Adapting liposomes for oral drug delivery

Polymeric liposomes targeting dual transporters for highly efficient oral delivery of paclitaxel

A novel delivery system comprising N-succinic anhydride (N-SAA) and D-fructose co-conjugated chitosan (NSCF)-modified polymeric liposomes (NSCF-PLip) were designed to enhance oral delivery of paclitaxel (PTX) by targeting monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) and glucose transporters (GLUT). The synthesized NSCF was characterised by FT-IR and 1H NMR spectra. The prepared 30.78 % (degree of substitution of N-SAA) NSCF-PTX-PLip were approximately 150 nm in size, with a regular spherical shape, the zeta potential of -25.4 ± 5.13 mv, drug loading of 2.35 % ± 0.05 %, and pH-sensitive and slow-release characteristics. Compared with PTX-Lip, 30.78 % NSCF-PTX-PLip significantly enhanced Caco-2 cellular uptake via co-mediation of MCT and GLUT, showing relatively specific binding of propionic acid and MCT. Notably, the NSCF modification of PTX-Lip had no appreciable influence on their original cellular uptake pathway. The fructose modification of 30.78 % NSC-PTX-PLip significantly increased the concentration after tmax, indicating their continuous and efficient absorption. Compared with PTX-Lip, the 30.78 % NSCF-PTX-PLip resulted in a 2.09-fold extension of MRT, and a 6.06-fold increase of oral bioavailability. It significantly increased tumour drug distribution and tumour growth inhibition rate. These findings confirm that 30.78 % NSCF-PLip offer a potential oral delivery platform for PTX and targeting the dual transporters of MCT and GLUT is an effective strategy for enhancing the intestinal absorption of drugs.

Advancing liposome technology for innovative strategies against malaria

This review discusses the potential of liposomes as drug delivery systems for antimalarial therapies. Malaria continues to be a significant cause of mortality and morbidity, particularly among children and pregnant women. Drug resistance due to patient non-compliance and troublesome side effects remains a significant challenge in antimalarial treatment. Liposomes, as targeted and efficient drug carriers, have garnered attention owing to their ability to address these issues. Liposomes encapsulate hydrophilic and/or hydrophobic drugs, thus providing comprehensive and suitable therapeutic drug delivery. Moreover, the potential of passive and active drug delivery enables drug concentration in specific target tissues while reducing adverse effects. However, successful liposome formulation is influenced by various factors, including drug physicochemical characteristics and physiological barriers encountered during drug delivery. To overcome these challenges, researchers have explored modifications in liposome nanocarriers to achieve efficient drug loading, controlled release, and system stability. Computational approaches have also been adopted to predict liposome system stability, membrane integrity, and drug-liposome interactions, improving formulation development efficiency. By leveraging computational methods, optimizing liposomal drug delivery systems holds promise for enhancing treatment efficacy and minimizing side effects in malaria therapy. This review consolidates the current understanding and highlights the potential of liposome strategies against malaria.

Layer-by-layer coated probiotics with chitosan and liposomes exhibit enhanced therapeutic effects for DSS-induced colitis in mice

Probiotic therapy has emerged as a promising approach for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases, offering advantages in terms of safety and convenience. However, oral probiotics encounter significant challenges, including exposure to a hostile gastric environment with low pH, bile salts, elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and damage to the protective mucus layer. These factors reduce probiotic survival rates and limit their physiological activity. To address these challenges, we developed a layer-by-layer coated probiotics with curcumin-loaded liposome and polymer. Through DSS-induced colitis mice experiments, we demonstrated that the coated probiotics exhibited an improved survival rate in the gastrointestinal tract and enhanced adhesion to the intestinal mucosa. Furthermore, multi-layered coated probiotics exhibited remarkable efficacy in alleviating colitis by efficiently repairing the gut barrier, modulating gut microbial homeostasis, and reducing bacterial motility at sites of colonic inflammation. Our innovative approach holds promise for effectively treating gastrointestinal diseases.

Unravelling the in vivo dynamics of liposomes: Insights into biodistribution and cellular membrane interactions

Liposomes, as a colloidal drug delivery system dating back to the 1960s, remain a focal point of extensive research and stand as a highly efficient drug delivery method. The amalgamation of technological and biological advancements has propelled their evolution, elevating them to their current status. The key attributes of biodegradability and biocompatibility have been instrumental in driving substantial progress in liposome development. Demonstrating a remarkable ability to surmount barriers in drug absorption, enhance stability, and achieve targeted distribution within the body, liposomes have become pivotal in pharmaceutical research. In this comprehensive review, we delve into the intricate details of liposomal drug delivery systems, focusing specifically on their pharmacokinetics and cell membrane interactions via fusion, lipid exchange, endocytosis etc. Emphasizing the nuanced impact of various liposomal characteristics, we explore factors such as lipid composition, particle size, surface modifications, charge, dosage, and administration routes. By dissecting the multifaceted interactions between liposomes and biological barriers, including the reticuloendothelial system (RES), opsonization, enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) phenomenon, and Complement Activation-Related Pseudoallergy (CARPA) effect, we provide a deeper understanding of liposomal behaviour in vivo. Furthermore, this review addresses the intricate challenges associated with translating liposomal technology into practical applications, offering insights into overcoming these hurdles. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the clinical adoption and patent landscape of liposomes across diverse biomedical domains, shedding light on their potential implications for future research and therapeutic developments.

Preparation, characterisation, and pharmacodynamic study of myricetin pH-sensitive liposomes

AIMS

Myricetin (MYR) was incorporated into pH-sensitive liposomes in order to improve its bioavailability and anti-hyperuricemic activity.

METHODS

The MYR pH-sensitive liposomes (MYR liposomes) were prepared using thin film dispersion method, and assessed by particle size (PS), polydispersed index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), encapsulation efficiency, drug loading, and in vitro release rate. Pharmacokinetics and anti-hyperuricemic activities were also evaluated.

RESULTS

The PS, PDI, ZP, encapsulation efficiency, and drug loading of MYR liposomes were 184.34 ± 1.05 nm, 0.215 ± 0.005, -38.46 ± 0.30 mV, 83.42 ± 1.07%w/w, and 6.20 ± 0.31%w/w, respectively. The release rate of MYR liposomes was higher than free MYR, wherein the cumulative value responded to pH. Besides, the Cmax of MYR liposomes was 4.92 ± 0.20 μg/mL. The level of uric acid in the M-L-H group (200 mg/kg) was reduced by 54.74%w/v in comparison with the model group.

CONCLUSION

MYR liposomes exhibited pH sensitivity and could potentially enhance the oral bioavailability and anti-hyperuricemic efficacy of MYR.

Liposomes to Cubosomes: The Evolution of Lipidic Nanocarriers and Their Cutting-Edge Biomedical Applications

Lipidic nanoparticles have undergone extensive research toward the exploration of their diverse therapeutic applications. Although several liposomal formulations are in the clinic (e.g., DOXIL) for cancer therapy, there are many challenges associated with traditional liposomes. To address these issues, modifications in liposomal structure and further functionalization are desirable, leading to the emergence of solid lipid nanoparticles and the more recent liquid lipid nanoparticles. In this context, "cubosomes", third-generation lipidic nanocarriers, have attracted significant attention due to their numerous advantages, including their porous structure, structural adaptability, high encapsulation efficiency resulting from their extensive internal surface area, enhanced stability, and biocompatibility. Cubosomes offer the potential for both enhanced cellular uptake and controlled release of encapsulated payloads. Beyond cancer therapy, cubosomes have demonstrated effectiveness in wound healing, antibacterial treatments, and various dermatological applications. In this review, the authors provide an overview of the evolution of lipidic nanocarriers, spanning from conventional liposomes to solid lipid nanoparticles, with a special emphasis on the development and application of cubosomes. Additionally, it delves into recent applications and preclinical trials associated with cubosome formulations, which could be of significant interest to readers from backgrounds in nanomedicine and clinicians.

Desosomes and desimicelles - a novel vesicular and micellar system for enhanced oral delivery of poorly soluble drug: Optimization of in vitro characteristics and in vivo performance

This study introduces two innovative nanocarrier systems to improve oral drug delivery. Desosomes and desimicelles combine Deep eutectic solvent (DES) with vesicular or micellar nanosystems, respectively. These novel nanosystems integrate the DES solubilization potency for administering drugs with low aqueous solubility and the vesicular and micellar systems to bypass physiological barriers and improve poor drug bioavailability. Lornoxicam (LRX) is a BCS class II anti-inflammatory with limited aqueous solubility and rapid clearance. Desosomes and desimicelles were prepared and successfully optimized. The optimization depended on particle size, zetapotential, entrapment efficiency, and solubility. The optimized desosomes (LRX-DES-V) and desimicelles (LRX-DES-M) were pictured by transmission electron microscope. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and FTIR analysis indicated the successful inclusion of LRX inside each system. Invitro LRX release profiles revealed controlled release of LRX-DES-V and LRX-DES-M, with more sustained release by the later one. In-vivo study, inflammation was induced using a carrageenan rat model, and the anti-inflammatory effect of LRX-pure, marketed product, traditional niosomes, LRX-DES-V & LRX-DES-M were determined using inhibition %, serum inflammatory cytokines, and histopathology. After 4 h of induction, LRX-DES-M (68.05%) showed a significant inhibition compared to LRX-DES-V (63.57%). LRX-DES-M also showed a better reduction in COX2, PGE2, and TNF-α (1.25-fold, 1.24-fold, and 1.36-fold inhibition), respectively, compared to LRX-DES-V. We can conclude that LRX-DES-V and LRX-DES-M showed better effects than all other groups and that LRX-DES-M might be more effective than LRX-DES-V.

Functionalized Calcium Carbonate-Based Microparticles as a Versatile Tool for Targeted Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment

Nano- and microparticles are increasingly widely used in biomedical research and applications, particularly as specific labels and targeted delivery vehicles. Silica has long been considered the best material for such vehicles, but it has some disadvantages limiting its potential, such as the proneness of silica-based carriers to spontaneous drug release. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is an emerging alternative, being an easily available, cost-effective, and biocompatible material with high porosity and surface reactivity, which makes it an attractive choice for targeted drug delivery. CaCO3 particles are used in this field in the form of either bare CaCO3 microbeads or core/shell microparticles representing polymer-coated CaCO3 cores. In addition, they serve as removable templates for obtaining hollow polymer microcapsules. Each of these types of particles has its specific advantages in terms of biomedical applications. CaCO3 microbeads are primarily used due to their capacity for carrying pharmaceutics, whereas core/shell systems ensure better protection of the drug-loaded core from the environment. Hollow polymer capsules are particularly attractive because they can encapsulate large amounts of pharmaceutical agents and can be so designed as to release their contents in the target site in response to specific stimuli. This review focuses first on the chemistry of the CaCO3 cores, core/shell microbeads, and polymer microcapsules. Then, systems using these structures for the delivery of therapeutic agents, including drugs, proteins, and DNA, are outlined. The results of the systematic analysis of available data are presented. They show that the encapsulation of various therapeutic agents in CaCO3-based microbeads or polymer microcapsules is a promising technique of drug delivery, especially in cancer therapy, enhancing drug bioavailability and specific targeting of cancer cells while reducing side effects. To date, research in CaCO3-based microparticles and polymer microcapsules assembled on CaCO3 templates has mainly dealt with their properties in vitro, whereas their in vivo behavior still remains poorly studied. However, the enormous potential of these highly biocompatible carriers for in vivo applications is undoubted. This last issue is addressed in depth in the Conclusions and Outlook sections of the review.

Hyaluronic acid-coated liposomes for enhanced in vivo efficacy of neogambogic acid via active tumor cell targeting and prolonged systemic exposure

Neogambogic acid (NGA), which possesses a variety of anticancer activities, is visualized as an anticancer bioactive ingredient. However, the huge vascular stimulation, poor aqueous solubility, and short half-life restricted its clinical use. In this work, an effective nanocarrier was explored to reduce toxicity and enhance the tumor-targeted delivery. Two liposomal formulations, neogambogic acid liposomes (NGA-L), and hyaluronic acid-coated neogambogic acid liposomes (HA-NGA-L) were prepared and characterized with high encapsulation efficiency, slow pattern of drug release, narrow size distribution and higher stability. The cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of HA-NGA-L were higher than those of NGA-L in MDA-MB-231 cells (high CD44 expression), while no obvious differences in MCF-7 cells with (low CD44 expression), suggesting the CD44-mediated cellular internalization of hyaluronic acid-modified liposomes enhanced the cytotoxicity. Mechanistically, elevation of Bax and caspase-3 as well as downregulation of Bcl-2 led to cell apoptosis. Besides, the vascular stimulation and the hemolysis test indicated good safety of HA-NGA-L. In addition, HA-NGA-L was the effective nanocarrier to repress tumor proliferation in MDA-MB-231 tumor xenograft mouse through CD44 mediated active targeting without any obvious histopathological abnormities on major organs. Immunohistochemistry analysis revealed the enhanced elevation of Bax and caspase-3, and reduced expression of Bcl-2 contribute to apoptosis in tumors. Meanwhile, HA-NGA-L increased the AUC and t1/2 by 5.34-fold and 3.94-fold, respectively. In summary, the present study shows that HA-NGA-L may be safe and effective for the tumor-targeted delivery of neogambogic acid.

Unleashing the power of chlorogenic acid: exploring its potential in nutrition delivery and the food industry

In the contemporary era, heightened emphasis on health and safety has emerged as a paramount concern among individuals with food. The concepts of "natural" and "green" have progressively asserted dominance in the food consumption market. Consequently, through continuous exploration and development, an escalating array of natural bioactive ingredients is finding application in both nutrition delivery and the broader food industry. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), a polyphenolic compound widely distributed in various plants in nature, has garnered significant attention. Abundant research underscores CGA's robust biological activity, showcasing notable preventive and therapeutic efficacy across diverse diseases. This article commences with a comprehensive overview, summarizing the dietary sources and primary biological activities of CGA. These encompass antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-cancer, and neuroprotective activities. Next, a comprehensive overview of the current research on nutrient delivery systems incorporating CGA is provided. This exploration encompasses nanoparticle, liposome, hydrogel, and emulsion delivery systems. Additionally, the article explores the latest applications of CGA in the food industry. Serving as a cutting-edge theoretical foundation, this paper contributes to the design and development of CGA in the realms of nutrition delivery and the food industry. Finally, the article presents informed speculations and considerations for the future development of CGA.

Self-Assembled Recombinant Elastin and Globular Protein Vesicles with Tunable Properties for Diverse Applications

ConspectusVesicles are self-assembled structures comprised of a membrane-like exterior surrounding a hollow lumen with applications in drug delivery, artificial cells, and micro-bioreactors. Lipid or polymer vesicles are the most common and are made of lipids or polymers, respectively. They are highly useful structures for many applications but it can be challenging to decorate them with proteins or encapsulate proteins in them, owing to the use of organic solvent in their formation and the large size of proteins relative to lipid or polymer molecules. By utilization of recombinant fusion proteins to make vesicles, specific protein domains can be directly incorporated while also imparting tunability and stability. Protein vesicle assembly relies on the design and use of self-assembling amphiphilic proteins. A specific protein vesicle platform made in purely aqueous conditions of a globular, functional protein fused to a glutamate-rich leucine zipper (ZE) and a thermoresponsive elastin-like polypeptide (ELP) fused to an arginine-rich leucine zipper (ZR) is discussed here. The hydrophobic conformational change of the ELP above its transition temperature drives assembly, and strong ZE/ZR binding enables incorporation of the desired functional protein. Mixing the soluble proteins on ice induces zipper binding, and then warming above the ELP transition temperature (Tt) triggers the transition to and growth of protein-rich coacervates and, finally, reorganization of proteins into vesicles. Vesicle size is tunable based on salt concentration, rate of heating, protein concentration, size of the globular protein, molar ratio of the proteins, and the ELP sequence. Increasing the salt concentration decreases vesicle size by decreasing the Tt, resulting in a shorter coacervation transition stage. Likewise, directly changing the heating rate also changes this time and increasing protein concentration increases coalescence. Increasing globular protein size decreases the size of the vesicle due to steric hindrance. By changing the ELP sequence, which consists of (VPGXG)n, through the guest residue (X) or number of repeats (n), Tt is changed, affecting size. Additionally, the chemical nature of X variation has endowed vesicles with stimuli responsiveness and stability at physiological conditions.Protein vesicles have been used for biocatalysis, biomacromolecular drug delivery, and vaccine applications. Photo-cross-linkable vesicles were used to deliver small molecule cargo to cancer cells in vitro and antigen to immune cells in vivo. pH-responsive vesicles effectively delivered functional protein cargo, including cytochrome C, to the cytosol of cancer cells in vitro, using hydrophobic ion pairing to improve cargo distribution in the vesicles and release. The globular protein used to make the vesicles can be varied to achieve different functions. For example, enzyme vesicles exhibit biocatalysis, and antigen vesicles induce antibody and cellular immune responses after vaccination in mice. Collectively, the development and engineering of the protein vesicle platform has employed amphiphilic self-assembly strategies and rational protein engineering to control physical, chemical, and biological properties for biotechnology and nanomedicine applications.

Advancements and prospects of lipid-based nanoparticles: dual frontiers in cancer treatment and vaccine development

Cancer is a complex heterogeneous disease that poses a significant public health challenge. In recent years, lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) have expanded drug delivery and vaccine development options owing to their adaptable, non-toxic, tuneable physicochemical properties, versatile surface functionalisation, and biocompatibility. LBNPs are tiny artificial structures composed of lipid-like materials that can be engineered to encapsulate and deliver therapeutic agents with pinpoint accuracy. They have been widely explored in oncology; however, our understanding of their pharmacological mechanisms, effects of their composition, charge, and size on cellular uptake, tumour penetration, and how they can be utilised to develop cancer vaccines is still limited. Hence, we reviewed LBNPs' unique characteristics, biochemical features, and tumour-targeting mechanisms. Furthermore, we examined their ability to enhance cancer therapies and their potential contribution in developing anticancer vaccines. We critically analysed their advantages and challenges impeding swift advancements in oncology and highlighted promising avenues for future research.

Novel Drug Delivery Approaches for the Localized Treatment of Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer (CC) is the fourth leading cancer type in females globally. Being an ailment of the birth canal, primitive treatment strategies, including surgery, radiation, or laser therapy, bring along the risk of infertility, neonate mortality, premature parturition, etc. Systemic chemotherapy led to systemic toxicity. Therefore, delivering a smaller cargo of therapeutics to the local site is more beneficial in terms of efficacy as well as safety. Due to the regeneration of cervicovaginal mucus, conventional dosage forms come with the limitations of leaking, the requirement of repeated administration, and compromised vaginal retention. Therefore, these days novel strategies are being investigated with the ability to combat the limitations of conventional formulations. Novel carriers can be engineered to manipulate bioadhesive properties and sustained release patterns can be obtained thus leading to the maintenance of actives at therapeutic level locally for a longer period. Other than the purpose of CC treatment, these delivery systems also have been designed as postoperative care where a certain dose of antitumor agent will be maintained in the cervix postsurgical removal of the tumor. Herein, the most explored localized delivery systems for the treatment of CC, namely, nanofibers, nanoparticles, in situ gel, liposome, and hydrogel, have been discussed in detail. These carriers have exceptional properties that have been further modified with the aid of a wide range of polymers in order to serve the required purpose of therapeutic effect, safety, and stability. Further, the safety of these delivery systems toward vital organs has also been discussed.

Anionic liposome formulation for oral delivery of thuricin CD, a potential antimicrobial peptide therapeutic

Thuricin CD is a two-peptide antimicrobial produced by Bacillus thuringiensis. Unlike previous antibiotics, it has shown narrow spectrum activity against Clostridioides difficile, a bacterium capable of causing infectious disease in the colon. However, peptide antibiotics have stability, solubility, and permeability problems that can affect their performance in vivo. This work focuses on the bioactivity and bioavailability of thuricin CD with a view to developing a formulation for delivery of active thuricin CD peptides through the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) for local delivery in the colon. The results indicate that thuricin CD is active at low concentrations only when both peptides are present. While thuricin CD was degraded by proteases and was unstable and poorly soluble in gastric fluid, it showed increased solubility in intestinal fluid, probably due to micelle encapsulation. Based on this, thuricin CD was encapsulated in anionic liposomes, which showed increased activity compared to the free peptide, maintained activity after exposure to pepsin in gastric fluid and intestinal fluid, was stable in suspension for over 21 days at room temperature and for 60 days at 4 °C, and exhibited no toxicity to epithelial intestinal cells. These findings suggest that an anionic lipid-based nano formulation may be a promising approach for local oral delivery of thuricin CD.

Nano-formulated delivery of active ingredients from traditional Chinese herbal medicines for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has garnered promise in tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis through establishing durable and memorable immunological activity. However, low response rates, adverse side effects, and high costs compromise the additional benefits for patients treated with current chemical and biological agents. Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) are a potential treasure trove of natural medicines and are gaining momentum in cancer immunomodulation with multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway characteristics. The active ingredient extracted from CHMs benefit generalized patients through modulating immune response mechanisms. Additionally, the introduction of nanotechnology has greatly improved the pharmacological qualities of active ingredients through increasing the hydrophilicity, stability, permeability, and targeting characteristics, further enhancing anti-cancer immunity. In this review, we summarize the mechanism of active ingredients for cancer immunomodulation, highlight nano-formulated deliveries of active ingredients for cancer immunotherapy, and provide insights into the future applications in the emerging field of nano-formulated active ingredients of CHMs.

Use of novel taurine-chitosan mediated liposomes for enhancing the oral absorption of doxorubicin via the TAUT transporter

Our research aimed to enhance the oral bioavailability of doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX·HCl) while minimizing the potential for myocardial toxicity. To achieve this goal, we developed a new method that utilizes a coating material to encapsulate the drug in liposomes, which can specifically target intestinal taurine transporter proteins. This coating material, TAU-CS, was created by combining taurine with chitosan. We characterized TAU-CS using various methods, including 1H NMR, FT-IR, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The resulting liposomes exhibited a regular spherical morphology, with a particle size of 195.7 nm, an encapsulation efficiency of 91.23 %, and a zeta potential of +11.65 mV. Under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, TAU-CS/LIP@DOX·HCl exhibited good stability and slow release. Pharmacokinetic studies revealed that, compared with DOX·HCl, TAU-CS/LIP@DOX·HCl had a relative bioavailability of 342 %. Intracellular uptake, immunofluorescence imaging, and permeation assays confirmed that the taurine transporter protein mediates the intestinal uptake of these liposomes. Our study suggested that liposomes coated with TAU-CS could serve as an effective oral delivery system and that targeting the taurine transporter protein shows promise in enhancing drug absorption.

Nanomedicines against Chagas disease: a critical review

Chagas disease (CD) is the most important endemic parasitosis in South America and represents a great socioeconomic burden for the chronically ill and their families. The only currently available treatment against CD is based on the oral administration of benznidazole, an agent, developed in 1971, of controversial effectiveness on chronically ill patients and toxic to adults. So far, conventional pharmacological approaches have failed to offer more effective and less toxic alternatives to benznidazole. Nanomedicines reduce toxicity and increase the effectiveness of current oncological therapies. Could nanomedicines improve the treatment of the neglected CD? This question will be addressed in this review, first by critically discussing selected reports on the performance of benznidazole and other molecules formulated as nanomedicines in in vitro and in vivo CD models. Taking into consideration the developmental barriers for nanomedicines and the degree of current technical preclinical efforts, a prospect of developing nanomedicines against CD will be provided. Not surprisingly, we conclude that structurally simpler formulations with minimal production cost, such as oral nanocrystals and/or parenteral nano-immunostimulants, have the highest chances of making it to the market to treat CD. Nonetheless, substantive political and economic decisions, key to facing technological challenges, are still required regarding a realistic use of nanomedicines effective against CD.

Nanocrystal-Loaded Lipid Carriers for Improved Oral Absorption and Anticancer Efficacy of Etoposide: Formulation Development, Transport Mechanism, In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

To improve the oral absorption and anticancer efficacy of the BCS-IV drug etoposide (ETO), oral nanocrystal-loaded lipid carriers (Lipo@NCs) were developed in this study by modifying the BCS-IV drug nanocrystal with the lipid bilayer. The ETO-Lipo@NCs were prepared by the thin film hydration high-pressure homogenization method, and the core of positively charged ETO nanocrystals was prepared by the sonoprecipitation-high pressure homogenization method. The optimized ETO-Lipo@NCs were spherical particles with an average particle size of 220.3 ± 14.2 nm and a zeta potential of -9.95 ± 0.81 mV, respectively. The successful coating of a lipid bilayer on the surface of nanocrystals in ETO-Lipo@NCs was confirmed by several characterization methods. Compared to nanocrystals, the release rate and degree of Lipo@NCs in SIF were significantly decreased, indicating that the lipid bilayer can effectively prevent the rapid dissolution of core nanocrystals. ETO-Lipo@NCs demonstrated a significant improvement in the intestinal permeability and absorption of ETO in a single intestinal perfusion experiment. In the cells, ETO-Lipo@NCs showed enhanced cellular uptake and transepithelial transport compared with ETO nanocrystals. Pharmacokinetic analysis indicated that ETO-Lipo@NCs had a longer plasma half-life than ETO solution, and the oral bioavailability of ETO-Lipo@NCs was 1.96- and 10.92-fold higher than that of ETO nanocrystals and ETO coarse crystals, respectively. Moreover, the ETO-Lipo@NCs orally dosed at 10 mg/kg exhibited an excellent inhibitory effect against tumors in a subcutaneous Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) xenograft model compared with other preparations. These results indicate that the Lipo@NCs formulation has an oral absorption-promoting effect of the BCS-IV drug ETO, which could warrant further application in the oral delivery of other poorly bioavailable drugs.

Bile salt-enriched vs. non-enriched nanoparticles: comparison of their physicochemical characteristics and release pattern

Bile salts were first used in the preparation of nanoparticles due to their stabilizing effects. As time went by, they attracted much attention and were increasingly employed in fabricating nanoparticles. It is well accepted that the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles are influential factors in their permeation, distribution, elimination and degree of effectiveness as well as toxicity. The review of articles shows that the use of bile salts in the structure of nanocarriers may cause significant changes in their physicochemical properties. Hence, having information about the effect of bile salts on the properties of nanoparticles could be valuable in the design of optimal carriers. Herein, we review studies in which bile salts were used in preparing liposomes, niosomes and other nanocarriers. Furthermore, the effects of bile salts on entrapment efficiency, particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, release profile and stability of nanoparticles are pointed out. Finally, we debate how to take advantage of bile salts potential for preparing desirable nanocarriers.

A cochleate formulation optimized by D-optimal mixture design enhances oral bioavailability of Revaprazan

A cochleate formulation was developed to enhance the oral bioavailability of revaprazan (RVP). Dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine (DMPC) liposome containing dicetyl phosphate (DCP) successfully formed a cochleate after treatment with CaCl2, whereas that containing sodium deoxycholate did not. Cochleate was optimised using a D-optimal mixture design with three independent variables-DMPC (X1, 70.58 mol%), cholesterol (X2, 22.54 mol%), and DCP (X3, 6.88 mol%)-and three response variables: encapsulation efficiency (Y1, 76.92%), released amount of free fatty acid at 2 h (Y2, 39.82%), and released amount of RVP at 6 h (Y3, 73.72%). The desirability function was 0.616, showing an excellent agreement between the predicted and experimental values. The cylindrical morphology of the optimised cochleate was visualised, and laurdan spectroscopy confirmed the dehydrated membrane interface, showing an increased generalised polarisation value (approximately 0.5) over small unilamellar vesicle of RVP (RVP-SUV; approximately 0.1). The optimised cochleate showed greater resistance to pancreatic enzyme than RVP-SUV. RVP was released in a controlled manner, achieving approximately 94% release in 12 h. Following oral administration in rats, the optimised cochleate improved the relative bioavailability of RVP by approximately 274%, 255%, and 172% compared to RVP suspension, a physical mixture of RVP and the cochleate, and RVP-SUV, respectively. Thus, the optimised cochleate formulation might be a good candidate for the practical development of RVP.

Novel Chitosan-Coated Liposomes Coloaded with Exemestane and Genistein for an Effective Breast Cancer Therapy

For achieving high effectiveness in the management of breast cancer, coadministration of drugs has attracted a lot of interest as a mode of therapy when compared to a single chemotherapeutic agent that often results in reduced therapeutic end results. Owing to their proven effectiveness, good patient compliance, and lower costs, oral anticancer drugs have received much attention. In the present work, we formulated the chitosan-coated nanoliposomes loaded with two lipophilic agents, namely, exemestane (EXE) and genistein (GEN). The formulation was prepared using the ethanol injection method, which is considered a simple method for getting the nanoliposomes. The formulation was optimized using Box-Behnken design (BBD) and was extensively characterized for particle size, ζ-potential, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The sizes of conventional and coated liposomes were found to be 104.6 ± 3.8 and 120.3 ± 6.4 nm with a low polydispersity index of 0.399 and 0.381, respectively. The ζ-potential of the liposomes was observed to be -16.56 mV, which changed to a positive value of +22.4 mV, clearly indicating the complete coating of the nanoliposomes by the chitosan. The average encapsulation efficiency was found to be between 70 and 80% for all prepared formulations. The compatibility of the drug with excipients and complete dispersion of the drug inside the system were verified by FTIR, XRD, and DSC studies. Furthermore, the in vitro release studies concluded the sustained release pattern following the Korsmeyer-Peppas model as the best-fitting model with Fickian diffusion. Ex vivo studies showed better permeation of the chitosan-coated liposomes, which was further confirmed by confocal studies. The prepared chitosan-coated liposomes showed superior antioxidant activity (94.56%) and enhanced % cytotoxicity (IC50 7.253 ± 0.34 μM) compared to the uncoated liposomes. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay displayed better cytotoxicity of the chitosan-coated nanoliposomes compared to the plain drug, showing the better penetration and enhanced bioavailability of drugs inside the cells. The formulation was found to be safe for administration, which was confirmed using the toxicity studies performed on an animal model. The above data suggested that poorly soluble lipophilic drugs could be successfully delivered via chitosan-coated liposomes for their effective delivery in breast cancer.

Marine phospholipid nanoliposomes: A promising therapeutic approach for inflammatory bowel disease: Preparation, safety, and efficacy evaluation

Promising findings have been emerged from studies utilizing n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) supplementation in animal models of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Introduction of marine phospholipids which combine n3 PUFA with phosphatidylcholine in a nanoliposome formulation offers enhanced pharmacological efficacy due to physical stability, improved bioavailability, and specific targeting to inflamed colitis tissues. In the present study, a marine phospholipid-based nanoliposome formulation was developed and optimized, resulting in nanovesicles of approximately 107.7 ± 1.3 nm in size, 0.18 ± 0.01 PDI, and - 32.03 ± 3.16 mV ZP. The nanoliposomes exhibited spherical vesicles with stable properties upon incubation at SGF as shown by the TEM, DLS, and turbidity measurements over 3 h. MPL nanoliposomes were cytocompatible until the concentration of 500 µg/mL as per MTT assay and taken by macrophages through macropinocytosis and caveolae pathways, and demonstrated significant inhibitory activity against reactive oxygen species (ROS) in LPS-stimulated macrophages. They were also shown to be blood-compatible and safe for administration in healthy mice. In a colitis mouse model, the nanoliposomes displayed preferential distribution in the inflamed gut, delaying the onset of colitis when administered prophylactically. These findings highlight the potential of marine phospholipid nanoliposomes as a promising therapeutic approach for managing inflammatory bowel disease.

Food liposomes: Structures, components, preparations, and applications

This review explores liposomes, focusing on their structure, components, the characteristics influencing their stability and applicability in foods, and preparation methods. The role of phospholipids and liposome modulators in preparing liposomes of desired structure and size is emphasized. The potential of liposomes to enhance food value through liposomal encapsulation and delivery of functional substances is reviewed. Conventional and advanced liposome preparation methods are reviewed, underscoring their impact on the marketability of liposomes. The review highlights the need for research into lecithin properties and modulators that enhance liposome stability. The need to develop cost-effective and rapid liposome preparation methods is identified as a key factor in improving the marketability of food liposomes and promoting their use in foods.

Therapeutic strategy of biological macromolecules based natural bioactive compounds of diabetes mellitus and future perspectives: A systematic review

High blood glucose levels are a hallmark of the metabolic syndrome known as diabetes mellitus. More than 600 million people will have diabetes by 2045 as the global prevalence of the disease continues to rise. Contemporary antidiabetic drugs reduce hyperglycemia and its consequences. However, these drugs come with undesirable side effects, so it's encouraging that research into plant extracts and bioactive substances with antidiabetic characteristics is on the rise. Natural remedies are preferable to conventional anti-diabetic drugs since they are safer for the body, more affordable and have fewer potential adverse effects. Biological macromolecules such as liposomes, niosomes, polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions and metallic nanoparticles are explored in this review. Current drug restrictions have been addressed, and the effectiveness of plant-based antidiabetic therapies has enhanced the merits of these methods. Plant extracts' loading capacity and the carriers' stability are the primary obstacles in developing plant-based nanocarriers. Hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and amphiphilic drugs are covered, and a brief overview of the amphipathic features of liposomes, phospholipids, and lipid nanocarriers is provided. Metallic nanoparticles' benefits and attendant risks are highlighted to emphasize their efficiency in treating hyperglycemia. Researchers interested in the potential of nanoparticles loaded with plant extracts as antidiabetic therapeutics may find the current helpful review.

Construction Strategy of Functionalized Liposomes and Multidimensional Application

Liposomes are widely used in the biological field due to their good biocompatibility and surface modification properties. With the development of biochemistry and material science, many liposome structures and their surface functional components have been modified and optimized one by one, pushing the liposome platform from traditional to functionalized and intelligent, which will better satisfy and expand the needs of scientific research. However, a main limiting factor effecting the efficiency of liposomes is the complicated environmental conditions in the living body. Currently, in order to overcome the above problem, functionalized liposomes have become a very promising strategy. In this paper, binding strategies of liposomes with four main functional elements, namely nucleic acids, antibodies, peptides, and stimuli-responsive motif have been summarized for the first time. In addition, based on the construction characteristics of functionalized liposomes, such as drug-carrying, targeting, long-circulating, and stimulus-responsive properties, a comprehensive overview of their features and respective research progress are presented. Finally, the paper critically presents the limitations of these functionalized liposomes in the current applications and also prospectively suggests the future development directions, aiming to accelerate realization of their industrialization.

Nanoparticle-enhanced postbiotics: Revolutionizing cancer therapy through effective delivery

AIM

Gastric cancer contributes to cancer-related fatalities. Conventional chemotherapy faces challenges due to severe adverse effects, prompting recent research to focus on postbiotics, which are safer biomolecules derived from nonviable probiotics. Despite promising in vitro results, efficient in vivo delivery systems remain a challenge. This study aimed to design a potential nanoparticle (NP) formulation encapsulating the Lacticaseibacillus paracasei GMNL-133 (SGMNL-133) isolate to enhance its therapeutic efficacy in treating gastric cancer.

MAIN METHODS

We successfully isolated GMNL-133 (SGMNL-133) by optimizing the lysate extraction and column elution processes for L. paracasei GMNL-133, resulting in substantial enhancement of its capacity to inhibit the proliferation of gastric cancer cells. Additionally, we developed a potential NP utilizing arginine-chitosan and fucoidan encapsulating SGMNL-133.

KEY FINDINGS

This innovative approach protected the SGMNL-133 from degradation by gastric acid, facilitated its penetration through the mucus layer, and enabled interaction with gastric cancer cells. Furthermore, in vivo experiments demonstrated that the encapsulation of SGMNL-133 in NPs significantly enhanced its efficacy in the treatment of orthotopic gastric tumors while simultaneously reducing tissue inflammation levels.

SIGNIFICANCE

Recent research highlights postbiotics as a safe alternative, but in vivo delivery remains a challenge. Our study optimized the extraction of the lysate and column elution of GMNL-133, yielding SGMNL-133. We also developed NPs to protect SGMNL-133 from gastric acid, enhance mucus penetration, and improve the interaction with gastric cancer cells. This combination significantly enhanced drug delivery and anti-gastric tumor activity.

Nanotechnological approaches in the treatment of schistosomiasis: an overview

Schistosomiasis causes over 200,000 deaths annually. The current treatment option, praziquantel, presents limitations, including low bioavailability and resistance. In this context, nanoparticles have emerged as a promising option for improving schistosomiasis treatment. Several narrative reviews have been published on this topic. Unfortunately, the lack of clear methodologies presented in these reviews leads to the exclusion of many important studies without apparent justification. This integrative review aims to examine works published in this area with a precise and reproducible method. To achieve this, three databases (i.e., Pubmed, Web of Science, and Scopus) were searched from March 31, 2022, to March 31, 2023. The search results included only original research articles that used nanoparticles smaller than 1 µm in the treatment context. Additionally, a search was conducted in the references of the identified articles to retrieve works that could not be found solely using the original search formula. As a result, 65 articles that met the established criteria were identified. Inorganic and polymeric nanoparticles were the most prevalent nanosystems used. Gold was the primary material used to produce inorganic nanoparticles, while poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) and chitosan were commonly used to produce polymeric nanoparticles. None of these identified works presented results in the clinical phase. Finally, based on our findings, the outlook appears favorable, as there is a significant diversity of new substances with schistosomicidal potential. However, financial efforts are required to advance these nanoformulations.

Nanotechnology-Based Approaches for Cosmeceutical and Skin Care: A Systematic Review

Cosmeceuticals have gained great importance and are among the top-selling products used for skin care. Because of changing lifestyles, climate, and increasing pollution, cosmeceuticals are utilized by every individual, thereby making cosmeceuticals a fruitful field for research and the economy. Cosmeceuticals provide incredibly pleasing aesthetic results by fusing the qualities of both cosmetics and medicinal substances. Cosmeceuticals are primarily utilized to improve the appearance of skin by making it smoother, moisturized, and wrinkle-free, in addition to treating dermatological conditions, including photoaging, burns, dandruff, acne, eczema, and erythema. Nanocosmeceuticals are cosmetic products that combine therapeutic effects utilizing nanotechnology, allowing for more precise and effective target-specific delivery of active ingredients, and improving bioavailability.

Food-Derived Peptides: Beneficial CNS Effects and Cross-BBB Transmission Strategies

Food-derived peptides, as dietary supplements, have significant effects on promoting brain health and relieving central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) greatly limits their in-brain bioavailability. Thus, overcoming the BBB to target the CNS is a major challenge for bioactive peptides in the prevention and treatment of CNS diseases. This review discusses improvement in the neuroprotective function of food-derived active peptides in CNS diseases, as well as the source of BBB penetrating peptides (BBB-shuttles) and the mechanism of transmembrane transport. Notably, this review also discusses various peptide modification methods to overcome the low permeability and stability of the BBB. Lipification, glycosylation, introduction of disulfide bonds, and cyclization are effective strategies for improving the penetration efficiency of peptides through the BBB. This review provides a new prospective for improving their neuroprotective function and developing treatments to delay or even prevent CNS diseases.

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles: An emerging approach in overcoming the challenges with oral delivery of proteins and peptides

Proteins and peptides (PPs), as therapeutics are widely explored in the past few decades, by virtue of their inherent advantages like high specificity and biocompatibility with minimal side effects. However, owing to their macromolecular size, poor membrane permeability, and high enzymatic susceptibility, the effective delivery of PPs is often challenging. Moreover, their subjection to varying environmental conditions, when administered orally, results in PPs denaturation and structural conformation, thereby lowering their bioavailability. Hence, for effective delivery with enhanced bioavailability, protection of PPs using nanoparticle-based delivery system has gained a growing interest. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), with their tailored morphology and pore size, high surface area, easy surface modification, versatile loading capacity, excellent thermal stability, and good biocompatibility, are eligible candidates for the effective delivery of macromolecules to the target site. This review highlights the different barriers hindering the oral absorption of PPs and the various strategies available to overcome them. In addition, the potential benefits of MSNs, along with their diversifying role in controlling the loading of PPs and their release under the influence of specific stimuli, are also discussed in length. Further, the tuning of MSNs for enhanced gene transfection efficacy is also highlighted. Since extensive research is ongoing in this area, this review is concluded with an emphasis on the potential risks of MSNs that need to be addressed prior to their clinical translation.

Trimethylated chitosan-coated flexible liposomes with resveratrol for topical drug delivery to reduce blue-light-induced retinal damage

LED-related blue-light-induced damage can cause eye diseases. However, drug delivery in patients with ocular diseases is faced with various challenges. In this study, we developed flexible liposomes based on trimethylated chitosan (TMC-Lipo) to deliver resveratrol for the treatment of retinal diseases. Flexible liposomes can easily cross various biological barriers. Chitosan and its derivatives have adhesive properties and are widely used in mucoadhesive drug delivery systems. Therefore, we wrapped flexible liposomes with trimethylated chitosan via electrostatic adsorption. The charge of the flexible liposomes became positive after encapsulation in TMC, and they remained stable in artificial tears. We assessed the safety of TMC-Lipo in cellular and zebrafish experiments and found that it can be safely used. In addition, treatment with TMC-Lipo significantly reduced H2O2-induced damage to ARPE-19 cells, restored mitochondrial membrane potential, and protected the cells. TMC-Lipo more easily reached the posterior ocular segment of the mice than liposome nanoparticles and attenuated blue-light-induced retinal cytopathy. Our study demonstrates that effective eye drop formulations can be developed based on trimethylated chitosan, which provides a promising approach for the treatment of ocular diseases.

Liposomes for drug delivery: review of vesicular composition, factors affecting drug release and drug loading in liposomes

Liposomes are considered among the most versatile and advanced nanoparticle delivery systems used to target drugs to specific cells and tissues. Structurally, liposomes are sphere-like vesicles of phospholipid molecules that are surrounded by equal number of aqueous compartments. The spherical shell encapsulates an aqueous interior which contains substances such as peptides and proteins, hormones, enzymes, antibiotics, antifungal and anticancer agents. This structural property of liposomes makes it an important nano-carrier for drug delivery. Extrusion is one of the most frequently used technique for preparing monodisperse uni-lamellar liposomes as the technique is used to control vesicle size. The process involves passage of lipid suspension through polycarbonate membrane with a fixed pore size to produce vesicles with a diameter near the pore size of the membrane used in preparing them. An advantage of this technique is that there is no need to remove the organic solvent or detergent from the final preparation. This review focuses on composition of liposome formulation with special emphasis on factors affecting drug release and drug-loading.

Recent Advancements in the Development of Nanocarriers for Mucosal Drug Delivery Systems to Control Oral Absorption

Oral administration of active pharmaceutical ingredients is desirable because it is easy, safe, painless, and can be performed by patients, resulting in good medication adherence. The mucus layer in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract generally acts as a barrier to protect the epithelial membrane from foreign substances; however, in the absorption process after oral administration, it can also disturb effective drug absorption by trapping it in the biological sieve structured by mucin, a major component of mucus, and eliminating it by mucus turnover. Recently, functional nanocarriers (NCs) have attracted much attention due to their immense potential and effectiveness in the field of oral drug delivery. Among them, NCs with mucopenetrating and mucoadhesive properties are promising dosage options for controlling drug absorption from the GI tracts. Mucopenetrating and mucoadhesive NCs can rapidly deliver encapsulated drugs to the absorption site and/or prolong the residence time of NCs close to the absorption membrane, providing better medications than conventional approaches. The surface characteristics of NCs are important factors that determine their functionality, owing to the formation of various kinds of interactions between the particle surface and mucosal components. Thus, a deeper understanding of surface modifications on the biopharmaceutical characteristics of NCs is necessary to develop the appropriate mucosal drug delivery systems (mDDS) for the treatment of target diseases. This review summarizes the basic information and functions of the mucosal layer, highlights the recent progress in designing functional NCs for mDDS, and discusses their performance in the GI tract.

Recent Advances in Micro- and Nano-Drug Delivery Systems Based on Natural and Synthetic Biomaterials

Polymeric drug delivery technology, which allows for medicinal ingredients to enter a cell more easily, has advanced considerably in recent decades. Innovative medication delivery strategies use biodegradable and bio-reducible polymers, and progress in the field has been accelerated by future possible research applications. Natural polymers utilized in polymeric drug delivery systems include arginine, chitosan, dextrin, polysaccharides, poly(glycolic acid), poly(lactic acid), and hyaluronic acid. Additionally, poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide), poly(ethylenimine), dendritic polymers, biodegradable polymers, and bioabsorbable polymers as well as biomimetic and bio-related polymeric systems and drug-free macromolecular therapies have been employed in polymeric drug delivery. Different synthetic and natural biomaterials are in the clinical phase to mitigate different diseases. Drug delivery methods using natural and synthetic polymers are becoming increasingly common in the pharmaceutical industry, with biocompatible and bio-related copolymers and dendrimers having helped cure cancer as drug delivery systems. This review discusses all the above components and how, by combining synthetic and biological approaches, micro- and nano-drug delivery systems can result in revolutionary polymeric drug and gene delivery devices.

Advancements in Macrophage-Targeted Drug Delivery for Effective Disease Management

Macrophages play a crucial role in tissue homeostasis and the innate immune system. They perform essential functions such as presenting antigens, regulating cytokines, and responding to inflammation. However, in diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and autoimmune conditions, macrophages undergo aberrant polarization, which disrupts tissue regulation and impairs their normal behavior. To address these challenges, there has been growing interest in developing customized targeted drug delivery systems specifically designed for macrophage-related functions in different anatomical locations. Nanomedicine, utilizing nanoscale drug systems, offers numerous advantages including improved stability, enhanced pharmacokinetics, controlled release kinetics, and precise temporal drug delivery. These advantages hold significant promise in achieving heightened therapeutic efficacy, specificity, and reduced side effects in drug delivery and treatment approaches. This review aims to explore the roles of macrophages in major diseases and present an overview of current strategies employed in targeted drug delivery to macrophages. Additionally, this article critically evaluates the design of macrophage-targeted delivery systems, highlighting limitations and discussing prospects in this rapidly evolving field. By assessing the strengths and weaknesses of existing approaches, we can identify areas for improvement and refinement in macrophage-targeted drug delivery.

Efficient oral delivery of resveratrol-loaded cyclodextrin-metal organic framework for alleviation of ulcerative colitis

Developing innovative strategies for the oral administration of phytochemicals presents a promising approach to addressing intestinal diseases. However, numerous challenges persist, including limited therapeutic efficacy, poor bioavailability, and inadequate biocompatibility. In this study, we employed a cross-linked cyclodextrin-metal organic framework (CDF) to encapsulate resveratrol (Res), generating Res-CDF, which was subsequently incorporated into natural polysaccharide hydrogel microspheres (Res-CDF in MPs) for targeted oral delivery to alleviate ulcerative colitis (UC). The underlying adsorption mechanism of Res by γ-CD elucidated by molecular dynamics simulations. Importantly, the Res-CDF in MPs formulation protected against gastric acid degradation while preserving the bioactivity of Res. Moreover, the design enabled specific release of Res-CDF in response to the mildly alkaline environment of the intestinal tract, followed by sustained Res release. In UC mice model, Res-CDF in MPs demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory effects by attenuating pro-inflammatory cytokine production and exhibited antioxidant properties. Additionally, Res-CDF in MPs enhanced the expression of tight junction proteins ZO-1, Occludin, and mucin-2 (Muc-2), thereby maintaining normal intestinal barrier function. This innovative oral delivery strategy capitalizes on the advantageous properties of polysaccharide hydrogel and CDF to augment bioavailability of phytochemicals, laying the groundwork for developing novel oral interventions employing natural phytochemicals to address intestinal-related diseases.

Engineered therapeutic proteins for sustained-release drug delivery systems

Proteins play a vital role in diverse biological processes in the human body, and protein therapeutics have been applied to treat different diseases such as cancers, genetic disorders, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Protein therapeutics have demonstrated their advantages, such as specific pharmaceutical effects, low toxicity, and strong solubility. However, several disadvantages arise in clinical applications, including short half-life, immunogenicity, and low permeation, leading to reduced drug effectiveness. The structure of protein therapeutics can be modified to increase molecular size, leading to prolonged stability and increased plasma half-life. Notably, the controlled-release delivery systems for the sustained release of protein drugs and preserving the stability of cargo proteins are envisioned as a potential approach to overcome these challenges. In this review, we summarize recent research progress related to structural modifications (PEGylation, glycosylation, poly amino acid modification, and molecular biology-based strategies) and promising long-term delivery systems, such as polymer-based systems (injectable gel/implants, microparticles, nanoparticles, micro/nanogels, functional polymers), lipid-based systems (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers), and inorganic nanoparticles exploited for protein therapeutics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this review, we highlight recent advances concerning modifying proteins directly to enhance their stability and functionality and discuss state-of-the-art methods for the delivery and controlled long-term release of active protein therapeutics to their target site. In terms of drug modifications, four widely used strategies, including PEGylation, poly amino acid modification, glycosylation, and genetic, are discussed. As for drug delivery systems, we emphasize recent progress relating to polymer-based systems, lipid-based systems developed, and inorganic nanoparticles for protein sustained-release delivery. This review points out the areas requiring focused research attention before the full potential of protein therapeutics for human health and disease can be realized.

Microcapsules and Nanoliposomes Based Strategies to Improve the Stability of Blueberry Anthocyanins

Blueberry anthocyanins are water-soluble natural pigments that can be used as both natural antioxidants and natural colorants. However, their structural instability greatly limits their application in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. In this study, blueberry anthocyanin microcapsules (BAM) and blueberry anthocyanin liposomes (BAL) were fabricated based on blueberry anthocyanins. Film dispersion methods were used to prepare the BAL. Their preparation processes were optimized and compared to improve the stability of the blueberry anthocyanins following exposure to light and high temperatures. The BAM were prepared through complex phase emulsification. The blueberry anthocyanins were protected by the shell materials composed of sodium alginate after being formed into BAM. Under the optimal conditions, the embedding rate of BAM and BAL can reach as high as 96.14% and 81.26%, respectively. In addition, the particle size, zeta potential, microtopography, and structure feature information of the BAM and BAL were compared. The average particle sizes of the BAM and BAL were 9.78 μm and 290.2 nm, respectively, measured using a laser particle size analyzer, and the zeta potentials of the BAM and BAL were 34.46 mV and 43.0 mV, respectively. In addition, the optimal preparation processes were determined through single-factor and response surface optimization experiments. The most important factors in the single-factor experiment for the preparation of microcapsules and liposomes were the content of CaCl2 and the amount of anthocyanin. The preservation rates in the light and dark were also compared, and the thermal stabilities of the BAM and BAL were characterized through differential thermal scanning. The results showed that both the BAM and BAL maintained the stability of blueberry anthocyanins, and no significant difference was found between the indices used to evaluate their stability. The results of this study provide theoretical support for the development of effective systems to maintain the stability of anthocyanins, thereby improving their bioavailability after ingestion by humans.

Histological findings for the absorption of small and large liposomes - the basis of future drug delivery and contrast media systems

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of our study was to obtain and characterize carrier systems in different sizes that can affect oral absorption, since the mechanisms of liposome absorption are not yet fully understood. From stomach to the small intestine, liposomes can be gradually destroyed. Understanding the factors that affect oral absorption leads to developing safe and effective nanosystems to improve the oral delivery of therapeutics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We determined the efficiency of the absorption of small and large liposomes at the level of gingival mucosa, heart, liver, testicles, kidneys, and lungs, using frozen-section fluorescence microscopy, on rat tissues after liposomes administration. A number of 36 male rats were divided in four groups: control groups, A and C, consisted of six rats each and did not receive liposomes; two other groups, B and D, were the experimental ones, and consisted of 12 male rats each. The animals received small liposomes (75-76 nm) and large liposomes (80-87 nm), respectively, administered either by endogastric tube or intraperitoneal injection. After 24 hours, the animals were sacrificed, and we harvested the organs. We performed frozen sections and analyzed them with fluorescence microscopy.

RESULTS

The frozen sections obtained from all organs revealed a higher absorption level of small liposomes in the testicles, liver, and gum, while the large liposomes had a greater affinity for the liver, with variations dependent on the route of administration.

CONCLUSIONS

Frozen-section fluorescence microscopy is a reliable technique for visualization of liposome absorption. Based on the size of these nanosystems, we revealed significant absorption for small liposomes in testicles, liver, heart, and gum, and for large liposomes mainly in the liver, compared with the control groups. The study advocates for the usage of liposomes for medical purposes, based on their absorption proprieties.

The Application of Nano-drug Delivery System With Sequential Drug Release Strategies in Cancer Therapy

Currently, multidrug combinations are often used clinically to improve the efficacy of oncology chemotherapy, but multidrug combinations often lead to multidrug resistance and decreased performance, resulting in more severe side effects than monotherapy. Therefore, sequential drug release strategies in time and space as well as nano-carriers that respond to the tumor microenvironment have been developed. First, the advantage of the sequential release strategy is that they can load multiple drugs simultaneously to meet their spatiotemporal requirements and stability, thus exerting synergistic effects of two or more drugs. Second, in some cases, sequential drug delivery of different molecular targets can improve the sensitivity of cancer cells to drugs. Control the metabolism of cancer cells, and remodel tumor vasculature. Finally, some drug combinations with built-in release control are used for sequential administration. This paper focuses on the use of nanotechnology and built-in control device to construct drug delivery carriers with different stimulation responses, thus achieving the sequential release of drugs. Therefore, the nano-sequential delivery carrier provides a new idea and platform for the therapeutic effect of various drugs and the synergistic effect among drugs.

Analysis of complementarities between nanomedicine and phytodrugs for the treatment of malarial infection

The use of nanocarriers in medicine, so-called nanomedicine, is one of the most innovative strategies for targeting drugs at the action site and increasing their activity index and effectiveness. Phytomedicine is the oldest traditional method used to treat human diseases and solve health problems. The recent literature on the treatment of malaria infections using nanodelivery systems and phytodrugs or supplements has been analyzed. For the first time, in the present review, a careful look at the considerable potential of nanomedicine in promoting phytotherapeutic efficacy was done, and its key role in addressing a translation through a significant reduction of the current burden of malaria in many parts of the world has been underlined.

RNA nanotechnology: A new chapter in targeted therapy

Nanoparticles have been widely studied in the fields of biotechnology, pharmacy, optics and medicine and have broad application prospects. Numerous studies have shown significant interest in utilizing nanoparticles for chemically coating or coupling drugs, aiming to address the challenges of drug delivery, including degradability and uncertainty. Furthermore, the utilization of lipid nanoparticles loaded with novel coronavirus antigen mRNA to control the COVID-19 pandemic has led to a notable surge in research on nanoparticle vaccines. Hence, nanoparticles have emerged as a crucial delivery system for disease prevention and treatment, bearing immense significance. Current research highlights that nanoparticles offer superior efficacy and potential compared to conventional drug treatment and prevention methods. Notably, for drug delivery applications, it is imperative to utilize biodegradable nanoparticles. This paper reviews the structures and characteristics of various biodegradable nanoparticles and their applications in biomedicine in order to inspire more researchers to further explore the functions of nanoparticles. RNA plays a pivotal role in regulating the occurrence and progression of diseases, but its inherent susceptibility to degradation poses a challenge. In light of this, we conducted a comprehensive review of the research advancements concerning RNA-containing biodegradable nanoparticles in the realm of disease prevention and treatment, focusing on cancer, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections.

Fabrication of a Dual-Targeted Liposome-Coated Mesoporous Silica Core-Shell Nanoassembly for Targeted Cancer Therapy

Nanoparticles have been suggested as drug-delivery systems for chemotherapeutic drugs to allow for controlled drug release profiles and selectivity to target cancer cells. In addition, nanoparticles can be used for the in situ generation and amplification of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which have been shown to be a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Thus, a targeted nanoscale drug-delivery platform could be used to synergistically improve cancer treatment by the action of chemotherapeutic drugs and ROS generation. Herein, we propose a promising chemotherapy strategy where the drug-loaded nanoparticles generate high doses of ROS together with the loaded ROS-generating chemotherapeutic drugs, which can damage the mitochondria and activate cell death, potentiating the therapeutic outcome in cancer therapy. In the present study, we have developed a dual-targeted drug-delivery nanoassembly consisting of a mesoporous silica core loaded with the chemotherapeutic, ROS-generating drug, paclitaxel (Px), and coated with a liposome layer for controlled drug release. Two different lung cancer-targeting ligands, folic acid and peptide GE11, were used to target the overexpressed nonsmall lung cancer receptors to create the final nanoassembly (MSN@Px) L-GF. Upon endocytosis by the cancer cells, the liposome layer was degraded by the intracellular lipases, and the drug was rapidly released at a rate of 65% within the first 20 h. In vitro studies confirmed that this nanoassembly was 8-fold more effective in cancer therapy compared to the free drug Px.

Drug Delivery and Therapy Strategies for Osteoporosis Intervention

With the advent of the aging society, osteoporosis (OP) risk increases yearly. Currently, the clinical usage of anti-OP drugs is challenged by recurrent side effects and poor patient compliance, regardless of oral, intravenous, or subcutaneous administration. Properly using a drug delivery system or formulation strategy can achieve targeted drug delivery to the bone, diminish side effects, improve bioavailability, and prolong the in vivo residence time, thus effectively curing osteoporosis. This review expounds on the pathogenesis of OP and the clinical medicaments used for OP intervention, proposes the design approach for anti-OP drug delivery, emphatically discusses emerging novel anti-OP drug delivery systems, and enumerates anti-OP preparations under clinical investigation. Our findings may contribute to engineering anti-OP drug delivery and OP-targeting therapy.

Fisetin-In Search of Better Bioavailability-From Macro to Nano Modifications: A Review

As secondary plant metabolites, polyphenols are abundant in fruits and vegetables. They are in high demand because of their many health benefits. However, their low bioavailability makes them complex compounds to use for therapeutic purposes. Due to the limited solubility of phytocompounds, dietary supplements made from them may only be partially effective. Such molecules include fisetin, found in strawberries, and have shown great promise in treating Alzheimer's disease and cancer. Unfortunately, because of their limited water solubility, low absorption, and poor bioavailability, the assistance of nanotechnology is required to allow them to fulfil their potential fully. Here, we provide evidence that nanodelivery methods and structure modifications can improve fisetin bioavailability, which is linked to improvements in therapeutic efficacy. An open question remains as to which nanocarrier should be chosen to meet the abovementioned requirements and be able to enhance fisetin's therapeutic potential to treat a particular disease.

Enhancing the Gene Transfection of Poly(β-amino ester)/DNA Polyplexes by Modular Manipulation of Amphiphilicity

Poly(β-amino ester)s (PAEs) have been widely developed for gene delivery, and hydrophobic modification can further enhance their gene transfection efficiency. However, systematic manipulation of amphiphilicity of PAEs through copolymerization with hydrophobic monomers is time-consuming and, to some extent, uncontrollable. Here, a modular strategy is developed to manipulate the amphiphilicity of the PAE/DNA polyplexes. A hydrophobic polymer (DD-C12-122) and a hydrophilic polymer (DD-90-122) are synthesized separately and used as a hydrophobic module and a hydrophilic module, respectively. The amphiphilicity of polyplexes could be manipulated by changing the ratio of the hydrophobic module and hydrophilic module. Using the modular strategy, the PAE/DNA polyplexes with the highest gene transfection efficiency and safety profile as well as possible mechanisms are identified. The modular strategy provides a novel way to engineer the hydrophobicity of PAEs to improve their gene transfection and can be easily generalized and potentially extended to other polymeric gene delivery systems.

Concept for a Unidirectional Release Mucoadhesive Buccal Tablet for Oral Delivery of Antidiabetic Peptide Drugs Such as Insulin, Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1), and their Analogs

Injectable peptides such as insulin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), and their agonists are being increasingly used for the treatment of diabetes. Currently, the most common route of administration is injection, which is linked to patient discomfort as well as being subjected to refrigerated storage and the requirement for efficient supply chain logistics. Buccal and sublingual routes are recognized as valid alternatives due to their high accessibility and easy administration. However, there can be several challenges, such as peptide selection, drug encapsulation, and delivery system design, which are linked to the enhancement of drug efficacy and efficiency. By using hydrophobic polymers that do not dissolve in saliva, and by using neutral or positively charged nanoparticles that show better adhesion to the negative charges generated by the sialic acid in the mucus, researchers have attempted to improve drug efficiency and efficacy in buccal delivery. Furthermore, unidirectional films and tablets seem to show the highest bioavailability as compared to sprays and other buccal delivery vehicles. This advantageous attribute can be attributed to their capability to mitigate the impact of saliva and inadvertent gastrointestinal enzymatic digestion, thereby minimizing drug loss. This is especially pertinent as these formulations ensure a more directed drug delivery trajectory, leading to heightened therapeutic outcomes. This communication describes the current state of the art with respect to the creation of nanoparticles containing peptides such as insulin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), and their agonists, and theorizes the production of mucoadhesive unidirectional release buccal tablets or films. Such an approach is more patient-friendly and can improve the lives of millions of diabetics around the world; in addition, these shelf-stable formulations ena a more environmentally friendly and sustainable supply chain network.

Self-assembled block copolymer biomaterials for oral delivery of protein therapeutics

Protein therapeutics have guided a transformation in disease treatment for various clinical conditions. They have been successful in numerous applications, but administration of protein therapeutics has been limited to parenteral routes which can decrease patient compliance as they are invasive and painful. In recent years, the synergistic relationship of novel biomaterials with modern protein therapeutics has been crucial in the treatment of diseases that were once thought of as incurable. This has guided the development of a variety of alternative administration routes, but the oral delivery of therapeutics remains one of the most desirable due to its ease of administration. This review addresses important aspects of micellar structures prepared by self-assembled processes with applications for oral delivery. These two characteristics have not been placed together in previous literature within the field. Therefore, we describe the barriers for delivery of protein therapeutics, and we concentrate in the oral/transmucosal pathway where drug carriers must overcome several chemical, physical, and biological barriers to achieve a successful therapeutic effect. We critically discuss recent research on biomaterials systems for delivering such therapeutics with an emphasis on self-assembled synthetic block copolymers. Polymerization methods and nanoparticle preparation techniques are similarly analyzed as well as relevant work in this area. Based on our own and others' research, we analyze the use of block copolymers as therapeutic carriers and their promise in treating a variety of diseases, with emphasis on self-assembled micelles for the next generation of oral protein therapeutic systems.

In situ stimulus-responsive self-assembled nanomaterials for drug delivery and disease treatment

The individual motifs that respond to specific stimuli for the self-assembly of nanomaterials play important roles. In situ constructed nanomaterials are formed spontaneously without human intervention and have promising applications in bioscience. However, due to the complex physiological environment of the human body, designing stimulus-responsive self-assembled nanomaterials in vivo is a challenging problem for researchers. In this article, we discuss the self-assembly principles of various nanomaterials in response to the tissue microenvironment, cell membrane, and intracellular stimuli. We propose the applications and advantages of in situ self-assembly in drug delivery and disease diagnosis and treatment, with a focus on in situ self-assembly at the lesion site, especially in cancer. Additionally, we introduce the significance of introducing exogenous stimulation to construct self-assembly in vivo. Based on this foundation, we put forward the prospects and possible challenges in the field of in situ self-assembly. This review uncovers the relationship between the structure and properties of in situ self-assembled nanomaterials and provides new ideas for innovative drug molecular design and development to solve the problems in the targeted delivery and precision medicine.

Selective organ targeting nanoparticles: from design to clinical translation

Targeting nanoparticle is a very promising therapeutic approach that can precisely target specific sites to treat diseases. Research on nanoscale drug delivery systems has made great progress in the past few years, making targeting nanoparticles a promising prospect. However, selective targeting nanoparticles designed for specific organs still face several challenges, one of which is the unknown fate of nanoparticles in vivo. This review starts with the in vivo journey of nanoparticles and describes the biological barriers and some targeting strategies for nanoparticles to target specific organs. Then, through the collection of literature in recent years, the design of selective targeting nanoparticles for various organs is illustrated, which provides a reference strategy for people to study the design of selective organ targeting nanoparticles. Ultimately, the prospect and challenge of selective organ targeting nanoparticles are discussed by collecting the data of clinical trials and marketed drugs.