tomography of the thorax was consistent with bronchiolitis obliterans, while epileptic discharges were identified on electroencephalogram with a high incidence of bilateral fronto-centro-temporal and generalized spike-wave activity but no photoparoxysmal response. Cranial MRI revealed T2 hyperintense areas in the occipital periventricular white matter and volume loss in the white matter, a thin corpus callosum and vermis atrophy. A whole-exome sequencing molecular analysis revealed compound heterozygous c.430G>A (p.Asp144Asn) and c.415T>C (p.Cys139Arg) variants in the GRN gene. CONCLUSIONS The presented case indicates that NCL11 should be taken into account in patients with epilepsy and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- İlknur Sürücü Kara
- Department of Pediatric Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Engin Köse
- Department of Pediatric Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Türkiye
- Ankara University Rare Diseases Application and Research Center, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Büşranur Çavdarlı
- Department of Medical Genetics, Ankara Bilkent City Hospital, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Fatma Tuba Eminoğlu
- Department of Pediatric Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Türkiye
- Ankara University Rare Diseases Application and Research Center, Ankara, Türkiye
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Takahashi H, Bhagwagar S, Nies SH, Ye H, Han X, Chiasseu MT, Wang G, Mackenzie IR, Strittmatter SM. Reduced progranulin increases tau and α-synuclein inclusions and alters mouse tauopathy phenotypes via glucocerebrosidase. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1434. [PMID: 38365772 PMCID: PMC10873339 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45692-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Comorbid proteinopathies are observed in many neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD), increase with age, and influence clinical outcomes, yet the mechanisms remain ill-defined. Here, we show that reduction of progranulin (PGRN), a lysosomal protein associated with TDP-43 proteinopathy, also increases tau inclusions, causes concomitant accumulation of α-synuclein and worsens mortality and disinhibited behaviors in tauopathy mice. The increased inclusions paradoxically protect against spatial memory deficit and hippocampal neurodegeneration. PGRN reduction in male tauopathy attenuates activity of β-glucocerebrosidase (GCase), a protein previously associated with synucleinopathy, while increasing glucosylceramide (GlcCer)-positive tau inclusions. In neuronal culture, GCase inhibition enhances tau aggregation induced by AD-tau. Furthermore, purified GlcCer directly promotes tau aggregation in vitro. Neurofibrillary tangles in human tauopathies are also GlcCer-immunoreactive. Thus, in addition to TDP-43, PGRN regulates tau- and synucleinopathies via GCase and GlcCer. A lysosomal PGRN-GCase pathway may be a common therapeutic target for age-related comorbid proteinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideyuki Takahashi
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Repair, Departments of Neurology and of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06536, USA
| | - Sanaea Bhagwagar
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Repair, Departments of Neurology and of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06536, USA
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Sarah H Nies
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Repair, Departments of Neurology and of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06536, USA
- Graduate School of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, D-72074, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Hongping Ye
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center At San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Xianlin Han
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center At San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center At San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Marius T Chiasseu
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Repair, Departments of Neurology and of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06536, USA
| | - Guilin Wang
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Ian R Mackenzie
- Department of Pathology, University of British Columbia and Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Stephen M Strittmatter
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Repair, Departments of Neurology and of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06536, USA.
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7
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Hsiao-Nakamoto J, Chiu CL, VandeVrede L, Ravi R, Vandenberg B, De Groot J, Tsogtbaatar B, Fang M, Auger P, Gould NS, Marchioni F, Powers CA, Davis SS, Suh JH, Alkabsh J, Heuer HW, Lago AL, Scearce-Levie K, Seeley WW, Boeve BF, Rosen HJ, Berger A, Tsai R, Di Paolo G, Boxer AL, Bhalla A, Huang F. Alterations in Lysosomal, Glial and Neurodegenerative Biomarkers in Patients with Sporadic and Genetic Forms of Frontotemporal Dementia. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.09.579529. [PMID: 38405775 PMCID: PMC10888909 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.09.579529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Background Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is the most common cause of early-onset dementia with 10-20% of cases caused by mutations in one of three genes: GRN, C9orf72, or MAPT. To effectively develop therapeutics for FTD, the identification and characterization of biomarkers to understand disease pathogenesis and evaluate the impact of specific therapeutic strategies on the target biology as well as the underlying disease pathology are essential. Moreover, tracking the longitudinal changes of these biomarkers throughout disease progression is crucial to discern their correlation with clinical manifestations for potential prognostic usage. Methods We conducted a comprehensive investigation of biomarkers indicative of lysosomal biology, glial cell activation, synaptic and neuronal health in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma from non-carrier controls, sporadic FTD (symptomatic non-carriers) and symptomatic carriers of mutations in GRN, C9orf72, or MAPT, as well as asymptomatic GRN mutation carriers. We also assessed the longitudinal changes of biomarkers in GRN mutation carriers. Furthermore, we examined biomarker levels in disease impacted brain regions including middle temporal gyrus (MTG) and superior frontal gyrus (SFG) and disease-unaffected inferior occipital gyrus (IOG) from sporadic FTD and symptomatic GRN carriers. Results We confirmed glucosylsphingosine (GlcSph), a lysosomal biomarker regulated by progranulin, was elevated in the plasma from GRN mutation carriers, both symptomatic and asymptomatic. GlcSph and other lysosomal biomarkers such as ganglioside GM2 and globoside GB3 were increased in the disease affected SFG and MTG regions from sporadic FTD and symptomatic GRN mutation carriers, but not in the IOG, compared to the same brain regions from controls. The glial biomarkers GFAP in plasma and YKL40 in CSF were elevated in asymptomatic GRN carriers, and all symptomatic groups, except the symptomatic C9orf72 mutation group. YKL40 was also increased in SFG and MTG regions from sporadic FTD and symptomatic GRN mutation carriers. Neuronal injury and degeneration biomarkers NfL in CSF and plasma, and UCHL1 in CSF were elevated in patients with all forms of FTD. Synaptic biomarkers NPTXR, NPTX1/2, and VGF were reduced in CSF from patients with all forms of FTD, with the most pronounced reductions observed in symptomatic MAPT mutation carriers. Furthermore, we demonstrated plasma NfL was significantly positively correlated with disease severity as measured by CDR+NACC FTLD SB in genetic forms of FTD and CSF NPTXR was significantly negatively correlated with CDR+NACC FTLD SB in symptomatic GRN and MAPT mutation carriers. Conclusions In conclusion, our comprehensive investigation replicated alterations in biofluid biomarkers indicative of lysosomal function, glial activation, synaptic and neuronal health across sporadic and genetic forms of FTD and unveiled novel insights into the dysregulation of these biomarkers within brain tissues from patients with GRN mutations. The observed correlations between biomarkers and disease severity open promising avenues for prognostic applications and for indicators of drug efficacy in clinical trials. Our data also implicated a complicated relationship between biofluid and tissue biomarker changes and future investigations should delve into the mechanistic underpinnings of these biomarkers, which will serve as a foundation for the development of targeted therapeutics for FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Hsiao-Nakamoto
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Chi-Lu Chiu
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Lawren VandeVrede
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Ritesh Ravi
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Brittany Vandenberg
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- Present address: Brittany Vandenberg, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Jack De Groot
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- Present address: Jack DeGroot: Prime Medicine Inc., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - Meng Fang
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Paul Auger
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- Present address: Paul Auger: Nurix Therapeutics, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Neal S Gould
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Filippo Marchioni
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Casey A Powers
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- Present address: Casey A. Powers: Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Sonnet S Davis
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Jung H Suh
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Jamal Alkabsh
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Hilary W Heuer
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Argentina Lario Lago
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Kimberly Scearce-Levie
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- Present address: Kimberly Scearce-Levie: Cajal Neuroscience, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Bradley F Boeve
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Howard J Rosen
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Amy Berger
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Richard Tsai
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Gilbert Di Paolo
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Adam L Boxer
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Akhil Bhalla
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Fen Huang
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., 161 Oyster Point, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
- These authors contributed equally
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8
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Smith DM, Aggarwal G, Niehoff ML, Jones SA, Banerjee S, Farr SA, Nguyen AD. Biochemical, biomarker, and behavioral characterization of the GrnR493X mouse model of frontotemporal dementia. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.05.27.542495. [PMID: 37398305 PMCID: PMC10312473 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.27.542495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the progranulin gene (GRN) are a major cause of frontotemporal dementia due to progranulin haploinsufficiency; complete deficiency of progranulin causes neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Several progranulin-deficient mouse models have been generated, including both knockout mice and knockin mice harboring a common patient mutation (R493X). However, the GrnR493X mouse model has not been characterized completely. Additionally, while homozygous GrnR493X and Grn knockout mice have been extensively studied, data from heterozygous mice is still limited. Here, we performed more in-depth characterization of heterozygous and homozygous GrnR493X knockin mice, which includes biochemical assessments, behavioral studies, and analysis of fluid biomarkers. In the brains of homozygous GrnR493X mice, we found increased phosphorylated TDP-43 along with increased expression of lysosomal genes, markers of microgliosis and astrogliosis, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and complement factors. Heterozygous GrnR493X mice did not have increased TDP-43 phosphorylation but did exhibit limited increases in lysosomal and inflammatory gene expression. Behavioral studies found social and emotional deficits in GrnR493X mice that mirror those observed in Grn knockout mouse models, as well as impairment in memory and executive function. Overall, the GrnR493X knockin mouse model closely phenocopies Grn knockout models. Lastly, in contrast to homozygous knockin mice, heterozygous GrnR493X mice do not have elevated levels of fluid biomarkers previously identified in humans, including neurofilament light chain (NfL) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in both plasma and CSF. These results may help to inform pre-clinical studies that use this Grn knockin mouse model and other Grn knockout models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise M. Smith
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, United States of America
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, United States of America
- Saint Louis University, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, United States of America
| | - Geetika Aggarwal
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, United States of America
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, United States of America
- Saint Louis University, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, United States of America
| | - Michael L. Niehoff
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, United States of America
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, United States of America
| | - Spencer A. Jones
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, United States of America
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, United States of America
- Saint Louis University, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, United States of America
| | - Subhashis Banerjee
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, United States of America
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, United States of America
- Saint Louis University, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, United States of America
| | - Susan A. Farr
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, United States of America
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, United States of America
- Saint Louis University, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, United States of America
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, United States of America
| | - Andrew D. Nguyen
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, United States of America
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, United States of America
- Saint Louis University, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, United States of America
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9
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McInvale JJ, Canoll P, Hargus G. Induced pluripotent stem cell models as a tool to investigate and test fluid biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. Brain Pathol 2024:e13231. [PMID: 38246596 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.13231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are increasing in prevalence and comprise a large socioeconomic burden on patients and their caretakers. The need for effective therapies and avenues for disease prevention and monitoring is of paramount importance. Fluid biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases have gained a variety of uses, including informing participant selection for clinical trials, lending confidence to clinical diagnosis and disease staging, determining prognosis, and monitoring therapeutic response. Their role is expected to grow as disease-modifying therapies start to be available to a broader range of patients and as prevention strategies become established. Many of the underlying molecular mechanisms of currently used biomarkers are incompletely understood. Animal models and in vitro systems using cell lines have been extensively employed but face important translatability limitations. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology, where a theoretically unlimited range of cell types can be reprogrammed from peripheral cells sampled from patients or healthy individuals, has gained prominence over the last decade. It is a promising avenue to study physiological and pathological biomarker function and response to experimental therapeutics. Such systems are amenable to high-throughput drug screening or multiomics readouts such as transcriptomics, lipidomics, and proteomics for biomarker discovery, investigation, and validation. The present review describes the current state of biomarkers in the clinical context of neurodegenerative diseases, with a focus on Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. We include a discussion of how iPSC models have been used to investigate and test biomarkers such as amyloid-β, phosphorylated tau, neurofilament light chain or complement proteins, and even nominate novel biomarkers. We discuss the limitations of current iPSC methods, mentioning alternatives such as coculture systems and three-dimensional organoids which address some of these concerns. Finally, we propose exciting prospects for stem cell transplantation paradigms using animal models as a preclinical tool to study biomarkers in the in vivo context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie J McInvale
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Peter Canoll
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Gunnar Hargus
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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10
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Wang AL, Mambou EA, Kao AW. The progranulin cleavage product granulin 3 exerts a dominant negative effect on animal fitness. Hum Mol Genet 2024; 33:245-253. [PMID: 37903062 PMCID: PMC10800025 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddad184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Progranulin is an evolutionarily conserved protein that has been implicated in human neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases. Human progranulin is comprised of multiple cysteine-rich, biologically active granulin peptides. Granulin peptides accumulate with age and stress, however their functional contributions relative to full-length progranulin remain unclear. To address this, we generated C. elegans strains that produced quantifiable levels of both full-length progranulin/PGRN-1 protein and cleaved granulin peptide. Using these strains, we demonstrated that even in the presence of intact PGRN-1, granulin peptides suppressed the activity of the lysosomal aspartyl protease activity, ASP-3/CTSD. Granulin peptides were also dominant over PGRN-1 in compromising animal fitness as measured by progress through development and stress response. Finally, the degradation of human TDP-43 was impaired when the granulin to PGRN-1 ratio was increased, representing a disease-relevant downstream impact of impaired lysosomal function. In summary, these studies suggest that not only absolute progranulin levels, but also the balance between full-length progranulin and its cleavage products, is important in regulating lysosomal biology. Given its relevance in human disease, this suggests that the processing of progranulin into granulins should be considered as part of disease pathobiology and may represent a site of therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin L Wang
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Edwina A Mambou
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Aimee W Kao
- Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Bakar Aging Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
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11
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Bai Y, Camargo CM, Glasauer SMK, Gifford R, Tian X, Longhini AP, Kosik KS. Single-cell mapping of lipid metabolites using an infrared probe in human-derived model systems. Nat Commun 2024; 15:350. [PMID: 38191490 PMCID: PMC10774263 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44675-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Understanding metabolic heterogeneity is the key to uncovering the underlying mechanisms of metabolic-related diseases. Current metabolic imaging studies suffer from limitations including low resolution and specificity, and the model systems utilized often lack human relevance. Here, we present a single-cell metabolic imaging platform to enable direct imaging of lipid metabolism with high specificity in various human-derived 2D and 3D culture systems. Through the incorporation of an azide-tagged infrared probe, selective detection of newly synthesized lipids in cells and tissue became possible, while simultaneous fluorescence imaging enabled cell-type identification in complex tissues. In proof-of-concept experiments, newly synthesized lipids were directly visualized in human-relevant model systems among different cell types, mutation status, differentiation stages, and over time. We identified upregulated lipid metabolism in progranulin-knockdown human induced pluripotent stem cells and in their differentiated microglia cells. Furthermore, we observed that neurons in brain organoids exhibited a significantly lower lipid metabolism compared to astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeran Bai
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
- Photothermal Spectroscopy Corp., Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
| | - Carolina M Camargo
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Stella M K Glasauer
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Raymond Gifford
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Xinran Tian
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Andrew P Longhini
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Kenneth S Kosik
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
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12
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Gammaldi N, Doccini S, Bernardi S, Marchese M, Cecchini M, Ceravolo R, Rapposelli S, Ratto GM, Rocchiccioli S, Pezzini F, Santorelli FM. Dem-Aging: autophagy-related pathologies and the "two faces of dementia". Neurogenetics 2024; 25:39-46. [PMID: 38117343 DOI: 10.1007/s10048-023-00739-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) is an umbrella term referring to the most frequent childhood-onset neurodegenerative diseases, which are also the main cause of childhood dementia. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying the NCLs remain elusive, evidence is increasingly pointing to shared disease pathways and common clinical features across the disease forms. The characterization of pathological mechanisms, disease modifiers, and biomarkers might facilitate the development of treatment strategies.The DEM-AGING project aims to define molecular signatures in NCL and expedite biomarker discovery with a view to identifying novel targets for monitoring disease status and progression and accelerating clinical trial readiness in this field. In this study, we fused multiomic assessments in established NCL models with similar data on the more common late-onset neurodegenerative conditions in order to test the hypothesis of shared molecular fingerprints critical to the underlying pathological mechanisms. Our aim, ultimately, is to combine data analysis, cell models, and omic strategies in an effort to trace new routes to therapies that might readily be applied in the most common forms of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Gammaldi
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy
| | - S Doccini
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy.
| | - S Bernardi
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - M Marchese
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy
| | - M Cecchini
- National Enterprise for nanoScience and nanoTechnology (NEST), Nanoscience Institute-National Research Council (CNR) and Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy
| | - R Ceravolo
- Unit of Neurology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - S Rapposelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - G M Ratto
- National Enterprise for nanoScience and nanoTechnology (NEST), Nanoscience Institute-National Research Council (CNR) and Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy
| | - S Rocchiccioli
- Clinical Physiology-National Research Council (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - F Pezzini
- Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Pediatrics and Gynecology (Child Neurology and Psychiatry), University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - F M Santorelli
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy
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13
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Almeida MR, Tábuas-Pereira M, Baldeiras I, Lima M, Durães J, Massano J, Pinto M, Cruto C, Santana I. Characterization of Progranulin Gene Mutations in Portuguese Patients with Frontotemporal Dementia. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:511. [PMID: 38203682 PMCID: PMC10778719 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
In Portugal, heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the progranulin (GRN) gene account for approximately half of the genetic mediated forms of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). GRN mutations reported thus far cause FTD through a haploinsufficiency disease mechanism. Herein, we aim to unveil the GRN mutation spectrum, investigated in 257 FTD patients and 19 family members from the central/north region of Portugal using sequencing methods. Seven different pathogenic variants were identified in 46 subjects including 40 patients (16%) and 6 relatives (32%). bvFTD was the most common clinical presentation among the GRN mutation patients, who showed a global pattern of moderate-to-severe frontotemporoparietal deficits in the neuropsychological evaluation. Interestingly, two mutations were novel (p.Thr238Profs*18, p.Leu354Profs*16), and five were previously described, although three of them only in the Portuguese population, suggesting a population-specific GRN mutational spectrum. The subjects harboring a GRN mutation showed a significant reduction in serum PGRN levels, supporting the pathogenic nature of these variants. This work broadens the mutation spectrum of GRN and the identification of the underlying GRN mutations provided an accurate genetic counselling and allowed the enrolment of subjects with GRN mutations (both asymptomatic and symptomatic) in ongoing clinical trials, which is essential to test new drugs for the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosário Almeida
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (I.B.); (I.S.)
| | - Miguel Tábuas-Pereira
- Neurology Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; (M.T.-P.); (M.L.); (J.D.)
| | - Inês Baldeiras
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (I.B.); (I.S.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-370 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Marisa Lima
- Neurology Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; (M.T.-P.); (M.L.); (J.D.)
| | - João Durães
- Neurology Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; (M.T.-P.); (M.L.); (J.D.)
| | - João Massano
- Neurology Department, Centro Hospitalar Universitário de São João, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; (J.M.); (M.P.)
| | - Madalena Pinto
- Neurology Department, Centro Hospitalar Universitário de São João, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; (J.M.); (M.P.)
| | - Catarina Cruto
- Neurology Department, Hospital Pedro Hispano, Unidade Local de Saúde de Matosinhos, 4464-513 Matosinhos, Portugal;
| | - Isabel Santana
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (I.B.); (I.S.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-370 Coimbra, Portugal
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14
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Todd TW, Shao W, Zhang YJ, Petrucelli L. The endolysosomal pathway and ALS/FTD. Trends Neurosci 2023; 46:1025-1041. [PMID: 37827960 PMCID: PMC10841821 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2023.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are considered to be part of a disease spectrum that is associated with causative mutations and risk variants in a wide range of genes. Mounting evidence indicates that several of these genes are linked to the endolysosomal system, highlighting the importance of this pathway in ALS/FTD. Although many studies have focused on how disruption of this pathway impacts on autophagy, recent findings reveal that this may not be the whole picture: specifically, disrupting autophagy may not be sufficient to induce disease, whereas disrupting the endolysosomal system could represent a crucial pathogenic driver. In this review we discuss the connections between ALS/FTD and the endolysosomal system, including a breakdown of how disease-associated genes are implicated in this pathway. We also explore the potential downstream consequences of disrupting endolysosomal activity in the brain, outside of an effect on autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany W Todd
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Wei Shao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Yong-Jie Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Neurobiology of Disease Graduate Program, Mayo Graduate School, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Leonard Petrucelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Neurobiology of Disease Graduate Program, Mayo Graduate School, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA.
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15
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Gammaldi N, Pezzini F, Michelucci E, Di Giorgi N, Simonati A, Rocchiccioli S, Santorelli FM, Doccini S. Integrative human and murine multi-omics: Highlighting shared biomarkers in the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 189:106349. [PMID: 37952681 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) is a group of neurodegenerative disorders whose molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. Omics approaches are among the methods that generate new information on modifying factors and molecular signatures. Moreover, omics data integration can address the need to progressively expand knowledge around the disease and pinpoint specific proteins to promote as candidate biomarkers. In this work, we integrated a total of 62 proteomic and transcriptomic datasets originating from humans and mice, employing a new approach able to define dysregulated processes across species, stages and NCL forms. Moreover, we selected a pool of differentially expressed proteins and genes as species- and form-related biomarkers of disease status/progression and evaluated local and spatial differences in most affected brain regions. Our results offer promising targets for potential new therapeutic strategies and reinforce the hypothesis of a connection between NCLs and other forms of dementia, particularly Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Gammaldi
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), University of Florence, Florence, Italy; Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation - Pisa, Italy
| | - F Pezzini
- Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Paediatrics and Gynaecology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - E Michelucci
- Clinical Physiology-National Research Council (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - N Di Giorgi
- Clinical Physiology-National Research Council (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - A Simonati
- Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Paediatrics and Gynaecology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - S Rocchiccioli
- Clinical Physiology-National Research Council (IFC-CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - F M Santorelli
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation - Pisa, Italy
| | - S Doccini
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation - Pisa, Italy.
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16
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Gillett DA, Wallings RL, Uriarte Huarte O, Tansey MG. Progranulin and GPNMB: interactions in endo-lysosome function and inflammation in neurodegenerative disease. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:286. [PMID: 38037070 PMCID: PMC10688479 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02965-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations in progranulin (PGRN) expression are associated with multiple neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), including frontotemporal dementia (FTD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs). Recently, the loss of PGRN was shown to result in endo-lysosomal system dysfunction and an age-dependent increase in the expression of another protein associated with NDs, glycoprotein non-metastatic B (GPNMB). MAIN BODY It is unclear what role GPNMB plays in the context of PGRN insufficiency and how they interact and contribute to the development or progression of NDs. This review focuses on the interplay between these two critical proteins within the context of endo-lysosomal health, immune function, and inflammation in their contribution to NDs. SHORT CONCLUSION PGRN and GPNMB are interrelated proteins that regulate disease-relevant processes and may have value as therapeutic targets to delay disease progression or extend therapeutic windows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew A Gillett
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Rebecca L Wallings
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Oihane Uriarte Huarte
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Malú Gámez Tansey
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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17
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Dominguez SL, Laufer BI, Ghosh AS, Li Q, Ruggeri G, Emani MR, Phu L, Friedman BA, Sandoval W, Rose CM, Ngu H, Foreman O, Reichelt M, Juste Y, Lalehzadeh G, Hansen D, Nymark H, Mellal D, Gylling H, Kiełpiński ŁJ, Chih B, Bingol B, Hoogenraad CC, Meilandt WJ, Easton A. TMEM106B reduction does not rescue GRN deficiency in iPSC-derived human microglia and mouse models. iScience 2023; 26:108362. [PMID: 37965143 PMCID: PMC10641752 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous mutations in the granulin (GRN) gene are a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TDP-43 aggregates (FTLD-TDP). Polymorphisms in TMEM106B have been associated with disease risk in GRN mutation carriers and protective TMEM106B variants associated with reduced levels of TMEM106B, suggesting that lowering TMEM106B might be therapeutic in the context of FTLD. Here, we tested the impact of full deletion and partial reduction of TMEM106B in mouse and iPSC-derived human cell models of GRN deficiency. TMEM106B deletion did not reverse transcriptomic or proteomic profiles in GRN-deficient microglia, with a few exceptions in immune signaling markers. Neither homozygous nor heterozygous Tmem106b deletion normalized disease-associated phenotypes in Grn -/-mice. Furthermore, Tmem106b reduction by antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) was poorly tolerated in Grn -/-mice. These data provide novel insight into TMEM106B and GRN function in microglia cells but do not support lowering TMEM106B levels as a viable therapeutic strategy for treating FTD-GRN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara L. Dominguez
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Benjamin I. Laufer
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Department of OMNI Bioinformatics, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Qingling Li
- Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics, and Lipidomics, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Gaia Ruggeri
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Maheswara Reddy Emani
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Lilian Phu
- Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics, and Lipidomics, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Brad A. Friedman
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Department of OMNI Bioinformatics, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Wendy Sandoval
- Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics, and Lipidomics, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Christopher M. Rose
- Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics, and Lipidomics, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Hai Ngu
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Oded Foreman
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Mike Reichelt
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Yves Juste
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Guita Lalehzadeh
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Dennis Hansen
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, DK, Denmark
| | - Helle Nymark
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, DK, Denmark
| | - Denia Mellal
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, DK, Denmark
| | - Helene Gylling
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, DK, Denmark
| | - Łukasz J. Kiełpiński
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Copenhagen, 2970 Hørsholm, DK, Denmark
| | - Ben Chih
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Baris Bingol
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | | | - Amy Easton
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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18
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Kaplelach AK, Fox SN, Cook AK, Hall JA, Dannemiller RS, Jaunarajs KL, Arrant AE. Regulation of extracellular progranulin in medial prefrontal cortex. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 188:106326. [PMID: 37838007 PMCID: PMC10682954 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Progranulin is a secreted pro-protein that has anti-inflammatory and neurotrophic effects and is necessary for maintaining lysosomal function. Mutations in progranulin (GRN) are a major cause of frontotemporal dementia. Most pathogenic GRN mutations cause progranulin haploinsufficiency, so boosting progranulin levels is a promising therapeutic strategy. Progranulin is constitutively secreted, then taken up and trafficked to lysosomes. Before being taken up from the extracellular space, progranulin interacts with receptors that may mediate anti-inflammatory and growth factor-like effects. Modifying progranulin trafficking is a viable approach to boosting progranulin, but progranulin secretion and uptake by cells in the brain is poorly understood and may involve distinct mechanisms from other parts of the body. Understanding the cell types and processes that regulate extracellular progranulin in the brain could provide insight into progranulin's mechanism of action and inform design of progranulin-boosting therapies. To address this question we used microdialysis to measure progranulin in interstitial fluid (ISF) of mouse medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Grn+/- mice had approximately 50% lower ISF progranulin than wild-type mice, matching the reduction of progranulin in cortical tissue. Fluorescent in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence confirmed that microglia and neurons are the major progranulin-expressing cell types in the mPFC. Studies of conditional microglial (Mg-KO) and neuronal (N-KO) Grn knockout mice revealed that loss of progranulin from either cell type results in approximately 50% reduction in ISF progranulin. LPS injection (i.p.) produced an acute increase in ISF progranulin in mPFC. Depolarizing cells with KCl increased ISF progranulin, but this response was not altered in N-KO mice, indicating progranulin secretion by non-neuronal cells. Increasing neuronal activity with picrotoxin did not increase ISF progranulin. These data indicate that microglia and neurons are the source of most ISF progranulin in mPFC, with microglia likely secreting more progranulin per cell than neurons. The acute increase in ISF progranulin after LPS treatment is consistent with a role for extracellular progranulin in regulating inflammation, and may have been driven by microglia or peripheral immune cells. Finally, these data indicate that mPFC neurons engage in constitutive progranulin secretion that is not acutely changed by neuronal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azariah K Kaplelach
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Stephanie N Fox
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Anna K Cook
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Justin A Hall
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Ryan S Dannemiller
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Karen L Jaunarajs
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Andrew E Arrant
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
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19
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Dhindsa RS, Burren OS, Sun BB, Prins BP, Matelska D, Wheeler E, Mitchell J, Oerton E, Hristova VA, Smith KR, Carss K, Wasilewski S, Harper AR, Paul DS, Fabre MA, Runz H, Viollet C, Challis B, Platt A, Vitsios D, Ashley EA, Whelan CD, Pangalos MN, Wang Q, Petrovski S. Rare variant associations with plasma protein levels in the UK Biobank. Nature 2023; 622:339-347. [PMID: 37794183 PMCID: PMC10567546 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06547-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Integrating human genomics and proteomics can help elucidate disease mechanisms, identify clinical biomarkers and discover drug targets1-4. Because previous proteogenomic studies have focused on common variation via genome-wide association studies, the contribution of rare variants to the plasma proteome remains largely unknown. Here we identify associations between rare protein-coding variants and 2,923 plasma protein abundances measured in 49,736 UK Biobank individuals. Our variant-level exome-wide association study identified 5,433 rare genotype-protein associations, of which 81% were undetected in a previous genome-wide association study of the same cohort5. We then looked at aggregate signals using gene-level collapsing analysis, which revealed 1,962 gene-protein associations. Of the 691 gene-level signals from protein-truncating variants, 99.4% were associated with decreased protein levels. STAB1 and STAB2, encoding scavenger receptors involved in plasma protein clearance, emerged as pleiotropic loci, with 77 and 41 protein associations, respectively. We demonstrate the utility of our publicly accessible resource through several applications. These include detailing an allelic series in NLRC4, identifying potential biomarkers for a fatty liver disease-associated variant in HSD17B13 and bolstering phenome-wide association studies by integrating protein quantitative trait loci with protein-truncating variants in collapsing analyses. Finally, we uncover distinct proteomic consequences of clonal haematopoiesis (CH), including an association between TET2-CH and increased FLT3 levels. Our results highlight a considerable role for rare variation in plasma protein abundance and the value of proteogenomics in therapeutic discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S Dhindsa
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, US.
| | - Oliver S Burren
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Benjamin B Sun
- Translational Sciences, Research & Development, Biogen Inc., Cambridge, MA, US
| | - Bram P Prins
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Dorota Matelska
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Eleanor Wheeler
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jonathan Mitchell
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Erin Oerton
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ventzislava A Hristova
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, US
| | - Katherine R Smith
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Keren Carss
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sebastian Wasilewski
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Andrew R Harper
- Clinical Development, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (R&I), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Dirk S Paul
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Margarete A Fabre
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Heiko Runz
- Translational Sciences, Research & Development, Biogen Inc., Cambridge, MA, US
| | - Coralie Viollet
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Benjamin Challis
- Translational Science and Experimental Medicine, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam Platt
- Translational Science and Experimental Medicine, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Dimitrios Vitsios
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Euan A Ashley
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Quanli Wang
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, US
| | - Slavé Petrovski
- Centre for Genomics Research, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK.
- Department of Medicine, Austin Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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20
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Haukedal H, Syshøj Lorenzen S, Winther Westi E, Corsi GI, Gadekar VP, McQuade A, Davtyan H, Doncheva NT, Schmid B, Chandrasekaran A, Seemann SE, Cirera S, Blurton-Jones M, Meyer M, Gorodkin J, Aldana BI, Freude K. Alteration of microglial metabolism and inflammatory profile contributes to neurotoxicity in a hiPSC-derived microglia model of frontotemporal dementia 3. Brain Behav Immun 2023; 113:353-373. [PMID: 37543250 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a common cause of early-onset dementia, with no current treatment options. FTD linked to chromosome 3 (FTD3) is a rare sub-form of the disease, caused by a point mutation in the Charged Multivesicular Body Protein 2B (CHMP2B). This mutation causes neuronal phenotypes, such as mitochondrial deficiencies, accompanied by metabolic changes and interrupted endosomal-lysosomal fusion. However, the contribution of glial cells to FTD3 pathogenesis has, until recently, been largely unexplored. Glial cells play an important role in most neurodegenerative disorders as drivers and facilitators of neuroinflammation. Microglia are at the center of current investigations as potential pro-inflammatory drivers. While gliosis has been observed in FTD3 patient brains, it has not yet been systematically analyzed. In the light of this, we investigated the role of microglia in FTD3 by implementing human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) with either a heterozygous or homozygous CHMP2B mutation, introduced into a healthy control hiPSC line via CRISPR-Cas9 precision gene editing. These hiPSC were differentiated into microglia to evaluate the pro-inflammatory profile and metabolic state. Moreover, hiPSC-derived neurons were cultured with conditioned microglia media to investigate disease specific interactions between the two cell populations. Interestingly, we identified two divergent inflammatory microglial phenotypes resulting from the underlying mutations: a severe pro-inflammatory profile in CHMP2B homozygous FTD3 microglia, and an "unresponsive" CHMP2B heterozygous FTD3 microglial state. These findings correlate with our observations of increased phagocytic activity in CHMP2B homozygous, and impaired protein degradation in CHMP2B heterozygous FTD3 microglia. Metabolic mapping confirmed these differences, revealing a metabolic reprogramming of the CHMP2B FTD3 microglia, displayed as a compensatory up-regulation of glutamine metabolism in the CHMP2B homozygous FTD3 microglia. Intriguingly, conditioned CHMP2B homozygous FTD3 microglia media caused neurotoxic effects, which was not evident for the heterozygous microglia. Strikingly, IFN-γ treatment initiated an immune boost of the CHMP2B heterozygous FTD3 microglia, and conditioned microglia media exposure promoted neural outgrowth. Our findings indicate that the microglial profile, activity, and behavior is highly dependent on the status of the CHMP2B mutation. Our results suggest that the heterozygous state of the mutation in FTD3 patients could potentially be exploited in form of immune-boosting intervention strategies to counteract neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Haukedal
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Signe Syshøj Lorenzen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Emil Winther Westi
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
| | - Giulia I Corsi
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Veerendra P Gadekar
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Amanda McQuade
- Institute for Memory Impairment and Neurological Disorders, Stem Cell Research Center, University of California at Irvine, 92697 Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Hayk Davtyan
- Institute for Memory Impairment and Neurological Disorders, Stem Cell Research Center, University of California at Irvine, 92697 Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Nadezhda T Doncheva
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark; Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen 2200, Denmark
| | | | - Abinaya Chandrasekaran
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Stefan E Seemann
- Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Susanna Cirera
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Mathew Blurton-Jones
- Institute for Memory Impairment and Neurological Disorders, Stem Cell Research Center, University of California at Irvine, 92697 Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Morten Meyer
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark
| | - Jan Gorodkin
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Blanca I Aldana
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
| | - Kristine Freude
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark.
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21
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Gao C, Jiang J, Tan Y, Chen S. Microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: mechanism and potential therapeutic targets. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:359. [PMID: 37735487 PMCID: PMC10514343 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01588-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia activation is observed in various neurodegenerative diseases. Recent advances in single-cell technologies have revealed that these reactive microglia were with high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Some identified microglia in specific states correlate with pathological hallmarks and are associated with specific functions. Microglia both exert protective function by phagocytosing and clearing pathological protein aggregates and play detrimental roles due to excessive uptake of protein aggregates, which would lead to microglial phagocytic ability impairment, neuroinflammation, and eventually neurodegeneration. In addition, peripheral immune cells infiltration shapes microglia into a pro-inflammatory phenotype and accelerates disease progression. Microglia also act as a mobile vehicle to propagate protein aggregates. Extracellular vesicles released from microglia and autophagy impairment in microglia all contribute to pathological progression and neurodegeneration. Thus, enhancing microglial phagocytosis, reducing microglial-mediated neuroinflammation, inhibiting microglial exosome synthesis and secretion, and promoting microglial conversion into a protective phenotype are considered to be promising strategies for the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases. Here we comprehensively review the biology of microglia and the roles of microglia in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, dementia with Lewy bodies and Huntington's disease. We also summarize the possible microglia-targeted interventions and treatments against neurodegenerative diseases with preclinical and clinical evidence in cell experiments, animal studies, and clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Gao
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200025, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingwen Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200025, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuyan Tan
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200025, Shanghai, China.
| | - Shengdi Chen
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200025, Shanghai, China.
- Lab for Translational Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies (SIAIS), Shanghai Tech University, 201210, Shanghai, China.
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22
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Colella P, Sayana R, Suarez-Nieto MV, Sarno J, Nyame K, Xiong J, Vera LNP, Basurto JA, Corbo M, Limaye A, Davis KL, Abu-Remaileh M, Gomez-Ospina N. CNS Repopulation by Hematopoietic-Derived Microglia-Like Cells Corrects Progranulin deficiency. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3263412. [PMID: 37790525 PMCID: PMC10543302 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3263412/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation can deliver therapeutic proteins to the CNS through donor-derived hematopoietic cells that become microglia-like cells. However, using standard conditioning approaches, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is currently limited by low and slow engraftment of microglia-like cells. We report an efficient conditioning regimen based on Busulfan and a six-day course of microglia depletion using the colony-stimulating factor receptor 1 inhibitor PLX3397. Combining Busulfan-myeloablation and transient microglia depletion results in robust, rapid, and persistent microglia replacement by bone marrow-derived microglia-like cells throughout the CNS. Adding PLX3397 does not affect neurobehavior or has adverse effects on hematopoietic reconstitution. Through single-cell RNA sequencing and high-dimensional CyTOF mass cytometry, we show that microglia-like cells are a heterogeneous population and describe six distinct subpopulations. Though most bone-marrow-derived microglia-like cells can be classified as homeostatic microglia, their gene signature is a hybrid of homeostatic/embryonic microglia and border associated-macrophages. Busulfan-myeloablation and transient microglia depletion induce specific cytokines in the brain, ultimately combining myeloid proliferative and chemo-attractive signals that act locally to repopulate microglia from outside the niche. Importantly, this conditioning approach demonstrates therapeutic efficacy in a mouse model of GRN deficiency. Transplanting wild-type bone marrow into Grn-/- mice conditioned with Busulfan plus PLX3397 results in high engraftment of microglia-like cells in the brain and retina, restoring GRN levels and normalizing lipid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasqualina Colella
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Ruhi Sayana
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | | | - Jolanda Sarno
- Hematology, Oncology, Stem Cell Transplant, and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Kwamina Nyame
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Jian Xiong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | | | | | - Marco Corbo
- MedGenome, Inc, 348 Hatch Dr, Foster City, CA 94404
| | - Anay Limaye
- MedGenome, Inc, 348 Hatch Dr, Foster City, CA 94404
| | - Kara Lynn Davis
- Hematology, Oncology, Stem Cell Transplant, and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Monther Abu-Remaileh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- The Institute for Chemistry, Engineering and Medicine for Human Health (Sarafan ChEM-H), Stanford University, Stanford, USA
| | - Natalia Gomez-Ospina
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
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23
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Bernardi S, Gemignani F, Marchese M. The involvement of Purkinje cells in progressive myoclonic epilepsy: Focus on neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 185:106258. [PMID: 37573956 PMCID: PMC10480493 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The progressive myoclonic epilepsies (PMEs) are a group of rare neurodegenerative diseases characterized by myoclonus, epileptic seizures, and progressive neurological deterioration with cerebellar involvement. They include storage diseases like Gaucher disease, Lafora disease, and forms of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL). To date, 13 NCLs have been reported (CLN1-CLN8, CLN10-CLN14), associated with mutations in different genes. These forms, which affect both children and adults, are characterized by seizures, cognitive and motor impairments, and in most cases visual loss. In NCLs, as in other PMEs, central nervous system (CNS) neurodegeneration is widespread and involves different subpopulations of neurons. One of the most affected regions is the cerebellar cortex, where motor and non-motor information is processed and transmitted to deep cerebellar nuclei through the axons of Purkinje cells (PCs). PCs, being GABAergic, have an inhibitory effect on their target neurons, and provide the only inhibitory output of the cerebellum. Degeneration of PCs has been linked to motor impairments and epileptic seizures. Seizures occur when some insult upsets the normal balance in the CNS between excitatory and inhibitory impulses, causing hyperexcitability. Here we review the role of PCs in epilepsy onset and progression following their PME-related loss. In particular, we focus on the involvement of PCs in seizure phenotype in NCLs, highlighting findings from case reports and studies of animal models in which epilepsy can be linked to PC loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bernardi
- Department Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Maria Marchese
- Department Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy.
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24
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Grossman M, Seeley WW, Boxer AL, Hillis AE, Knopman DS, Ljubenov PA, Miller B, Piguet O, Rademakers R, Whitwell JL, Zetterberg H, van Swieten JC. Frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2023; 9:40. [PMID: 37563165 DOI: 10.1038/s41572-023-00447-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is one of the most common causes of early-onset dementia and presents with early social-emotional-behavioural and/or language changes that can be accompanied by a pyramidal or extrapyramidal motor disorder. About 20-25% of individuals with FTLD are estimated to carry a mutation associated with a specific FTLD pathology. The discovery of these mutations has led to important advances in potentially disease-modifying treatments that aim to slow progression or delay disease onset and has improved understanding of brain functioning. In both mutation carriers and those with sporadic disease, the most common underlying diagnoses are linked to neuronal and glial inclusions containing tau (FTLD-tau) or TDP-43 (FTLD-TDP), although 5-10% of patients may have inclusions containing proteins from the FUS-Ewing sarcoma-TAF15 family (FTLD-FET). Biomarkers definitively identifying specific pathological entities in sporadic disease have been elusive, which has impeded development of disease-modifying treatments. Nevertheless, disease-monitoring biofluid and imaging biomarkers are becoming increasingly sophisticated and are likely to serve as useful measures of treatment response during trials of disease-modifying treatments. Symptomatic trials using novel approaches such as transcranial direct current stimulation are also beginning to show promise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murray Grossman
- Department of Neurology and Penn Frontotemporal Degeneration Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Departments of Neurology and Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Adam L Boxer
- Departments of Neurology and Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Argye E Hillis
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Peter A Ljubenov
- Departments of Neurology and Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bruce Miller
- Departments of Neurology and Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Olivier Piguet
- School of Psychology and Brain and Mind Center, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Rosa Rademakers
- VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | | | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, UK
- Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, China
- Wisconsin Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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25
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Feng T, Minevich G, Liu P, Qin HX, Wozniak G, Pham J, Pham K, Korgaonkar A, Kurnellas M, Defranoux NA, Long H, Mitra A, Hu F. AAV- GRN partially corrects motor deficits and ALS/FTLD-related pathology in Tmem106b-/-Grn-/- mice. iScience 2023; 26:107247. [PMID: 37519899 PMCID: PMC10371829 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of function of progranulin (PGRN), encoded by the granulin (GRN) gene, is implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases. Several therapeutics to boost PGRN levels are currently in clinical trials. However, it is difficult to test the efficacy of PGRN-enhancing drugs in mouse models due to the mild phenotypes of Grn-/- mice. Recently, mice deficient in both PGRN and TMEM106B were shown to develop severe motor deficits and pathology. Here, we show that intracerebral ventricle injection of PGRN-expressing AAV1/9 viruses partially rescues motor deficits, neuronal loss, glial activation, and lysosomal abnormalities in Tmem106b-/-Grn-/- mice. Widespread expression of PGRN is detected in both the brain and spinal cord for both AAV subtypes. However, AAV9 but not AAV1-mediated expression of PGRN results in high levels of PGRN in the serum. Together, these data support using the Tmem106b-/-Grn-/- mouse strain as a robust mouse model to determine the efficacy of PGRN-elevating therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Pengan Liu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Henry Xin Qin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Jenny Pham
- Alector Inc, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Khanh Pham
- Alector Inc, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | | | | | - Hua Long
- Alector Inc, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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26
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Life B, Bettio LE, Gantois I, Christie BR, Leavitt BR. Progranulin is an FMRP target that influences macroorchidism but not behaviour in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2023; 5:100094. [PMID: 37416094 PMCID: PMC10319828 DOI: 10.1016/j.crneur.2023.100094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
A growing body of evidence has implicated progranulin in neurodevelopment and indicated that aberrant progranulin expression may be involved in neurodevelopmental disease. Specifically, increased progranulin expression in the prefrontal cortex has been suggested to be pathologically relevant in male Fmr1 knockout (Fmr1 KO) mice, a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). Further investigation into the role of progranulin in FXS is warranted to determine if therapies that reduce progranulin expression represent a viable strategy for treating patients with FXS. Several key knowledge gaps remain. The mechanism of increased progranulin expression in Fmr1 KO mice is poorly understood and the extent of progranulin's involvement in FXS-like phenotypes in Fmr1 KO mice has been incompletely explored. To this end, we have performed a thorough characterization of progranulin expression in Fmr1 KO mice. We find that the phenomenon of increased progranulin expression is post-translational and tissue-specific. We also demonstrate for the first time an association between progranulin mRNA and FMRP, suggesting that progranulin mRNA is an FMRP target. Subsequently, we show that progranulin over-expression in Fmr1 wild-type mice causes reduced repetitive behaviour engagement in females and mild hyperactivity in males but is largely insufficient to recapitulate FXS-associated behavioural, morphological, and electrophysiological abnormalities. Lastly, we determine that genetic reduction of progranulin expression on an Fmr1 KO background reduces macroorchidism but does not alter other FXS-associated behaviours or biochemical phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Life
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6H 0B3, Canada
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Luis E.B. Bettio
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Ilse Gantois
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, H3A 2T5, Quebec, Canada
- Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Research Centre, McGill University, Montreal, H3A 2T5, Quebec, Canada
| | - Brian R. Christie
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
- Island Medical Program, University of British Columbia, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
- Center for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Blair R. Leavitt
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6H 0B3, Canada
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia Hospital, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada
- Center for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
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27
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Zhang T, Feng T, Wu K, Guo J, Nana AL, Yang G, Seeley WW, Hu F. Progranulin deficiency results in sex-dependent alterations in microglia in response to demyelination. Acta Neuropathol 2023:10.1007/s00401-023-02578-w. [PMID: 37120788 PMCID: PMC10375542 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-023-02578-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Heterozygous mutations in the granulin (GRN) gene, resulting in the haploinsufficiency of the progranulin (PGRN) protein, is a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Complete loss of the PGRN protein causes neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL), a lysosomal storage disorder. Polymorphisms in the GRN gene have also been associated with several other neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Parkinson's disease (PD). PGRN deficiency has been shown to cause myelination defects previously, but how PGRN regulates myelination is unknown. Here, we report that PGRN deficiency leads to a sex-dependent myelination defect with male mice showing more severe demyelination in response to cuprizone treatment. This is accompanied by exacerbated microglial proliferation and activation in the male PGRN-deficient mice. Interestingly, both male and female PGRN-deficient mice show sustained microglial activation after cuprizone removal and a defect in remyelination. Specific ablation of PGRN in microglia results in similar sex-dependent phenotypes, confirming a microglial function of PGRN. Lipid droplets accumulate in microglia specifically in male PGRN-deficient mice. RNA-seq analysis and mitochondrial function assays reveal key differences in oxidative phosphorylation in male versus female microglia under PGRN deficiency. A significant decrease in myelination and accumulation of myelin debris and lipid droplets in microglia were found in the corpus callosum regions of FTLD patients with GRN mutations. Taken together, our data support that PGRN deficiency leads to sex-dependent alterations in microglia with subsequent myelination defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Kenton Wu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jennifer Guo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Alissa L Nana
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Guang Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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28
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Davis SE, Cook AK, Hall JA, Voskobiynyk Y, Carullo NV, Boyle NR, Hakim AR, Anderson KM, Hobdy KP, Pugh DA, Murchison CF, McMeekin LJ, Simmons M, Margolies KA, Cowell RM, Nana AL, Spina S, Grinberg LT, Miller BL, Seeley WW, Arrant AE. Patients with sporadic FTLD exhibit similar increases in lysosomal proteins and storage material as patients with FTD due to GRN mutations. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:70. [PMID: 37118844 PMCID: PMC10148425 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01571-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of function progranulin (GRN) mutations are a major autosomal dominant cause of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Patients with FTD due to GRN mutations (FTD-GRN) develop frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TDP-43 pathology type A (FTLD-TDP type A) and exhibit elevated levels of lysosomal proteins and storage material in frontal cortex, perhaps indicating lysosomal dysfunction as a mechanism of disease. To investigate whether patients with sporadic FTLD exhibit similar signs of lysosomal dysfunction, we compared lysosomal protein levels, transcript levels, and storage material in patients with FTD-GRN or sporadic FTLD-TDP type A. We analyzed samples from frontal cortex, a degenerated brain region, and occipital cortex, a relatively spared brain region. In frontal cortex, patients with sporadic FTLD-TDP type A exhibited similar increases in lysosomal protein levels, transcript levels, and storage material as patients with FTD-GRN. In occipital cortex of both patient groups, most lysosomal measures did not differ from controls. Frontal cortex from a transgenic mouse model of TDP-opathy had similar increases in cathepsin D and lysosomal storage material, showing that TDP-opathy and neurodegeneration can drive these changes independently of progranulin. To investigate these changes in additional FTLD subtypes, we analyzed frontal cortical samples from patients with sporadic FTLD-TDP type C or Pick's disease, an FTLD-tau subtype. All sporadic FTLD groups had similar increases in cathepsin D activity, lysosomal membrane proteins, and storage material as FTD-GRN patients. However, patients with FTLD-TDP type C or Pick's disease did not have similar increases in lysosomal transcripts as patients with FTD-GRN or sporadic FTLD-TDP type A. Based on these data, accumulation of lysosomal proteins and storage material may be a common aspect of end-stage FTLD. However, the unique changes in gene expression in patients with FTD-GRN or sporadic FTLD-TDP type A may indicate distinct underlying lysosomal changes among FTLD subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skylar E Davis
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Anna K Cook
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Justin A Hall
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Yuliya Voskobiynyk
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Nancy V Carullo
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Nicholas R Boyle
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Ahmad R Hakim
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Kristian M Anderson
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Kierra P Hobdy
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Derian A Pugh
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Charles F Murchison
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Laura J McMeekin
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Micah Simmons
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | | | - Rita M Cowell
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Alissa L Nana
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Salvatore Spina
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lea T Grinberg
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bruce L Miller
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andrew E Arrant
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
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29
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Life B, Petkau TL, Cruz GNF, Navarro-Delgado EI, Shen N, Korthauer K, Leavitt BR. FTD-associated behavioural and transcriptomic abnormalities in 'humanized' progranulin-deficient mice: A novel model for progranulin-associated FTD. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 182:106138. [PMID: 37105261 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is an early onset dementia characterized by neuropathology and behavioural changes. A common genetic cause of FTD is haploinsufficiency of the gene progranulin (GRN). Mouse models of progranulin deficiency have provided insight into progranulin neurobiology, but the description of phenotypes with preclinical relevance has been limited in the currently available heterozygous progranulin-null mice. The identification of robust and reproducible FTD-associated behavioural, neuropathological, and biochemical phenotypes in progranulin deficient mice is a critical step in the preclinical development of therapies for FTD. In this work, we report the generation of a novel, 'humanized' mouse model of progranulin deficiency that expresses a single, targeted copy of human GRN in the absence of mouse progranulin. We also report the in-depth, longitudinal characterization of humanized progranulin-deficient mice and heterozygous progranulin-null mice over 18 months. Our analysis yielded several novel progranulin-dependent physiological and behavioural phenotypes, including increased marble burying, open field hyperactivity, and thalamic microgliosis in both models. RNAseq analysis of cortical tissue revealed an overlapping profile of transcriptomic dysfunction. Further transcriptomic analysis offers new insights into progranulin neurobiology. In sum, we have identified several consistent phenotypes in two independent mouse models of progranulin deficiency that are expected to be useful endpoints in the development of therapies for progranulin-deficient FTD. Furthermore, the presence of the human progranulin gene in the humanized progranulin-deficient mice will expedite the development of clinically translatable gene therapy strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Life
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 0B3, Canada; BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Terri L Petkau
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 0B3, Canada; BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Giuliano N F Cruz
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada; Department of Statistics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Erick I Navarro-Delgado
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada; Department of Statistics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Ning Shen
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada; Department of Statistics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Keegan Korthauer
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada; Department of Statistics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Blair R Leavitt
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 0B3, Canada; BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada; Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia Hospital, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5, Canada; Center for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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30
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Du H, Yang C, Nana AL, Seeley WW, Smolka M, Hu F. Progranulin inhibits phospholipase sPLA2-IIA to control neuroinflammation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.06.535844. [PMID: 37066328 PMCID: PMC10104136 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.06.535844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the granulin (GRN) gene, resulting in haploinsufficiency of the progranulin (PGRN) protein, are a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and PGRN polymorphisms are associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). PGRN is a key regulator of microglia-mediated inflammation but the mechanism is still unknown. Here we report that PGRN interacts with sPLA2-IIA, a secreted phospholipase involved in inflammatory responses, to downregulate sPLA2-IIA activities and levels. sPLA2-IIA expression modifies PGRN deficiency phenotypes in mice and sPLA2-IIA inhibition rescues inflammation and lysosomal abnormalities in PGRN deficient mice. Furthermore, FTLD patients with GRN mutations show increased levels of sPLA2-IIA in astrocytes. Our data support sPLA2-IIA as a critical target for PGRN and a novel therapeutic target for FTLD-GRN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Du
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Cha Yang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Alissa L. Nana
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - William W. Seeley
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Marcus Smolka
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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31
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Simon MJ, Logan T, DeVos SL, Di Paolo G. Lysosomal functions of progranulin and implications for treatment of frontotemporal dementia. Trends Cell Biol 2023; 33:324-339. [PMID: 36244875 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2022.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Loss-of-function heterozygous mutations in GRN, the gene encoding progranulin (PGRN), were identified in patients with frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) almost two decades ago and are generally linked to reduced PGRN protein expression levels. Although initial characterization of PGRN function primarily focused on its role in extracellular signaling as a secreted protein, more recent studies revealed critical roles of PGRN in regulating lysosome function, including proteolysis and lipid degradation, consistent with its lysosomal localization. Emerging from these studies is the notion that PGRN regulates glucocerebrosidase activity via direct chaperone activities and via interaction with prosaposin (i.e., a key regulator of lysosomal sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes), as well as with the anionic phospholipid bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate. This emerging lysosomal biology of PGRN identified novel and promising opportunities in therapeutic discovery as well as biomarker development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Todd Logan
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
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32
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Marian OC, Teo JD, Lee JY, Song H, Kwok JB, Landin-Romero R, Halliday G, Don AS. Disrupted myelin lipid metabolism differentiates frontotemporal dementia caused by GRN and C9orf72 gene mutations. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:52. [PMID: 36967384 PMCID: PMC10041703 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01544-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous mutations in the GRN gene and hexanucleotide repeat expansions in C9orf72 are the two most common genetic causes of Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD) with TDP-43 protein inclusions. The triggers for neurodegeneration in FTD with GRN (FTD-GRN) or C9orf72 (FTD-C9orf72) gene abnormalities are unknown, although evidence from mouse and cell culture models suggests that GRN mutations disrupt lysosomal lipid catabolism. To determine how brain lipid metabolism is affected in familial FTD with TDP-43 inclusions, and how this is related to myelin and lysosomal markers, we undertook comprehensive lipidomic analysis, enzyme activity assays, and western blotting on grey and white matter samples from the heavily-affected frontal lobe and less-affected parietal lobe of FTD-GRN cases, FTD-C9orf72 cases, and age-matched neurologically-normal controls. Substantial loss of myelin-enriched sphingolipids (sulfatide, galactosylceramide, sphingomyelin) and myelin proteins was observed in frontal white matter of FTD-GRN cases. A less-pronounced, yet statistically significant, loss of sphingolipids was also observed in FTD-C9orf72. FTD-GRN was distinguished from FTD-C9orf72 and control cases by increased acylcarnitines in frontal grey matter and marked accumulation of cholesterol esters in both frontal and parietal white matter, indicative of myelin break-down. Both FTD-GRN and FTD-C9orf72 cases showed significantly increased lysosomal and phagocytic protein markers, however galactocerebrosidase activity, required for lysosomal catabolism of galactosylceramide and sulfatide, was selectively increased in FTD-GRN. We conclude that both C9orf72 and GRN mutations are associated with disrupted lysosomal homeostasis and white matter lipid loss, but GRN mutations cause a more pronounced disruption to myelin lipid metabolism. Our findings support the hypothesis that hyperactive myelin lipid catabolism is a driver of gliosis and neurodegeneration in FTD-GRN. Since FTD-GRN is associated with white matter hyperintensities by MRI, our data provides important biochemical evidence supporting the use of MRI measures of white matter integrity in the diagnosis and management of FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana C Marian
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Jonathan D Teo
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Jun Yup Lee
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Huitong Song
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - John B Kwok
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Ramon Landin-Romero
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Glenda Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Anthony S Don
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia.
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia.
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Rahman MM, Islam MR, Alam Tumpa MA, Shohag S, Shakil Khan Shuvo, Ferdous J, Kajol SA, Aljohani ASM, Al Abdulmonem W, Rauf A, Thiruvengadam M. Insights into the promising prospect of medicinal chemistry studies against neurodegenerative disorders. Chem Biol Interact 2023; 373:110375. [PMID: 36739931 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2023.110375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Medicinal chemistry is an interdisciplinary field that incorporates organic chemistry, biochemistry, physical chemistry, pharmacology, informatics, molecular biology, structural biology, cell biology, and other disciplines. Additionally, it considers molecular factors such as the mode of action of the drugs, their chemical structure-activity relationship (SAR), and pharmacokinetic aspects like absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, and toxicity. Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), which are defined by the breakdown of neurons over time, are affecting an increasing number of people. Oxidative stress, particularly the increased production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), plays a crucial role in the growth of various disorders, as indicated by the identification of protein, lipid, and Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) oxidation products in vivo. Because of their inherent nature, most biological molecules are vulnerable to ROS, even if they play a role in metabolic parameters and cell signaling. Due to their high polyunsaturated fatty acid content, low antioxidant barrier, and high oxygen uptake, neurons are particularly vulnerable to oxidation by nature. As a result, excessive ROS generation in neurons looks especially harmful, and the mechanisms associated with biomolecule oxidative destruction are several and complex. This review focuses on the formation and management of ROS, as well as their chemical characteristics (both thermodynamic and kinetic), interactions, and implications in NDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Mominur Rahman
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Md Rezaul Islam
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Mst Afroza Alam Tumpa
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Sheikh Shohag
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University Buraydah, 52571, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shakil Khan Shuvo
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Jannatul Ferdous
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Saima Akter Kajol
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Abdullah S M Aljohani
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University Buraydah, 52571, Saudi Arabia
| | - Waleed Al Abdulmonem
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdur Rauf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Swabi, Anbar, 23430, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan.
| | - Muthu Thiruvengadam
- Department of Applied Bioscience, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, South Korea; Department of Microbiology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, 600077, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Kolesnikova M, Lima de Carvalho JR, Oh JK, Soucy M, Demirkol A, Kim AH, Tsang SH, Breazzano MP. Phenotypic Variability of Retinal Disease Among a Cohort of Patients With Variants in the CLN Genes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2023; 64:23. [PMID: 36912596 PMCID: PMC10019488 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.64.3.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose To describe the phenotype of CLN-associated retinal dystrophy in a subset of patients at the Columbia University Medical Center, United States, and the Hospital das Clínicas de Pernambuco, Brazil, in comparison to the published literature. Methods Eleven patients with confirmed biallelic variants in the CLN genes were evaluated via dilated fundus examination, clinical imaging, and full-field electroretinogram. A thorough literature search was conducted to determine previously published variants and associated phenotypes. Results Genetic testing confirmed the presence of variants in CLN3, CLN7/MFSD8, CLN8, and GRN/CLN11. Five novel variants were identified, and four novel phenotypes of previously published alleles were described. The phenotype differed among patients with variants in the same gene and sometimes among patients with the same allele. Conclusions Substantial phenotypic variability among variants in the CLN genes makes identification of genotype-phenotype or allele-phenotype correlations challenging. Further study is required to establish an extensive database for adequate patient counseling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masha Kolesnikova
- Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard & Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, United States.,College of Medicine at the State University of New York at Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, United States
| | - Jose Ronaldo Lima de Carvalho
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hospital das Clínicas de Pernambuco, Empresa Brasileira de Serviços Hospitalares, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Jin Kyun Oh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, United States
| | - Megan Soucy
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, United States
| | - Aykut Demirkol
- Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard & Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, United States.,Usküdar University Vocational School of Health Services, Department of Opticianry, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Angela H Kim
- Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard & Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, United States.,College of Medicine at the State University of New York at Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, United States
| | - Stephen H Tsang
- Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard & Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, United States.,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, United States
| | - Mark P Breazzano
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States.,Retina-Vitreous Surgeons of Central New York, Liverpool, New York, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, United States
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Khrouf W, Saracino D, Rucheton B, Houot M, Clot F, Rinaldi D, Vitor J, Huynh M, Heng E, Schlemmer D, Pasquier F, Deramecourt V, Auriacombe S, Azuar C, Levy R, Bombois S, Boutoleau-Brétonnière C, Pariente J, Didic M, Wallon D, Fluchère F, Auvin S, Younes IB, Nadjar Y, Brice A, Dubois B, Bonnefont-Rousselot D, Le Ber I, Lamari F, Auriacombe S, Belliard S, Blanc F, Boutoleau-Brétonnière C, Brice A, Ceccaldi M, Couratier P, Didic M, Dubois B, Etcharry-Bouyx F, Formaglio M, Golfier V, Hannequin D, Lacomblez L, Lagarde J, Le Ber I, Levy R, Michel BF, Pariente J, Pasquier F, Rinaldi D, Roué-Jagot C, Sellal F, Thauvin-Robinet C, Thomas-Antérion C, Vercelletto M, Didic M, Girard N, Guedj E, Puel M, Pariente J, Berry I, Payoux P, Vercelletto M, Boutoleau-Brétonnière C, Auffray-Calvier E, Pallardy A, Pasquier F, Deramecourt V, Bombois S, Lebouvier T, Rollin A, Kuchinski G, Hannequin D, Martinaud O, Wallon D, Gerardin E, Vera P, Rinaldi D, Camuzat A, Brice A, Chupin M, Bardinet E, Kas A, Lemercier VC, Masmanian M, Oya H. Plasma lysosphingolipids in GRN-related diseases: Monitoring lysosomal dysfunction to track disease progression. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 181:106108. [PMID: 37003407 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
GRN mutations are among the main genetic causes of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Considering the progranulin involvement in lysosomal homeostasis, we aimed to evaluate if plasma lysosphingolipids (lysoSPL) are increased in GRN mutation carriers, and whether they might represent relevant fluid-based biomarkers in GRN-related diseases. We analyzed four lysoSPL levels in plasmas of 131 GRN carriers and 142 non-carriers, including healthy controls and patients with frontotemporal dementias (FTD) carrying a C9orf72 expansion or without any mutation. GRN carriers consisted of 102 heterozygous FTD patients (FTD-GRN), three homozygous patients with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis-11 (CLN-11) and 26 presymptomatic carriers (PS-GRN), the latter with longitudinal assessments. Glucosylsphingosin d18:1 (LGL1), lysosphingomyelins d18:1 and isoform 509 (LSM18:1, LSM509) and lysoglobotriaosylceramide (LGB3) were measured by electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry coupled to ultraperformance liquid chromatography. Levels of LGL1, LSM18:1 and LSM509 were increased in GRN carriers compared to non-carriers (p < 0.0001). No lysoSPL increases were detected in FTD patients without GRN mutations. LGL1 and LSM18:1 progressively increased with age at sampling, and LGL1 with disease duration, in FTD-GRN. Among PS-GRN carriers, LSM18:1 and LGL1 significantly increased over 3.4-year follow-up. LGL1 levels were associated with increasing neurofilaments in presymptomatic carriers. This study evidences an age-dependent increase of β-glucocerebrosidase and acid sphingomyelinase substrates in GRN patients, with progressive changes as early as the presymptomatic phase. Among FTD patients, plasma lysoSPL appear to be uniquely elevated in GRN carriers, and thus might serve as suitable non-invasive disease-tracking biomarkers of progression, specific to the pathophysiological process. Finally, this study might add lysoSPL to the portfolio of fluid-based biomarkers, and pave the way to disease-modifying approaches based on lysosomal function rescue in GRN diseases.
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Lack of a protective effect of the Tmem106b "protective SNP" in the Grn knockout mouse model for frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:21. [PMID: 36707901 PMCID: PMC9881268 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01510-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic variants in TMEM106B are a common risk factor for frontotemporal lobar degeneration and the most important modifier of disease risk in patients with progranulin (GRN) mutations (FTLD-GRN). TMEM106B is encoding a lysosomal transmembrane protein of unknown molecular function. How it mediates its disease-modifying function remains enigmatic. Several TMEM106B single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are significantly associated with disease risk in FTLD-GRN carriers, of which all except one are within intronic sequences of TMEM106B. Of note, the non-coding SNPs are in high linkage disequilibrium with the coding SNP rs3173615 located in exon six of TMEM106B, resulting in a threonine to serine change at amino acid 185 in the minor allele, which is protective in FTLD-GRN carriers. To investigate the functional consequences of this variant in vivo, we generated and characterized a knockin mouse model harboring the Tmem106bT186S variant. We analyzed the effect of this protective variant on FTLD pathology by crossing Tmem106bT186S mice with Grn-/- knockout mice, a model for GRN-mediated FTLD. We did not observe the amelioration of any of the investigated Grn-/- knockout phenotypes, including transcriptomic changes, lipid alterations, or microgliosis in Tmem106bT186S/T186S × Grn-/- mice, indicating that the Tmem106bT186S variant is not protective in the Grn-/- knockout mouse model. These data suggest that effects of the associated SNPs not directly linked to the amino acid exchange in TMEM106B are critical for the modifying effect.
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Elia L, Herting B, Alijagic A, Buselli C, Wong L, Morrison G, Prado MA, Paulo JA, Gygi SP, Finley D, Finkbeiner S. Frontotemporal Dementia Patient Neurons With Progranulin Deficiency Display Protein Dyshomeostasis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.18.524611. [PMID: 36712069 PMCID: PMC9882405 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.18.524611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Haploinsufficiency of progranulin (PGRN) causes frontotemporal dementia (FTD), a devastating neurodegenerative disease with no effective treatment. PGRN is required for efficient proteostasis, as loss of neuronal PGRN results in dysfunctional lysosomes and impaired clearance and cytoplasmic aggregation of TDP-43, a protein involved in neurodegeneration in FTD. These and other events lead to neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. However, the detailed mechanisms leading to protein dyshomeostasis in PGRN-deficient cells remain unclear. We report here the development of human cell models of FTD with PGRN-deficiency to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying proteostasis breakdown and TDP-43 aggregation in FTD. Neurons differentiated from FTD patient induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have reduced PGRN levels, and the neurons recapitulate key disease features, including impaired lysosomal function, defective TDP-43 turnover and accumulation, neurodegeneration, and death. Proteomic analysis revealed altered levels of proteins linked to the autophagy-lysosome pathway (ALP) and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) in FTD patient neurons, providing new mechanistic insights into the link between PGRN-deficiency and disease pathobiology.
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PGRN deficiency exacerbates, whereas a brain penetrant PGRN derivative protects, GBA1 mutation-associated pathologies and diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2210442120. [PMID: 36574647 PMCID: PMC9910439 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2210442120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in GBA1, encoding glucocerebrosidase (GCase), cause Gaucher disease (GD) and are also genetic risks in developing Parkinson's disease (PD). Currently, the approved therapies are only effective for directly treating visceral symptoms, but not for primary neuronopathic involvement in GD (nGD). Progranulin (PGRN), encoded by GRN, is a novel modifier of GCase, but the impact of PGRN in GBA1 mutation-associated pathologies in vivo remains unknown. Herein, Grn-/- mice crossed into Gba9v/9v mice, a Gba1 mutant line homozygous for the Gba1 D409V mutation, generating Grn-/-Gba9v/9v (PG9V) mice. PG9V mice exhibited neurobehavioral deficits, early onset, and more severe GD phenotypes compared to Grn-/- and Gba9v/9v mice. Moreover, PG9V mice also displayed PD-like phenotype. Mechanistic analysis revealed that PGRN deficiency caused severe neuroinflammation with microgliosis and astrogliosis, along with impaired autophagy associated with the Gba1 mutation. A PGRN-derived peptide, termed ND7, ameliorated the disease phenotype in GD patient fibroblasts ex vivo. Unexpectedly, ND7 penetrated the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and effectively ameliorated the nGD manifestations and PD pathology in Gba9v/null and PG9V mice. Collectively, this study not only provides the first line of in vivo but also ex vivo evidence demonstrating the crucial role of PGRN in GBA1/Gba1 mutation-related pathologies, as well as a clinically relevant mouse model for mechanistic and potential therapeutics studies for nGD and PD. Importantly, a BBB penetrant PGRN-derived biologic was developed that may provide treatment for rare lysosomal storage diseases and common neurodegenerative disorders, particularly nGD and PD.
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Kashyap SN, Boyle NR, Roberson ED. Preclinical Interventions in Mouse Models of Frontotemporal Dementia Due to Progranulin Mutations. Neurotherapeutics 2023; 20:140-153. [PMID: 36781744 PMCID: PMC10119358 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-023-01348-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) cause frontotemporal dementia (FTD), a leading cause of early-onset dementia characterized clinically by behavioral, social, and language deficits. There are currently no FDA-approved therapeutics for FTD-GRN, but this has been an active area of investigation, and several approaches are now in clinical trials. Here, we review preclinical development of therapies for FTD-GRN with a focus on testing in mouse models. Since most FTD-GRN-associated mutations cause progranulin haploinsufficiency, these approaches focus on raising progranulin levels. We begin by considering the disorders associated with altered progranulin levels, and then review the basics of progranulin biology including its lysosomal, neurotrophic, and immunomodulatory functions. We discuss mouse models of progranulin insufficiency and how they have been used in preclinical studies on a variety of therapeutic approaches. These include approaches to raise progranulin expression from the normal allele or facilitate progranulin production by the mutant allele, as well as approaches to directly increase progranulin levels by delivery across the blood-brain barrier or by gene therapy. Several of these approaches have entered clinical trials, providing hope that new therapies for FTD-GRN may be the next frontier in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreya N Kashyap
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Medical Scientist Training Program, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Nicholas R Boyle
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Medical Scientist Training Program, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Erik D Roberson
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Medical Scientist Training Program, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA.
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Braun JE. Extracellular chaperone networks and the export of J-domain proteins. J Biol Chem 2022; 299:102840. [PMID: 36581212 PMCID: PMC9867986 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
An extracellular network of molecular chaperones protects a diverse array of proteins that reside in or pass through extracellular spaces. Proteins in the extracellular milieu face numerous challenges that can lead to protein misfolding and aggregation. As a checkpoint for proteins that move between cells, extracellular chaperone networks are of growing clinical relevance. J-domain proteins (JDPs) are ubiquitous molecular chaperones that are known for their essential roles in a wide array of fundamental cellular processes through their regulation of heat shock protein 70s. As the largest molecular chaperone family, JDPs have long been recognized for their diverse functions within cells. Some JDPs are elegantly selective for their "client proteins," some do not discriminate among substrates and others act cooperatively on the same target. The realization that JDPs are exported through both classical and unconventional secretory pathways has fueled investigation into the roles that JDPs play in protein quality control and intercellular communication. The proposed functions of exported JDPs are diverse. Studies suggest that export of DnaJB11 enhances extracellular proteostasis, that intercellular movement of DnaJB1 or DnaJB6 enhances the proteostasis capacity in recipient cells, whereas the import of DnaJB8 increases resistance to chemotherapy in recipient cancer cells. In addition, the export of DnaJC5 and concurrent DnaJC5-dependent ejection of dysfunctional and aggregation-prone proteins are implicated in the prevention of neurodegeneration. This review provides a brief overview of the current understanding of the extracellular chaperone networks and outlines the first wave of studies describing the cellular export of JDPs.
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Bossolasco P, Cimini S, Maderna E, Bardelli D, Canafoglia L, Cavallaro T, Ricci M, Silani V, Marucci G, Rossi G. GRN−/− iPSC-derived cortical neurons recapitulate the pathological findings of both frontotemporal lobar degeneration and neuronal ceroidolipofuscinosis. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 175:105891. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Cimini S, Bellini S, Saraceno C, Benussi L, Ghidoni R, Giliani SC, Puoti G, Canafoglia L, Giaccone G, Rossi G. Pathological 25 kDa C-Terminal Fragments of TDP-43 Are Present in Lymphoblastoid Cell Lines and Extracellular Vesicles from Patients Affected by Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration and Neuronal Ceroidolipofuscinosis Carrying a GRN Mutation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232213753. [PMID: 36430231 PMCID: PMC9694984 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232213753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a complex disease, characterized by progressive degeneration of frontal and temporal lobes. Mutations in progranulin (GRN) gene have been found in up to 50% of patients with familial FTLD. Abnormal deposits of post-translationally-modified TAR DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) represent one of the main hallmarks of the brain pathology. To investigate in peripheral cells the presence of the different TDP-43 forms, especially the toxic 25 kDa fragments, we analyzed lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) and the derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) from patients carrying a GRN mutation, together with wild-type (WT) healthy controls. After characterizing EV sizes and concentrations by nanoparticle tracking analysis, we investigated the levels of different forms of the TDP-43 protein in LCLs and respective EVs by Western blot. Our results showed a trend of concentration decreasing in EVs derived from GRN-mutated LCLs, although not reaching statistical significance. A general increase in p-TDP-43 levels in GRN-mutated LCLs and EVs was observed. In particular, the toxic 25 kDa fragments of p-TDP-43 were only present in GRN-mutated LCLs and were absent in the WT controls. Furthermore, these fragments appeared to be more concentrated in EVs than in LCLs, suggesting a relevant role of EVs in spreading pathological molecules between cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cimini
- Unit of Neurology V-Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Sonia Bellini
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, 25125 Brescia, Italy
| | - Claudia Saraceno
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, 25125 Brescia, Italy
| | - Luisa Benussi
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, 25125 Brescia, Italy
| | - Roberta Ghidoni
- Molecular Markers Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, 25125 Brescia, Italy
| | - Silvia Clara Giliani
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, “Angelo Nocivelli” Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Brescia, ASST Spedali Civili, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Puoti
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Laura Canafoglia
- Integrated Diagnostics for Epilepsy, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgio Giaccone
- Unit of Neurology V-Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giacomina Rossi
- Unit of Neurology V-Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Plasma Small Extracellular Vesicle Cathepsin D Dysregulation in GRN/C9orf72 and Sporadic Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810693. [PMID: 36142612 PMCID: PMC9504770 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging data suggest the roles of endo-lysosomal dysfunctions in frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and in other dementias. Cathepsin D is one of the major lysosomal proteases, mediating the degradation of unfolded protein aggregates. In this retrospective study, we investigated cathepsin D levels in human plasma and in the plasma small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) of 161 subjects (40 sporadic FTLD, 33 intermediate/pathological C9orf72 expansion carriers, 45 heterozygous/homozygous GRN mutation carriers, and 43 controls). Cathepsin D was quantified by ELISA, and nanoparticle tracking analysis data (sEV concentration for the cathepsin D level normalization) were extracted from our previously published dataset or were newly generated. First, we revealed a positive correlation of the cathepsin D levels with the age of the patients and controls. Even if no significant differences were found in the cathepsin D plasma levels, we observed a progressive reduction in plasma cathepsin D moving from the intermediate to C9orf72 pathological expansion carriers. Observing the sEVs nano-compartment, we observed increased cathepsin D sEV cargo (ng/sEV) levels in genetic/sporadic FTLD. The diagnostic performance of this biomarker was fairly high (AUC = 0.85). Moreover, sEV and plasma cathepsin D levels were positively correlated with age at onset. In conclusion, our study further emphasizes the common occurrence of endo-lysosomal dysregulation in GRN/C9orf72 and sporadic FTLD.
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Sen T, Thummer RP. CRISPR and iPSCs: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Neurodegenerative Disease Modelling, Research, and Therapeutics. Neurotox Res 2022; 40:1597-1623. [PMID: 36044181 PMCID: PMC9428373 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-022-00564-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are prominent causes of pain, suffering, and death worldwide. Traditional approaches modelling neurodegenerative diseases are deficient, and therefore, improved strategies that effectively recapitulate the pathophysiological conditions of neurodegenerative diseases are the need of the hour. The generation of human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has transformed our ability to model neurodegenerative diseases in vitro and provide an unlimited source of cells (including desired neuronal cell types) for cell replacement therapy. Recently, CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing has also been gaining popularity because of the flexibility they provide to generate and ablate disease phenotypes. In addition, the recent advancements in CRISPR/Cas9 technology enables researchers to seamlessly target and introduce precise modifications in the genomic DNA of different human cell lines, including iPSCs. CRISPR-iPSC-based disease modelling, therefore, allows scientists to recapitulate the pathological aspects of most neurodegenerative processes and investigate the role of pathological gene variants in healthy non-patient cell lines. This review outlines how iPSCs, CRISPR/Cas9, and CRISPR-iPSC-based approaches accelerate research on neurodegenerative diseases and take us closer to a cure for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, and so forth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tirthankar Sen
- Laboratory for Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati - 781039, Assam, India
| | - Rajkumar P Thummer
- Laboratory for Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati - 781039, Assam, India.
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Generation and Characterization of Novel iPSC Lines from a Portuguese Family Bearing Heterozygous and Homozygous GRN Mutations. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10081905. [PMID: 36009452 PMCID: PMC9405606 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10081905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in granulin (GRN) have been associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL). In Portugal, GRN mutations account for around half of all FTLD cases with known genetic origin. Here, we describe the generation and characterization of three human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) lines from a Portuguese family harboring heterozygous and homozygous GRN mutation. hiPSCs were reprogrammed from human dermal fibroblasts by episomal nucleofection of the Yamanaka factors. The new generated lines were positive for pluripotency markers, could be further differentiated to cells expressing all trilineage markers, and presented a normal karyotype. They were also capable of differentiating into 3D brain organoids and presented a significant decrease in progranulin protein levels. Hence, these cell lines constitute suitable new tools to elucidate the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with the GRN mutations in the context of FTLD.
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Santos MN, Paushter DH, Zhang T, Wu X, Feng T, Lou J, Du H, Becker SM, Fragoza R, Yu H, Hu F. Progranulin-derived granulin E and lysosome membrane protein CD68 interact to reciprocally regulate their protein homeostasis. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102348. [PMID: 35933009 PMCID: PMC9450144 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Progranulin (PGRN) is a glycoprotein implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases. It is highly expressed in microglia and macrophages and can be secreted or delivered to the lysosome compartment. PGRN comprises 7.5 granulin repeats and is processed into individual granulin peptides within the lysosome, but the functions of these peptides are largely unknown. Here, we identify CD68, a lysosome membrane protein mainly expressed in hematopoietic cells, as a binding partner of PGRN and PGRN-derived granulin E. Deletion analysis of CD68 showed that this interaction is mediated by the mucin–proline-rich domain of CD68. While CD68 deficiency does not affect the lysosomal localization of PGRN, it results in a specific decrease in the levels of granulin E but no other granulin peptides. On the other hand, the deficiency of PGRN, and its derivative granulin peptides, leads to a significant shift in the molecular weight of CD68, without altering CD68 localization within the cell. Our results support that granulin E and CD68 reciprocally regulate each other’s protein homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariela Nunez Santos
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Daniel H Paushter
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Xiaochun Wu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Jiaoying Lou
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA; Department of Gynecology, Dongfang Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Huan Du
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Stephanie M Becker
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Robert Fragoza
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Haiyuan Yu
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA.
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Mori K, Ikeda M. Biological basis and psychiatric symptoms in frontotemporal dementia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2022; 76:351-360. [PMID: 35557018 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.13375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by focal degeneration of the frontal and temporal lobes, clinically presenting with disinhibited behavior, personality changes, progressive non-fluent aphasia and/or impaired semantic memory. Research progress has been made in re-organizing the clinical concept of frontotemporal dementia and neuropathological classification based on multiple accumulating proteins. Alongside this progress a list of genetic mutations or variants that are causative or increase the risk of frontotemporal dementia have been identified and some of these gene products are extensively studied. However, there are still a lot of points that need to be overcome, including lack of specific diagnostic biomarker which enable antemortem diagnosis of underlying neurodegenerative process, and lack of disease modifying therapy which could prevent disease progression. Early and precise diagnosis of frontotemporal dementia is urgently required. In this context, how to define prodromal frontotemporal dementia and early differential diagnosis from primary psychiatric disorders are also important issues. In this review we will summarize and discuss current understanding of biological basis and psychiatric symptoms in frontotemporal dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohji Mori
- Psychiatry, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Manabu Ikeda
- Psychiatry, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
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Neurovascular dysfunction in GRN-associated frontotemporal dementia identified by single-nucleus RNA sequencing of human cerebral cortex. Nat Neurosci 2022; 25:1034-1048. [PMID: 35879464 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-022-01124-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is the second most prevalent form of early-onset dementia, affecting predominantly frontal and temporal cerebral lobes. Heterozygous mutations in the progranulin gene (GRN) cause autosomal-dominant FTD (FTD-GRN), associated with TDP-43 inclusions, neuronal loss, axonal degeneration and gliosis, but FTD-GRN pathogenesis is largely unresolved. Here we report single-nucleus RNA sequencing of microglia, astrocytes and the neurovasculature from frontal, temporal and occipital cortical tissue from control and FTD-GRN brains. We show that fibroblast and mesenchymal cell numbers were enriched in FTD-GRN, and we identified disease-associated subtypes of astrocytes and endothelial cells. Expression of gene modules associated with blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction was significantly enriched in FTD-GRN endothelial cells. The vasculature supportive function and capillary coverage by pericytes was reduced in FTD-GRN tissue, with increased and hypertrophic vascularization and an enrichment of perivascular T cells. Our results indicate a perturbed BBB and suggest that the neurovascular unit is severely affected in FTD-GRN.
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Del Grosso A, Parlanti G, Mezzena R, Cecchini M. Current treatment options and novel nanotechnology-driven enzyme replacement strategies for lysosomal storage disorders. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 188:114464. [PMID: 35878795 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) are a vast group of more than 50 clinically identified metabolic diseases. They are singly rare, but they affect collectively 1 on 5,000 live births. They result in most of the cases from an enzymatic defect within lysosomes, which causes the subsequent augmentation of unwanted substrates. This accumulation process leads to plenty of clinical signs, determined by the specific substrate and accumulation area. The majority of LSDs present a broad organ and tissue engagement. Brain, connective tissues, viscera and bones are usually afflicted. Among them, brain disease is markedly frequent (two-thirds of LSDs). The most clinically employed approach to treat LSDs is enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), which is practiced by administering systemically the missed or defective enzyme. It represents a healthful strategy for 11 LSDs at the moment, but it solves the pathology only in the case of Gaucher disease. This approach, in fact, is not efficacious in the case of LSDs that have an effect on the central nervous system (CNS) due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Additionally, ERT suffers from several other weak points, such as low penetration of the exogenously administered enzyme to poorly vascularized areas, the development of immunogenicity and infusion-associated reactions (IARs), and, last but not least, the very high cost and lifelong needed. To ameliorate these weaknesses lot of efforts have been recently spent around the development of innovative nanotechnology-driven ERT strategies. They may boost the power of ERT and minimize adverse reactions by loading enzymes into biodegradable nanomaterials. Enzyme encapsulation into biocompatible liposomes, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles, for example, can protect enzymatic activity, eliminating immunologic reactions and premature enzyme degradation. It can also permit a controlled release of the payload, ameliorating pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug. Additionally, the potential to functionalize the surface of the nanocarrier with targeting agents (antibodies or peptides), could promote the passage through biological barriers. In this review we examined the clinically applied ERTs, highlighting limitations that do not allow to completely cure the specific LSD. Later, we critically consider the nanotechnology-based ERT strategies that have beenin-vitroand/orin-vivotested to improve ERT efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambra Del Grosso
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Gabriele Parlanti
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Roberta Mezzena
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Cecchini
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
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50
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Narzt MS, Kremslehner C, Golabi B, Nagelreiter IM, Malikovic J, Hussein AM, Plasenzotti R, Korz V, Lubec G, Gruber F, Lubec J. Molecular species of oxidized phospholipids in brain differentiate between learning- and memory impaired and unimpaired aged rats. Amino Acids 2022; 54:1311-1326. [PMID: 35817992 PMCID: PMC9372013 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-022-03183-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Loss of cognitive function is a typical consequence of aging in humans and rodents. The extent of decline in spatial memory performance of rats, assessed by a hole-board test, reaches from unimpaired and comparable to young individuals to severely memory impaired. Recently, proteomics identified peroxiredoxin 6, an enzyme important for detoxification of oxidized phospholipids, as one of several synaptosomal proteins discriminating between aged impaired and aged unimpaired rats. In this study, we investigated several components of the epilipidome (modifications of phospholipids) of the prefrontal cortex of young, aged memory impaired (AI) and aged unimpaired (AU) rats. We observed an age-related increase in phospholipid hydroperoxides and products of phospholipid peroxidation, including reactive aldehydophospholipids. This increase went in hand with cortical lipofuscin autofluorescence. The memory impairment, however, was paralleled by additional specific changes in the aged rat brain epilipidome. There was a profound increase in phosphocholine hydroxides, and a significant decrease in phosphocholine-esterified azelaic acid. As phospholipid-esterified fatty acid hydroxides, and especially those deriving from arachidonic acid are both markers and effectors of inflammation, the findings suggest that in addition to age-related reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, age-related impairment of spatial memory performance has an additional and distinct (neuro-) inflammatory component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Sophie Narzt
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Experimental and Clinical Traumatology, AUVA Research Center, Linz/Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Bahar Golabi
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ionela-Mariana Nagelreiter
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Center for Brain Research, Department of Molecular Neurosciences, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jovana Malikovic
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ahmed M Hussein
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Roberto Plasenzotti
- Center for Biomedical Research, Division of Laboratory Animal Science and Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Himberg, Austria
| | - Volker Korz
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Gert Lubec
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Florian Gruber
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Jana Lubec
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
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