Endocrine disruptors affect larval zebrafish behavior: Testing potential mechanisms and comparisons of behavioral sensitivity to alternative biomarkers

Behavioral transcriptomic effects of triploidy and probiotic therapy (Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Lactococcus mixture) on juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)

Aquaculturists use polyploid fish to maximize production albeit with some unintended consequences including compromised behaviors and physiological function. Given benefits of probiotic therapies (e.g., improved immune response, growth, and metabolism), we explored probiotic supplementation (mixture of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Lactococcus), to overcome drawbacks. We first examined fish gut bacterial community composition using 16S metabarcoding (via principal coordinate analyses and PERMANOVA) and determined probiotics significantly impacted gut bacteria composition (p = 0.001). Secondly, we examined how a genomic disruptor (triploidy) and diet supplements (probiotics) impact gene transcription and behavioral profiles of hatchery-reared Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Juveniles from four treatment groups (diploid-regular feed, diploid-probiotic feed, triploid-regular feed, and triploid-probiotic feed; n = 360) underwent behavioral assays to test activity, exploration, neophobia, predator evasion, aggression/sociality, behavioral sensitivity, and flexibility. In these fish, transcriptional profiles for genes associated with neural functions (neurogenesis/synaptic plasticity) and biomarkers for stress response and development (growth/appetite) were (i) examined across treatments and (ii) used to describe behavioral phenotypes via principal component analyses and general linear mixed models. Triploids exhibited a more active behavioral profile (p = 0.002), and those on a regular diet had greater Neuropeptide Y transcription (p = 0.02). A growth gene (early growth response protein 1, p = 0.02) and long-term neural development genes (neurogenic differentiation factor, p = 0.003 and synaptysomal-associated protein 25-a, p = 0.005) impacted activity and reactionary profiles, respectively. Overall, our probiotic treatment did not compensate for triploidy. Our research highlights novel applications of behavioral transcriptomics for identifying candidate genes and dynamic, mechanistic associations with complex behavioral repertoires.

Integrating morphological, biochemical, behavioural, and molecular approaches to investigate developmental toxicity triggered by tebuthiuron in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Tebuthiuron (TBU), a phenylurea herbicide, is widely applied in agricultural and non-agricultural soils. Because TBU resists degradation, it can contaminate water and reach the biota once it is released into the environment. However, the potential toxic effects of TBU on aquatic developing organisms have been poorly studied. By taking advantage of the early-life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio), we have combined morphological, biochemical, behavioural, and molecular approaches to investigate the developmental toxicity triggered by environmentally relevant concentrations (from 0.1 to 1000 μg/L) of TBU. Exposure to TBU did not elicit morphological abnormalities but it significantly delayed hatching. In addition, TBU altered the frequency of tail coils in one-day post-fertilization (dpf) old embryos. Moreover, TBU exposure during four days significantly inhibited the whole body AChE activity of larvae. At the molecular level, TBU did not significantly affect the mRNA levels of four genes (elavl3, gfap, gap43, and shha) that play key roles during the neurodevelopment of zebrafish. By assessing the motor responses to repeated light-dark stimuli, 6 dpf larvae exposed to TBU displayed hyperactivity, showing greater travelling distance during the dark periods. Our categorization of swimming speed revealed an interesting finding - after the light was turned off, the exposed larvae abandoned the freezing mode (<2 mm/s) and travelled mainly at cruising speed (2-20 mm/s), showing that the larval hyperactivity did not translate into higher swimming velocity. Overall, our results offer new insights into the TBU toxicity to developing organisms, namely effects in AChE activity and hyperactivity, providing support data for future studies considering environmental risk assessment of this herbicide.

Cyhexatin causes developmental toxic effects by disrupting endocrine system and inducing behavioral inhibition, apoptosis and DNA hypomethylation in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae

Cyhexatin (CYT), an organotin acaricide, is extensively utilized in developing countries to mitigate plant diseases caused by mites and minimize agricultural crop losses. However, the comprehensive mechanisms underlying the developmental stage of non-target organisms remain largely unexplored. In this study, zebrafish embryos were firstly exposed to CYT (0.06, 0.12, and 0.20 ng/mL, referred to as CYTL, CYTM, and CYTH, respectively) from 2 hpf (hours post fertilization) to 30 dpf (days post fertilization). No developmental toxicity was observed in the CYTL and CYTM groups, except for induced deformed phenotypes in the CYTM group at 120 hpf. However, exposure to CYTH resulted in significant reductions in spontaneous movement (24 hpf), heart rate (48 hpf), hatching rate (48 and 72 hpf), body weight (30 dpf), whole body length (30 dpf), and locomotion (30 dpf). Additionally, CYTH exposure induced morphological malformations, including spinal curvature, pericardial edema, and tail curvature in zebrafish larvae. Moreover, CYTH treatment induced apoptosis, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and resulted in significant reductions in free T3, cholesterol, estradiol, and testosterone levels in zebrafish larvae, while free T4 levels were increased. RNA-Seq analysis indicated that CYTH exposure led to significant alterations in the genome-wide gene expression profiles of zebrafish, particularly in the thyroid hormone and steroid biosynthesis signaling pathways, indicating endocrine disruption. Furthermore, CYTH exposure induced global DNA hypomethylation, reduced S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) levels and the SAM/S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) ratio, elevated SAH levels, and suppressed the mRNA expression of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) while also downregulating DNMT1 at both the gene and protein levels in zebrafish larvae. Overall, this study partially elucidated the developmental toxicity and endocrine disruption caused by CYT in zebrafish, providing evidence of the environmental hazards associated with this acaricide.

Embryonic exposures to chemicals acting on brain aromatase lead to different locomotor effects in zebrafish larvae

Pathways underlying neurodevelopmental effects of endocrine disruptors (EDs) remain poorly known. Expression of brain aromatase (aroB), responsible for estrogen production in the brain of teleosts, is regulated by estrogenic EDs and could play a role in their behavioral effects. We exposed zebrafish eleutheroembryos (0-120 h post-fertilization) to various concentrations of 16 estrogenic chemicals (incl. bisphenols and contraceptives), and of 2 aroB inhibitors. Behavior was monitored using a photomotor response test procedure. Both aroB inhibitors (clotrimazole and prochloraz) and a total of 6 estrogenic EDs induced significant behavioral alterations, including DM-BPA, BPC and BPS-MPE, three bisphenol substitutes which behavioral effects were, to our knowledge, previously unknown. However, no consensus was reported on the effects among tested substances. It appears that behavioral changes could not be linked to groups of substances defined by their specificity or potency to modulate aroB expression, or by their structure. Altogether, behavioral effects of estrogenic EDs in 120 h post-fertilization larvae appear unrelated to aroB but are nonetheless not to be neglected in the context of environmental safety.

A Realistic Mixture of Persistent Organic Pollutants Affects Zebrafish Development, Behavior, and Specifically Eye Formation by Inhibiting the Condensin I Complex

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are posing major environmental and health threats due to their stability, ubiquity, and bioaccumulation. Most of the numerous studies of these compounds deal with single chemicals, although real exposures always consist of mixtures. Thus, using different tests, we screened the effects on zebrafish larvae caused by exposure to an environmentally relevant POP mixture. Our mixture consisted of 29 chemicals as found in the blood of a Scandinavian human population. Larvae exposed to this POP mix at realistic concentrations, or sub-mixtures thereof, presented growth retardation, edemas, retarded swim bladder inflation, hyperactive swimming behavior, and other striking malformations such as microphthalmia. The most deleterious compounds in the mixture belong to the per- and polyfluorinated acids class, although chlorinated and brominated compounds modulated the effects. Analyzing the changes in transcriptome caused by POP exposure, we observed an increase of insulin signaling and identified genes involved in brain and eye development, leading us to propose that the impaired function of the condensin I complex caused the observed eye defect. Our findings contribute to the understanding of POP mixtures, their consequences, and potential threats to human and animal populations, indicating that more mechanistic, monitoring, and long-term studies are imperative.

Inconsistencies in variable reporting and methods in larval zebrafish behavioral assays

New approaches in developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) screening are needed due to the tens of thousands of chemicals requiring hazard assessments. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are an alternative vertebrate model for DNT testing, but without a standardized protocol for larval behavioral assays, comparison of results among laboratories is challenging. To evaluate the congruence of protocols across laboratories, we conducted a literature review of DNT studies focusing on larval zebrafish behavior assays and cataloged experimental design consistencies. Our review focused on 51 unique method variables in publications where chemical exposure occurred in early development and subsequent larval locomotor evaluation focused on assays that included a light/dark photoperiod transition. We initially identified 94 publications, but only 31 exclusively met our inclusion criteria which focused on parameters that are important to an assay employed by our laboratory. No publication reported 100% of the targeted variables; only 51 to 86% of those variables were reported in the reviewed publications, with some aspects of the experimental design consistent among laboratories. However, no protocol was exactly the same for any two publications. Many of these variables had more than one parameter/design reported, highlighting the inconsistencies among methods. Overall, there is not only a strong need for the development of a standardized testing protocol for larval zebrafish locomotor assays, but there is also a need for a standardized protocol for reporting experimental variables in the literature. Here we include an extensive guideline checklist for conducting larval zebrafish developmental behavior assays.

A transcriptomic-based analysis predicts the neuroendocrine disrupting effect on adult male and female zebrafish (Danio rerio) following long-term exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A bis(2-hydroxyethyl) ether

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are now ubiquitously distributed in the environment. Tetrabromobisphenol A bis(2-hydroxyethyl) ether (TBBPA-DHEE) pollution in environment media poses a significant threat to humans and aquatic organisms as a result of its potential neurotoxicity and endocrine-disrupting effect. The endocrine-disrupting effects of TBBPA-DHEE on aquatic organisms, however, have received limited attention. In this study, the neurotoxicity and reproductive endocrine-disruptive effect of TBBPA-DHEE was evaluated by observing the neurobehavioral changes, vitellogenin (VTG), testosterone, 17β-estradiol and gene expression levels in adult male and female zebrafish exposed to TBBPA-DHEE (0.05, 0.2 and 0.3 mg/L) for 100 days. Furthermore, transcriptomic analysis was conducted to unravel other potential neuroendocrine-disrupting mechanism. Our result showed TBBPA-DHEE significantly (p < 0.05) altered the locomotor behavior and motor coordination abilities in both sexes. Steroid hormone and VTG levels were also altered indicating the neuroendocrine-disrupting effect of TBBPA-DHEE on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal-axis. A total of 1568 genes were upregulated and 542 genes downregulated in males, whereas, 1265 upregulated and 535 downregulated genes were observed in females. The KEGG enrichment analysis showed that cell cycle and p55 signaling pathways were significantly enriched due to TBBPA-DHEE exposure. These pathways and its component genes are potential target of EDCs. The significant upregulation of genes in these pathways could partly explain the neuroendocrine disrupting effect of TBBPA-DHEE. The observed toxic effects of TBBPA-DHEE observed in this study is confirmation of the endocrine-disrupting toxicity of this chemical which would be valuable in biosafety evaluation and biomonitoring of TBBPA-DHEE for public health purposes.

Short-term exposure to norethisterone affected swimming behavior and antioxidant enzyme activity of medaka larvae, and led to masculinization in the adult population

Norethisterone (NET), one of the synthetic progestins, is detected with increasing frequency in the water environment and distributed in the ocean, with a potential toxicity risk to marine organisms. However, current studies on the adverse effects of progestins (including NET) in aquatic environments have focused on freshwater organisms, mainly fish. In the present, marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) larvae were exposed to 91.31 ng/L NET for 10 days, and then the swimming behavior, oxidation-antioxidant-related enzyme activities, sex and thyroid hormone levels, and the gene transcription patterns of the larvae were measured. After NET treatment, medaka larvae were raised in artificial seawater until 5 months of age, and the sex ratio was counted. Ten-day exposure to 91.31 ng/L NET inhibited swimming behavior, of marine medaka larvae, which showed that the time in the resting state was significantly prolonged, while the time in the large motor state was significantly reduced; disrupted oxidative-antioxidant system, significantly up-regulated the enzymatic activities of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px); affected the hormone levels of larvae, lowered 11- keto testosterone (11-KT) and triiodothyronine (T3) concentrations. RNA-seq results showed that 91.31 ng/L NET exposure for 10 days changed the transcript levels of 275 genes, of which 28 were up-regulated and 247 were down-regulated. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were mainly significantly enriched in piwi interacting RNA (piRNA), gonadal development, gametogenesis, and steroidogenesis biological processes, etc. After removing NET exposure and returning to breeding for 140 days, a significant increase in male proportions (69.67%) was observed in sexually mature medaka populations in the NET-treated group. These results show that exposure to 91.31 ng/L NET for 10 days can lead to various adverse effects on marine medaka larvae. These findings shed light on the potential ecological risks of synthetic progestins to marine organisms.

Maternal exposure to bisphenol S induces neuropeptide signaling dysfunction and oxidative stress in the brain, and abnormal social behaviors in zebrafish (Danio rerio) offspring

Recent studies show that bisphenol S (BPS) induces multiple adverse effects in exposed organisms; however, the maternal effects of BPS exposure remain poorly understood. Here, we expose adult female zebrafish to environmentally relevant concentrations of BPS (0, 1, 10, 30 μg/L) and 1 μg/L of 17-β-estradiol (E2) as a positive control for 60 days. Females were then paired with BPS-unexposed males and their offspring were raised in control water for 6 months. Maternal exposure to BPS was found to alter social behavior and anxiety response in a dose-specific manner in male offspring. Group preferences and social cohesion were significantly reduced by maternal exposure to 1 and 10 μg/L BPS, respectively. Additionally, maternal exposure to 1 and 30 μg/L BPS and E2 decreased offspring stress responses during the novel tank test. The impaired social behavior was associated with elevated arginine-vasotocin (AVT) level as well as with the altered expression of genes involved in AVT signaling pathway (AVT, avpr1aa) and enzymatic antioxidant genes (cat and Mn-sod) in the brain. Collectively, these results suggest that maternal exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of BPS alters social behavior in zebrafish offspring, which is likely mediated by oxidative stress and disruption of neuropeptide signaling pathways in the brain.

Persistence, environmental hazards, and mitigation of pharmaceutically active residual contaminants from water matrices

Pharmaceutical compounds are designed to elicit a biological reaction in specific organisms. However, they may also elicit a biological response in non-specific organisms when exposed to ambient quantities. Therefore, the potential human health hazards and environmental effects associated with pharmaceutically active compounds presented in aquatic environments are being studied by researchers all over the world. Owing to their broad-spectrum occurrence in various environmental matrices, direct or indirect environmental hazardous impacts, and human-health related consequences, several pharmaceutically active compounds have been categorized as emerging contaminants (ECs) of top concern. ECs are often recalcitrant and resistant to abate from water matrices. In this review, we have examined the classification, occurrence, and environmental hazards of pharmaceutically active compounds. Moreover, because of their toxicity and the inefficiency of wastewater treatment plants to remove pharmaceutical pollutants, novel wastewater remediation technologies are urgently required. Thus, we have also analyzed the recent advances in microbes-assisted bioremediation as a suitable, cost-effective, and eco-friendly alternative for the decontamination of pharmaceutical pollutants. Finally, the most important factors to reach optimal bioremediation are discussed.

Getting more out of the zebrafish light dark transition test

In (eco-)toxicological studies the light/dark transition (LDT) test is one of the most frequently used behaviour assays with zebrafish eleutheroembryos. However, study results vary regarding data presentation and analysis and mostly focus on a limited amount of the recorded data. In this study, we investigated whether monitoring two behavioural outcomes (time and distance moved) together with analysing multiple parameters can improve test sensitivity and data interpretation. As a proof of principle 5-day old zebrafish (Danio rerio) eleutheroembryos exposed to either endocrine disruptors (EDs) or acetylcholine esterase (AChE) inhibitors were investigated. We analysed conventional parameters such as mean and sum and implemented additional endpoints such as minimum or maximum distance moved and new parameters assessing the bursting response of eleutheroembryos. Furthermore, changes in eleutheroembryonic behaviour during the moment of the light to dark transition were added. To improve data presentation control-normalised results were displayed in radar charts, enabling the simultaneous presentation of different parameters in relation to each other. This enabled us to identify parameters most relevant to a certain behavioural response. A cut off threshold using control data was applied to identify parameters that were altered in a biological relevant manner. Our approach was able to detect effects on different parameters that remained undetected when analysis was done using conventional bar graphs on - in most cases analysed - averaged, mean distance moved values. By combining the radar charts with additional parameters and by using control-based thresholds, we were able to increase the test sensitivity and promote a deeper understanding of the behaviour response of zebrafish eleutheroembryos in the LDT test and thereby increased its usability for behavioural toxicity studies.

Thyroid Dysfunction of Zebrafish (Danio rerio) after Early-Life Exposure and Discontinued Exposure to Tetrabromobiphenyl (BB-80) and OH-BB-80

3,3',5,5'-Tetrabromobiphenyl (BB-80) was once used as additive flame retardants. Whether its early exposure and discontinued exposure alter thyroid function remains unknown. We investigate adverse effects after early-life exposure and discontinued exposure to BB-80 and hydroxylated BB-80 (OH-BB-80) on thyroid hormone (TH) levels, thyroid tissue, and transcriptome profiles in zebrafish larvae. BB-80 at 10 μg/L induces pathological changes of thyroid with reduced thyroid follicles in larvae (P < 0.05), whereas OH-BB-80 significantly increases T4 and T3 contents (1.8 and 2.5 times of the control, P < 0.05) at 14 days postfertilization (dpf) without morphological thyroid alterations. BB-80 and OH-BB-80 cause transcriptome aberrations with key differentially expressed genes involved in the disruption of TH synthesis and signal transduction (BB-80 at 14 dpf) or TH pathway activation (OH-BB-80 at 21 dpf). After 7 days of discontinued exposure, thyroglobulin (tg) and thyroid peroxidase (tpo) genes are downregulated (P < 0.05) by 52 and 48% for BB-80 and by 49 and 39% for OH-BB-80, respectively; however, the whole-body TH levels fail to fully recover, and the locomotor activity is impaired more by BB-80. Our results indicate significant adverse impacts of BB-80 and OH-BB-80 on TH homeostasis and thyroid function of zebrafish.

The interactive effects of ethinylestradiol and progesterone on transcriptional expression of genes along the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in embryonic zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Progestins and estrogens are widespread in various aquatic environments and their potential endocrine disruption effects to aquatic organisms have drawn growing concern. However, their combined effects in aquatic organisms remain elusive. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of the binary mixtures of gestodene (GES) and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis of zebrafish (Danio rerio) using the eleuthero-embryos. Embryos were exposed to GES and EE2 alone or in combination at concentrations ranging from 41 to 5329 ng L^-1 (nominal ones from 50 to 5000 ng L^-1) for 48 h, 96 h and 144 h post fertilization (hpf). The results showed that the transcripts of the genes along the HPT axis displayed pronounced alterations. There was no clear pattern in the change of the transcripts of these genes over time and with concentrations. However, in general, the transcripts of the genes were inversely affected by EE2 (increase 0.5 to 4.2-folds) and GES (inhibition 0.4 to 4.9-folds), and their mixtures showed interactive effects in embryonic zebrafish. In addition, physiological data (mortality, malformation, body length and heart rate etc.) denoted higher toxicity of the two chemicals in combination than alone based on the developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity (locomotor behavior). These results indicated that the interactive effects of these two chemicals might be different between at the transcriptional level and at the whole organismal level. In summary, GES and EE2 affect the HPT axis (related genes expression and thyroid hormones (THs) levels) and exhibit developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity.

In utero exposure to endocrine disruptors and developmental neurotoxicity: Implications for behavioural and neurological disorders in adult life

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a class of environmental toxicants that interfere with the endocrine system, resulting in developmental malformations, reproductive disorders, and alterations to immune and nervous system function. The emergence of screening studies identifying these chemicals in fetal developmental matrices such as maternal blood, placenta and amniotic fluid has steered research focus towards elucidation of in utero effects of exposure to these chemicals, as their capacity to cross the placenta and reach the fetus was established. The presence of EDCs, a majority of which are estrogen mimics, in the fetal environment during early development could potentially affect neurodevelopment, with implications for behavioural and neurological disorders in adult life. This review summarizes studies in animal models and human cohorts that aim to elucidate mechanisms of action of EDCs in the context of neurodevelopment and disease risk in adult life. This is a significant area of study as early brain development is heavily mediated by estrogen and could be particularly sensitive to EDC exposure. A network analysis presented using genes summarized in this review, further show a significant association with disorders such as major depressive disorder, alcoholic disorder, psychotic disorders and autism spectrum disorder. Functional outcomes such as alterations in memory, behaviour, cognition, learning memory, feeding behaviour and regulation of ion transport are also highlighted. Interactions between genes, receptors and signaling pathways like NMDA glutamate receptor activity, 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor activity, Ras-activated Ca₂⁺ influx and Grin2A interactions, provide further potential mechanisms of action of EDCs in mediating brain function. Taken together with the growing pool of human and animal studies, this review summarizes current status of EDC neurotoxicity research, limitations and future directions of study for researchers.

Effects of common environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals on zebrafish behavior

Environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), a type of exogenous organic pollutants, are ubiquitous in natural aquatic environments. Therefor, this review focused on the use of the zebrafish as a model to explore the effect of different EDCs on behavior, as well as the molecular mechanisms that drive these effects. Furthermore, our study summarizes the current knowledge on the neuromodulatory effects of different EDCs in zebrafish. This study also reviews the current state of zebrafish behavior research, in addition to the potential mechanisms of single and mixed pollutant-driven behavioral dysregulation at the molecular level, as well as the applications of zebrafish behavior experiments for neuroscience research. This review broadens our understanding of the influence of EDCs on zebrafish behavior and provides guidance for future research.

Multi-parameter risk assessment of forty-one selected substances with endocrine disruptive properties in surface waters worldwide

The increasing use of substances with endocrine disruptive properties (EDs) not only impacts aquatic organisms but can also have a direct negative effect on human health. In this comprehensive worldwide review, we collected ecotoxicology and concentration data observed in surface water for 53 high-potency EDs and performed a risk assessment. The compounds were selected from the EU watchlist of priority substances, expanded with new compounds of emerging concern (total 41), where quantifiable data were available for the past three years (2018-2020). The risk quotients ranged from <0.01 for 22 substances to 1974 for tamoxifen. The frequency of samples in which the predicted no-effect concentrations were exceeded also varied, from 1.8% to 92.7%. By using the comprehensive multi-parameter risk assessment in our study, the most current to date, we determined that tamoxifen, imidacloprid, clothianidin, four bisphenols (BPA, BPF, BPS, and BPAF), PFOA, amoxicillin, and three steroid hormones (estriol, estrone, and cyproterone) pose significant risks in the environment. Comparing two structurally very similar bisphenols, BPA and BPB, suggested that the risk from BPB is currently underestimated by at least four orders of magnitude due to the lack of ecotoxicological data availability. The methodological limitations encountered suggest that a standardized methodology for data selection and assessment is necessary, highlighting the fact that some substances are currently under-represented in the field of ecotoxicological research. A new prioritization system is therefore presented, which provides a potential basis for new substances to be included in environmental monitoring lists.

UPLC-TOF-MS Method for Simultaneous Quantification of Steroid Hormones in Tissue Homogenates of Zebrafish with Solid-Phase Extraction

The quantification of steroid hormones of individual zebrafish (Danio rerio) provides perspective to understand endogenous hormone function. A UPLC–TOF–MS method was developed to provide a reproducible, sensitive, and efficient assay to determine the concentration of steroid hormones, including cortisol, testosterone, androstenedione, 11-deoxycortisol, 11-deoxycorticosterone, and 17-hydroxyprogesterone in whole-body homogenates of each zebrafish. Solid-phase extraction was used to sample matrix clean-up and acquired a recovery from 89.7% to 107.9%. The analytes were separated on an Aquity BEH C18 column using gradient elution. Mass spectrometric analysis was performed by single reaction monitoring (SRM) using positive electrospray ionization mode. The total running time was 6 min, which was greatly shortened compared with a previously reported method. The developed method exhibited excellent linearity for all the analytes, with regression coefficients higher than 0.99. The limit of detection varied between 0.1 and 0.5 ng/L and the limit of quantification was 0.5–1.7 ng/L for all analytes. The precision of the method was assessed on replicate measurements and was found to be in the ranges of 1.9 % to 6.6% and 4.3% to 8.6%, for intra- and inter-day analysis, respectively. This method was validated according to FDA guidance and applied to determine steroid hormone levels in the tissue homogenate of zebrafish acutely treated with caffeine and ethanol.

Chronic exposure to bisphenol S induces oxidative stress, abnormal anxiety, and fear responses in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Bisphenol S (BPS) is increasingly used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products, resulting in its ubiquitous distribution across the environment, including aquatic ecosystems. Although it is commonly known as a weak/moderate estrogenic compound, there has been a growing acknowledgment of the potential of BPS to cause toxicity by inducing oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is a major participant in the development of anxiety-like behaviors in humans and animals. Therefore, the present study was designed to examine the impact of BPS on anxiety-like behavior and fear responses in adult zebrafish and also to elucidate the possible linkage between the BPS neurotoxicity and oxidative status of the brain. To this end, adult male and female zebrafish were exposed to 0 (control), 1, 10, and 30 μg/L of BPS and 1 μg/L of 17-β-estradiol (E2) for 75 days. Following exposure, changes in anxiety and fear-related responses were evaluated by applying a novel tank test and by exposing focal fish to chemical alarm cues. Additionally, we evaluated the expression of multiple antioxidant genes in the zebrafish brain. Our results indicate that BPS, irrespective of exposure concentration, and E2 significantly decreased bottom-dwelling behavior and the latency to enter the upper water column. Furthermore, exposure to the highest concentration of BPS and E2 induced a significant decrease in fear-related responses. The impaired anxiety and reduced fear-related responses were associated with a down-regulation in the transcription of genes involved in enzymatic antioxidant defense. Taken together, our results suggest that chronic exposure to BPS impairs anxiety and fear responses in adult zebrafish, possibly by inducing oxidative stress in the brain.

A comprehensive review of the neurobehavioral effects of bisphenol S and the mechanisms of action: New insights from in vitro and in vivo models

The normal brain development and function are delicately driven by an ever-changing milieu of steroid hormones arising from fetal, placental, and maternal origins. This reliance on the neuroendocrine system sets the stage for the exquisite sensitivity of the central nervous system to the adverse effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most common EDCs which has been a particular focus of environmental concern for decades due to its widespread nature and formidable threat to human and animal health. The heightened regulatory actions and the scientific and public concern over the adverse health effects of BPA have led to its replacement with a suite of structurally similar but less known alternative chemicals. Bisphenol S (BPS) is the main substitute for BPA that is increasingly being used in a wide array of consumer and industrial products. Although it was considered to be a safe BPA alternative, mounting evidence points to the deleterious effects of BPS on a wide range of neuroendocrine functions in animals. In addition to its reproductive toxicity, recent experimental efforts indicate that BPS has a considerable potential to induce neurotoxicity and behavioral dysfunction. This review analyzes the current state of knowledge regarding the neurobehavioral effects of BPS and discusses its potential mode of actions on several aspects of the neuroendocrine system. We summarize the role of certain hormones and their signaling pathways in the regulation of brain and behavior and discuss how BPS induces neurotoxicity through interactions with these pathways. Finally, we review potential links between BPS exposure and aberrant neurobehavioral functions in animals and identify key knowledge gaps and hypotheses for future research.

Impacts of bisphenol A analogues on zebrafish post-embryonic brain

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely studied and well-recognised endocrine-disrupting chemical, and one of the current issues is its safe replacement by various analogues. Using larva zebrafish as a model, the present study reveals that moderate and chronic exposure to BPA analogues such as bisphenol S, bisphenol F and bisphenol AF may also affect vertebrate neurodevelopment and locomotor activity. Several parameters of embryo-larval development were investigated, such as mortality, hatching, number of mitotically active cell, as defined by 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine incorporation and proliferative cell nuclear antigen labelling, aromatase B protein expression in radial glial cell and locomotor activity. Our results show that exposure to several bisphenol analogues induced an acceleration of embryo hatching rate. At the level of the developing brain, a strong up-regulation of the oestrogen-sensitive Aromatase B was also detected in the hypothalamic region. This up-regulation was not associated with effects on the numbers of mitotically active progenitors nor differentiated neurones in the preoptic area and in the nuclear recessus posterior of the hypothalamus zebrafish larvae. Furthermore, using a high-throughput video tracking system to monitor locomotor activity in zebrafish larvae, we show that some bisphenol analogues, such as bisphenol AF, significantly reduced locomotor activity following 6 days of exposure. Taken together, our study provides evidence that BPA analogues can also affect the neurobehavioural development of zebrafish.

Assessing the toxicity of the benzamide fungicide zoxamide in zebrafish (Danio rerio): Towards an adverse outcome pathway for beta-tubulin inhibitors

Commercial benzamide fungicides are applied to crops to control damage caused by oomycete fungi and are used as veterinary pharmaceuticals in aquaculture. The mechanism of action of these fungicides is to induce mitotic arrest via binding to beta-tubulin, thus inhibiting tubulin polymerization. However, there are little toxicity data available for benzimidazole fungicides in fish. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted zebrafish embryo toxicity tests to assess deformities, survival, and sub-lethal responses following exposure to zoxamide (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0 and 10 μM zoxamide). We hypothesized that skeletal deformities would be prevalent in zebrafish due to its mechanism of inhibiting beta-tubulin polymerization. Zoxamide was relatively toxic to zebrafish embryos and larvae, and survival was reduced ∼50 % at 2 days post fertilization (dpf) with 10 μM exposure and over time at 6 dpf, 2.5 μM exposure reduced survival by ∼20 %. Frequency of hatch was also reduced/delayed in zebrafish at 3 dpf with >2.5 μM zoxamide. Pericardial edema, body length shortening, and spine curvature were observed in larvae exposed to >5 μM. Mitochondrial bioenergetics were assessed in ∼30 hpf embryos (24-hour exposure) using an XFe24 Flux Analyzer and regression analysis revealed a negative relationship between basal respiration and zoxamide concentration. Superoxide dismutase 1 and caspase 3 mRNA levels were both decreased in 6 dpf larvae exposed to 2.5 μM zoxamide, but were not changed in expression at 0.5 nor 1 μM zoxamide. Continuous 6-day exposure to zoxamide reduced larval activity at 2.5 μM; conversely a 24-hour exposure (at 5-6 dpf) induced hyperactivity at 5 μM suggesting dose and time dependent effects on fish behavior. Based on sub-lethal endpoints, we conceptualize an adverse outcome pathway for chemicals that inhibit tubulin polymerization.

Sub-lethal toxicity assessment of the phenylurea herbicide linuron in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo/larvae

Due to run-off and rain events, agrochemicals can enter water catchments, exerting endocrine disruption effects and toxicity to aquatic organisms. Linuron is a phenylurea herbicide used to control a wide variety of vegetative weeds in agriculture in addition to residential applications. However, there are few studies that quantify its toxicity to early developmental stages of fish. The objectives of this study were to assess the acute toxicity of linuron to zebrafish embryos/larvae by measuring mortality, morphological deformities, oxidative respiration, gene expression, and locomotor activity via the Visual Motor Response test. Zebrafish embryos at ~6-h post-fertilization (hpf) were exposed to either embryo rearing medium (ERM), or one dose of 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5, and 10 μM linuron for up to 7 days post-fertilization (dpf) depending on the assay. Zebrafish larvae exposed to linuron displayed pericardial edema, yolk sac edema, and spinal curvature. Oxidative respiration assessments in embryos using the Agilent XF^e24 Flux Analyzer revealed that linuron decreased mean basal respiration and oligomycin-induced ATP-linked respiration in 30 hpf embryos at 20 μM after a 24-hour exposure. In 7 dpf larvae, transcript abundance was determined for 6 transcripts that have a role in oxidative respiration (atp06, cox1, cox4-1, cox5a1, cytb, and nd1); the relative abundance of these transcripts was not altered with linuron treatment. A Visual Motor Response test was conducted on 7 dpf larvae to determine whether linuron (0.625 to 5 μM) impaired locomotor activity. Larval activity in the dark period decreased in a dose dependent manner and there were indications of hypoactivity as low as 1.25 μM. Transcript abundance was thus determined for tyrosine hydroxylase (th1) and glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (gad1b), two rate limiting enzymes that control the production of dopamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid respectively. The mRNA levels of gad1b (p = 0.019) were reduced with increasing concentrations of linuron while th1 (p = 0.056) showed a similar decreasing trend, suggesting that neurotransmitter biosynthesis may be altered with exposure to linuron. This study improves knowledge related to the toxicity mechanisms for linuron and is the first to demonstrate that this anti-androgenic chemical impairs oxidative respiration and exerts neurotoxic effects associated with neurotransmitter biosynthesis during early development. These data are significant for environmental risk assessment of agrochemicals.

Testing for thyroid hormone disruptors, a review of non-mammalian in vivo models

Thyroid hormones (THs) play critical roles in profound changes in many vertebrates, notably in mammalian neurodevelopment, although the precise molecular mechanisms of these fundamental biological processes are still being unravelled. Environmental and health concerns prompted the development of chemical safety testing and, in the context of endocrine disruption, identification of thyroid hormone axis disrupting chemicals (THADCs) remains particularly challenging. As various molecules are known to interfere with different levels of TH signalling, screening tests for THADCs may not rely solely on in vitro ligand/receptor binding to TH receptors. Therefore, alternatives to mammalian in vivo assays featuring TH-related endpoints that are more sensitive than circulatory THs and more rapid than thyroid histopathology are needed to fulfil the ambition of higher throughput screening of the myriad of environmental chemicals. After a detailed introduction of the context, we have listed current assays and parameters to assess thyroid disruption following a literature search of recent publications referring to non-mammalian models. Potential THADCs were mostly investigated in zebrafish and the frog Xenopus laevis, an amphibian model extensively used to study TH signalling.

DMSO effects larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) behavior, with additive and interaction effects when combined with positive controls

Embryonic and larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) behavior is commonly used to identify neurotoxic compounds. Here, we investigated whether sub-lethal exposures to the common solvents dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 0.01-1%) and methanol (MeOH, 0.01-1%), or the anti-fungal agent methylene blue (MB, 0.0001-0.0005%), can influence larval behavior in a simple light/dark paradigm conducted in 96-well plates. In addition, we tested whether the media volume within the behavioral arena or the zebrafish strain, AB wild type, AB Tübingen (AB/TU), or Tüpfel long-fin (TL), could also influence larval behavior. Following the single exposures, we co-exposed larvae to DMSO and either MB or two other compounds with known behavioral effects in larval zebrafish, flutamide and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). We found ≥0.55% DMSO and 0.0005% MB significantly affected larval behavior, but there was no effect of MeOH. Similarly, TL showed less movement compared to AB and AB/TU strains, whereas lower media volumes also significantly reduced larval movement. However, all strains responded similarly to DMSO and MB. In the co-exposure studies, we found either additive or interaction effects between DMSO and either MB, flutamide, or PFOS, depending on the behavioral endpoint measured. In addition, media volume had no effect on the DMSO concentration response curve, but again we observed additive effects on behavior. In conclusion, methodology can lead to alterations in baseline locomotor activity and compounds can have additive or interaction effects on behavioral endpoints. However, we found no evidence that strain effects should be a concern when deciding on solvents for a simple light/dark behavioral test in larval zebrafish.

Screening for drugs to reduce zebrafish aggression identifies caffeine and sildenafil

Although aggression is a common symptom of psychiatric disorders the drugs available to treat it are non-specific and can have unwanted side effects. In this study we have used a behavioural platform in a phenotypic screen to identify drugs that can reduce zebrafish aggression without affecting locomotion. In a three tier screen of ninety-four drugs we discovered that caffeine and sildenafil can selectively reduce aggression. Caffeine also decreased attention and increased impulsivity in the 5-choice serial reaction time task whereas sildenafil showed the opposite effect. Imaging studies revealed that both caffeine and sildenafil are active in the zebrafish brain, with prominent activation of the thalamus and cerebellum evident. They also interact with 5-HT neurotransmitter signalling. In summary, we have demonstrated that juvenile zebrafish are a suitable model to screen for novel drugs to reduce aggression, with the potential to uncover the neural circuits and signalling pathways that mediate such behavioural effects.

Exploring interactions between xenobiotics, microbiota, and neurotoxicity in zebrafish

Susceptibility to xenobiotic exposures is variable. One factor that might account for this is the microbiome, which encompasses all microorganisms, their encoded genes, and associated functions that colonize a host organism. Microbiota harbor the capacity to affect the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of xenobiotic exposures. The neurotoxicological effects of environmental chemicals may be modified by intestinal microbes via the microbiota-gut-brain axis. This is a complex, bi-directional signaling pathway between intestinal microbes and the host nervous system. As a model organism, zebrafish are extremely well-placed to illuminate mechanisms by which microbiota modify the developmental neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals. The goal of this review article is to examine the microbiota-gut-brain axis in a toxicological context, specifically focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of the zebrafish model for the investigation of interactions between xenobiotic agents and host-associated microbes. Previous studies describing the relationship between intestinal microbes and host neurodevelopment will be discussed. From a neurotoxicological perspective, studies utilizing zebrafish to assess links between neurotoxicological outcomes and the microbiome are emphasized. Overall, there are major gaps in our understanding the mechanisms by which microbiota interact with xenobiotics to cause or modify host neurotoxicity. In this review, we demonstrate that zebrafish are an ideal model system for studying the complex relationship between chemical exposures, microorganisms, and host neurotoxicological outcomes.

The occurrence, potential toxicity, and toxicity mechanism of bisphenol S, a substitute of bisphenol A: A critical review of recent progress

Bisphenol S (BPS) has been introduced into the industry as a safer alternative to bisphenol A (BPA). The distribution of BPS has recently become an important issue worldwide, but investigations on the toxicity and mechanisms of BPS remain limited. A review of the literature reveals that BPS has widespread presence in environmental media, such as indoor dust, surface water, sediments, and sewage sludge. It has been detected in plants, paper products, some food items, and even in the human body. In addition, compared to BPA, BPS has a lower acute toxicity, similar or less endocrine disruption, similar neurotoxicity and immunotoxicity, and lower reproductive and developmental toxicity. The mechanisms underlying BPS toxicity may be related to the chemical properties of BPS in the human body, including interactions with estrogen receptors, and binding to DNA and some proteins, subsequently including exerting oxidative stress. However, further investigation on the potential risks of BPS to humans and its mechanisms of toxicity should be conducted to better understand and control the risks of such novel chemicals.

Effects of 17α‑ethinylestradiol on caudal fin regeneration in zebrafish larvae

The ability to restore tissue function and morphology after injury is a key advantage of many fish for a greater chance of survival. The tissue regeneration process is regulated by multiple pathways, and it can therefore be hypothesized that environmental contaminants targeting components of these signaling pathways, may disrupt the fish's capability to repair or regenerate. This could lead to higher mortality and eventually even to a decline in populations. In this study, the effects of 17α‑ethinylestradiol (EE2), a synthetic estrogen, were assessed on the regenerative capacity of larval zebrafish. Zebrafish aged 2 hour post fertilization (hpf) were exposed to 1, 10, or 100 ng/L EE2, and the caudal fins were amputated at 72 hpf. It was found that EE2 exposure significantly inhibited fin regeneration and changed locomotor behavior. The transcription levels for most of the genes involved in the signaling networks regulating the fin regeneration, such as axin2, fgfr1, bmp2b and igf2b, were down-regulated in the amputated fish in response to EE2 exposure, which was in contrast to their increased patterns in the vehicle-exposed control fish. Additionally, the mRNA levels of several immune-related genes, such as il-1β, il-6, il-10 and nf-κb2, were significantly decreased after EE2 exposure, accompanied by a lower density of neutrophils migrated into the wound site. In conclusion, the present study indicated for the first time that estrogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EEDCs) could inhibit the regenerative capacity of zebrafish, and this effect was speculated to be mediated through the alteration in regeneration-related signaling pathways and immune competence. This work expands our knowledge of the potential effects of EEDCs on injured aquatic organisms, and highlights the ecotoxicological significance of relationships between regenerative process and endocrine system. This study also implies the potential application of fin regeneration assay for assessing immunotoxicity in ecotoxicological risk assessment.

Knock-Down of Specific Thyroid Hormone Receptor Isoforms Impairs Body Plan Development in Zebrafish

The role of thyroid hormones (THs) in development has been extensively studied, however, the specific molecular mechanisms involved are far from being clear. THs act by binding to TH nuclear receptors (TR) that act as ligand-dependent transcription factors to regulate TH-dependent gene expression. Like vertebrates, zebrafish express different isoforms of functional Tr alpha and beta, some of which can bind alternative ligands like 3,5-T2. In this study, we first analyzed the effects of exogenous T3 and 3,5-T2 exposure during embryogenesis. The percentage of affected embryos was similar to those vehicle-injected, suggesting that the early exposure to low TH levels is not sufficient to elicit effects upon the phenotype of the embryo. We then generated crispants for four isoforms of thr to learn more about the role of these receptors in early development. We found that crispant larvae from thraa and a newly identified l-thrb+, but not thrab and canonical thrb1 showed profound deleterious effects upon symmetry and laterality, suggesting early novel roles for these Tr isoforms in the body plan developmental program. Since critical events that determine cell fate start in the late gastrula, we tested if some genes that are expressed during early developmental stages could indeed be TH targets. We identify early development genes, like sox10 and eve, that were specifically over-expressed in thraa and l-thrb+ crispants, suggesting that these specific thr isoforms function as transcription repressors for these genes, while transcription of zic and ets appear to be thraa and l-thrb+-mediated, respectively. Overall, present results show that TH signaling participates in early zebrafish development and identify Tr isoform-specific mediated regulation of early gene expression.

Sub-lethal UV radiation during early life stages alters the behaviour, heart rate and oxidative stress parameters in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Environmental UV radiation in sufficient doses, as a possible consequence of climate change, is potent enough to affect living organisms with different outcomes, depending on the exposure life stage. The aim of this project was to evaluate the potentially toxic effects of exposure to sub-lethal and environmentally relevant doses of UVA (9.4, 18. 7, 37.7 J/cm²) and UVB radiation (0.013, 0.025, 0.076 J/cm²) on the development and behaviour in early life stages (4.5-5.5 h post fertilization, hpf) of the zebrafish (Danio rerio). The used doses were all below the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) and caused no significant difference in survival, deformities, or hatching between exposed and control groups. Compared to controls, there were transient UVA and UVB exposure effects on heart rate, with dose dependent reductions at 50 hpf, and at 60 hpf for UVA only. The UVB exposure caused an increasing trend in reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation at the two highest doses, even though only significant at 120 hpf for the second highest dose. Both UVA and UVB caused an increasing trend in lipid peroxidation (LPO) at the highest doses tested at 72 hpf. Furthermore, UVA exposure led to significant reductions in larval movement following exposure to the two highest doses of UVA, i.e., reduction in the time spent active and the total distance moved compared to control at 100 hpf, while no effect on the swimming speed was observed. The lowest dose of UVA had no effect on behaviour. In contrast, the highest dose of UVB led to a possible increase in the time spent active and a slower average swimming speed although these effects were not significant (p = 0.07). The obtained results show that UV doses below LD₅₀ levels are able to cause changes in the behaviour and physiological parameters of zebrafish larvae, as well as oxidative stress in the form of ROS formation and LPO. Further testing is necessary to assess how this type of radiation and the effects observed could affect fish population dynamics.

Mycotoxins induce developmental toxicity and behavioural aberrations in zebrafish larvae

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by varieties of fungi that contaminate food and feed resources and are capable of inducing a wide range of toxicity. In the current study, we investigated developmental and behavioural toxicity in zebrafish larvae after exposure to six different mycotoxins; ochratoxin A (OTA), type A trichothecenes mycotoxin (T-2 toxin), type B trichothecenes mycotoxin (deoxynivalenol - DON), and zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites alpha-zearalenol (α-ZOL) and beta-zearalenol (β-ZOL). Developmental defects, hatching time, and survival were monitored until 96 h post fertilisation (hpf). The EC₅₀, LC₅₀, and IC₅₀ values were calculated. Subsequently, to assess behavioural toxicity, new sets of embryos were exposed to a series of non-lethal doses within the range of environmental and/or developmental concern. Results indicated that all the tested mycotoxins were toxic, they all induced developmental defects, and with the exception of OTA, all affected hatching time. Behavioural effects were only observed following exposure to OTA and ZEN and its metabolites, α ZOL and β ZOL. These results demonstrate that mycotoxins are teratogenic and can influence behaviour in a vertebrate model.

Screening for drugs to reduce aggression in zebrafish

Aggression is a common symptom of several human psychiatric disorders. However, the drugs available to treat aggression are non-specific and can have unwanted side effects. The zebrafish is an ideal model for behavioural pharmacology. They are small, aggression can be measured reliably, and drugs can be applied by immersion in the tank water. The ability to visualise and manipulate circuits in the intact brain represents an excellent opportunity to understand how chemical compounds modify the signalling pathways that control this behaviour. This review discusses protocols to measure zebrafish aggression, the neural circuits that control this behaviour and how pharmacological studies can inform us about environmental toxicology and the development of therapeutic drugs for humans. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Current status of the neurobiology of aggression and impulsivity'.

Ecotoxicological assessment of perchlorate using in vitro and in vivo assays

Perchlorate is an inorganic ion widespread in the environment, generated as a natural and anthropogenic pollutant, with known endocrine disruption properties in the thyroid gland. Nonetheless, there are few reports of its ecotoxicological impact on wildlife. The aim of this study was to evaluate the adverse effects of KClO₄ exposure on different cell lines, HEK, N2a, and 3T3, as well as in ecological models such as Vibrio fischeri, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, Daphnia magna, and Eisenia fetida. Perchlorate exhibited similar toxicity against tested cell lines, with LC₅₀ values of 19, 15, and 19 mM for HEK, N2a, and 3T3, respectively; whereas in V. fischeri, the toxicity, examined as bioluminescence reduction, was considerably lower (EC₅₀ = 715 mM). The survival of the freshwater algae P. subcapitata was significatively impaired by perchlorate (LC₅₀ = 72 mM), and its effect on the lethality in the crustacean D. magna was prominent (LC₅₀ = 5 mM). For the earthworm E. fetida, the LC₅₀ was 56 mM in soil. In this organism, perchlorate induced avoidance behavior, weight loss, and decreased egg production and hatchling, as well as morphological and histopathological effects, such as malformations, dwarfism, and necrosis. In conclusion, perchlorate toxicity varies according to the species, although E. fetida is a sensitive model to generate information regarding the toxicological impact of KClO₄ on biota.

Differential Hepatic Gene Expression Profile of Male Fathead Minnows Exposed to Daily Varying Dose of Environmental Contaminants Individually and in Mixture

Environmental contaminants are known to impair reproduction, metabolism and development in wild life and humans. To investigate the mechanisms underlying adverse effects of contaminants, fathead minnows were exposed to a number of endocrine disruptive chemicals (EDCs) including Nonylphenol (NP), bisphenol-A (BPA), Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and a mixture of the three chemicals for 21 days, followed by determination of the liver transcriptome by expression microarrays. Pathway analysis revealed a distinct mode of action for the individual chemicals and their mixture. The results showed expression changes in over 980 genes in response to exposure to these EDC contaminants individually and in mixture. Ingenuity Pathway core and toxicity analysis were used to identify the biological processes, pathways and the top regulators affected by these compounds. A number of canonical pathways were significantly altered, including cell cycle & proliferation, lipid metabolism, inflammatory, innate immune response, stress response, and drug metabolism. We identified 18 genes that were expressed in all individual and mixed treatments. Relevant candidate genes identified from expression microarray data were verified using quantitative PCR. We were also able to identify specific genes affected by NP, BPA, and DEHP individually, but were also affected by exposure to the mixture of the contaminants. Overall the results of this study provide novel information on the adverse health impact of contaminants tested based on pathway analysis of transcriptome data. Furthermore, the results identify a number of new biomarkers that can potentially be used for screening environmental contaminants.