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Encapsulation of Hydrophobic Porphyrins into Biocompatible Nanoparticles: An Easy Way to Benefit of Their Two-Photon Phototherapeutic Effect without Hydrophilic Functionalization. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14102358. [PMID: 35625963 PMCID: PMC9139875 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14102358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Efficient photosensitizers for photodyanmic therapy (PDT) need to be soluble in physiologic media. This requirement often complicates significantly the chemical access to such compounds, resulting in lower availability and higher production costs for the best representatives. Given that their screening and selection is often initially conducted in organic media from series of hydrophobic model compounds, the possibility to use directly such hydrophobic photosensitizers in real PDT studies was highly desirable to speed up their definitive identification but also to alleviate their cost. In this respect, PMLABe polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) were presently probed as nanocarriers to water-solubilize hydophobic star-shaped porphyrin-based which turned out to be promising oxygen photosensitizers for theranostic approaches. We show here that PDT conducted using such NPs loaded with these compounds is as efficient than when functional hydrosoluble analogues of these photosensitiers are tested alone and that tracking of the photosensitizer by fluorescence imaging is even easier. Abstract Star-shaped hydrophobic porphyrins, acting as powerful fluorescent two-photon photosensitizers for oxygen in organic solvents, can easily be loaded into PMLABe polymeric nanoparticles at various concentrations. In this contribution, the performance of these porphyrin-containing nanoparticles in terms of photodynamic therapy (PDT) is compared to those of the corresponding water-soluble porphyrin analogues when irradiated in MCF-7 cancer cells. While quite promising results are obtained for performing PDT with these nanoparticles, validating this approach as a mean for using more easily accessible and less expensive photosensitizers, from a synthetic perspective, we also show that their luminescence can still be used for bioimaging purposes in spite of their confinement in the nanoparticles, validating also the use of these nano-objects for theranostic purposes.
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Yao D, Shi L, Sun Z, Blanchard-Desce M, Mongin O, Paul F, Paul-Roth CO. New fluorescent tetraphenylporphyrin-based dendrimers with alkene-linked fluorenyl antennae designed for oxygen sensitization. CR CHIM 2021. [DOI: 10.5802/crchim.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Wang X, Luo D, Basilion JP. Photodynamic Therapy: Targeting Cancer Biomarkers for the Treatment of Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13122992. [PMID: 34203805 PMCID: PMC8232794 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13122992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive treatment option that can kill cancerous cells by subjecting them to light irradiation at a specific wavelength. The main problem related to most photosensitizers is the lack of tumor selectivity, which leads to undesired uptake in normal tissues resulting in side effects. Passive targeting and active targeting are the two strategies to improve uptake in tumor tissues. This review focused on active targeting and summarizes recent active targeting approaches in which highly potent photosensitizers are rendered tumor-specific by means of an appended targeting moiety that interacts with a protein unique to, or at least significantly more abundant on, tumor cell surfaces compared to normal cells. Abstract Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a well-documented therapy that has emerged as an effective treatment modality of cancers. PDT utilizes harmless light to activate non- or minimally toxic photosensitizers to generate cytotoxic species for malignant cell eradication. Compared with conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy, PDT is appealing by virtue of the minimal invasiveness, its safety, as well as its selectivity, and the fact that it can induce an immune response. Although local illumination of the cancer lesions renders intrinsic selectivity of PDT, most photosensitizers used in PDT do not display significant tumor tissue selectivity. There is a need for targeted delivery of photosensitizers. The molecular identification of cancer antigens has opened new possibilities for the development of effective targeted therapy for cancer patients. This review provides a brief overview of recent achievements of targeted delivery of photosensitizers to cancer cells by targeting well-established cancer biomarkers. Overall, targeted PDT offers enhanced intracellular accumulation of the photosensitizer, leading to improved PDT efficacy and reduced toxicity to normal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinning Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Ave, Wearn Building B-49, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Correspondence: (X.W.); (J.P.B.); Tel.: +216-844-4848 (X.W.); +216-983-3246 (J.P.B.); Fax: +216-844-4987 (X.W. & J.P.B.)
| | - Dong Luo
- Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Ave, Wearn Building B-44, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA;
| | - James P. Basilion
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Ave, Wearn Building B-49, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Ave, Wearn Building B-44, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA;
- Correspondence: (X.W.); (J.P.B.); Tel.: +216-844-4848 (X.W.); +216-983-3246 (J.P.B.); Fax: +216-844-4987 (X.W. & J.P.B.)
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4
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Willis JA, Cheburkanov V, Kassab G, Soares JM, Blanco KC, Bagnato VS, Yakovlev VV. Photodynamic viral inactivation: Recent advances and potential applications. APPLIED PHYSICS REVIEWS 2021; 8:021315. [PMID: 34084253 PMCID: PMC8132927 DOI: 10.1063/5.0044713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which are growing at a frightening rate worldwide, has put the world on a long-standing alert. The COVID-19 health crisis reinforced the pressing need to address a fast-developing pandemic. To mitigate these health emergencies and prevent economic collapse, cheap, practical, and easily applicable infection control techniques are essential worldwide. Application of light in the form of photodynamic action on microorganisms and viruses has been growing and is now successfully applied in several areas. The efficacy of this approach has been demonstrated in the fight against viruses, prompting additional efforts to advance the technique, including safety use protocols. In particular, its application to suppress respiratory tract infections and to provide decontamination of fluids, such as blood plasma and others, can become an inexpensive alternative strategy in the fight against viral and bacterial infections. Diverse early treatment methods based on photodynamic action enable an accelerated response to emerging threats prior to the availability of preventative drugs. In this review, we evaluate a vast number of photodynamic demonstrations and first-principle proofs carried out on viral control, revealing its potential and encouraging its rapid development toward safe clinical practice. This review highlights the main research trends and, as a futuristic exercise, anticipates potential situations where photodynamic treatment can provide a readily available solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jace A. Willis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Vsevolod Cheburkanov
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Giulia Kassab
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jennifer M. Soares
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kate C. Blanco
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Vladislav V. Yakovlev
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
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5
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Zhang X, Sun Z, Richy N, Mongin O, Paul F, Blanchard-Desce M, Paul-Roth CO. Synthesis, characterization and optical properties of new tetrafluorenyl-porphyrins peripherally functionalized with conjugated 2-fluorenone groups. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj01410b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Star shaped porphyrins decorated with external fluorenonyl arms have been isolated. Their luminescence and selected photophysical properties are discussed in the frame of two-photon-induced theranostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhang
- Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes) – UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Zhipeng Sun
- Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes) – UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Nicolas Richy
- Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes) – UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Olivier Mongin
- Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes) – UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Frédéric Paul
- Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes) – UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Mireille Blanchard-Desce
- Université de Bordeaux, Institut des Sciences Moléculaires (CNRS UMR 5255), 33405 Talence, France
| | - Christine O. Paul-Roth
- Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes) – UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
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6
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Chen X, Zhu X, Hu Y, Yuan W, Qiu X, Jiang T, Xia C, Xiong L, Li F, Gao Y. EDTA-Modified 17β-Estradiol-Laden Upconversion Nanocomposite for Bone-Targeted Hormone Replacement Therapy for Osteoporosis. Theranostics 2020; 10:3281-3292. [PMID: 32194868 PMCID: PMC7053193 DOI: 10.7150/thno.37599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Hormone therapy (HT) is one of the most effective treatments for osteoporosis. However, the nonselective accumulation of hormone in organs such as breast, heart and uterus other than bones causes serious side effects, which impedes the application of HT. Hence, it is critically important to develop a HT strategy with reduced non-specific enrichment of hormone drugs in non-target tissues and enhanced bone-targeting ability. Methods: Herein, a 17β-estradiol (E2)-laden mesoporous silica-coated upconversion nanoparticle with a surface modification of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (NaLuF4:Yb,Tm@NaLuF4@mSiO2-EDTA-E2, E2-csUCNP@MSN-EDTA) is developed for bone-targeted osteoporosis hormone therapy. EDTA was attached onto the surface of E2 upconversion nanocomposite to enhance its affinity and efficiency targeting bone tissue and cells to optimize hormone replacement therapy for osteoporosis. We characterized the size, cytotoxicity, loading and release efficiency, in situ and ex vivo imaging. Further, in vitro and in vivo osteogenic ability was tested using preosteoblast and ovariectomy mouse model of osteoporosis. Results: The upconversion core of E2-csUCNP@MSN-EDTA nanoparticle serves as an excellent imaging agent for tracking the loaded hormone drug in vivo. The mesoporous silica layer has a high loading efficiency for E2 and provides a relatively long-lasting drug release within 50 h. EDTA anchored on the silica layer endows the nanocomposite with a bone targeting property. The nanocomposite effectively reverses estrogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis and reduces the damage of hormone to the uterus. The bone mineral density in the nanocomposite treatment group is nearly twice that of the ovariectomized (OVX) group. Compared with the E2 group, the uterine weight and luminal epithelial height were significantly lower in the nanocomposite treatment group. Conclusion: This work demonstrated that E2-csUCNP@MSN-EDTA alleviates the side effect of hormone therapy while maintaining its therapeutic efficacy, which has great potential for developing the next generation of methods for osteoporosis treatment.
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Bevernaegie R, Doix B, Bastien E, Diman A, Decottignies A, Feron O, Elias B. Exploring the Phototoxicity of Hypoxic Active Iridium(III)-Based Sensitizers in 3D Tumor Spheroids. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:18486-18491. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b07723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Robin Bevernaegie
- Institut de la Matière Condensée et des Nanosciences, Molecular Chemistry, Materials and Catalysis, UCLouvain, Place Louis Pasteur 1 Box L4.01.02, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Bastien Doix
- Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique, Pole of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, UCLouvain, Avenue Hippocrate 57 Box B1.57.04, B-1200 Woluwé-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Estelle Bastien
- Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique, Pole of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, UCLouvain, Avenue Hippocrate 57 Box B1.57.04, B-1200 Woluwé-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Aurélie Diman
- Institut de Duve, UCLouvain, Avenue Hippocrate 75 Box B1.75.02, B-1200 Woluwé-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Anabelle Decottignies
- Institut de Duve, UCLouvain, Avenue Hippocrate 75 Box B1.75.02, B-1200 Woluwé-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Olivier Feron
- Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique, Pole of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, UCLouvain, Avenue Hippocrate 57 Box B1.57.04, B-1200 Woluwé-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Benjamin Elias
- Institut de la Matière Condensée et des Nanosciences, Molecular Chemistry, Materials and Catalysis, UCLouvain, Place Louis Pasteur 1 Box L4.01.02, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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8
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Sourdon A, Gary-Bobo M, Maynadier M, Garcia M, Majoral JP, Caminade AM, Mongin O, Blanchard-Desce M. Dendrimeric Nanoparticles for Two-Photon Photodynamic Therapy and Imaging: Synthesis, Photophysical Properties, Innocuousness in Daylight and Cytotoxicity under Two-Photon Irradiation in the NIR. Chemistry 2019; 25:3637-3649. [PMID: 30620107 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201805617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis and the photophysical properties of a new class of fully organic monodisperse nanoparticles for combined two-photon imaging and photodynamic therapy are described. The design of such nanoparticles is based on the covalent immobilization of a dedicated quadrupolar dye that combines excellent two-photon absorbing (2PA) properties, fluorescence and singlet oxygen generation ability, in a phosphorous-based dendrimeric architecture. First, a bifunctional quadrupolar dye bearing two different grafting moieties, a phenol function and an aldehyde function, was synthesized. It was then covalently grafted through its phenol function to a phosphorus-based dendrimer scaffold of generation 1. The remaining aldehyde functions were then used to continue the dendrimer synthesis up to generation 2, introducing finally 24 water-solubilizing triethyleneglycol chains at its periphery. A dendrimer confining 12 photoactive quadrupolar units in its inner scaffold and showing water solubility was thus obtained. Interestingly, the G1 and G2 dendrimers retain some fluorescence as well as significant singlet oxygen production efficiencies while they were found to show very high 2PA cross-sections in a broad range of the NIR biological spectral window. Hydrophilic dendrimer G2 was tested in vitro on breast cancer cells, first in one- and two-photon microscopy, which allowed for visualization of their cell internalization, then in two-photon photodynamic therapy. While being nontoxic in the dark and, more importantly, under exposure to daylight, dendrimer G2 proved to be a very efficient cell-death inducer only under two-photon irradiation in the NIR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aude Sourdon
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes), UMR 6226, 35000, Rennes, France
| | - Magali Gary-Bobo
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR CNRS-UM-ENSCM 5247, UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 15 Avenue Charles Flahault, 34093, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Marie Maynadier
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR CNRS-UM-ENSCM 5247, UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 15 Avenue Charles Flahault, 34093, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Marcel Garcia
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR CNRS-UM-ENSCM 5247, UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 15 Avenue Charles Flahault, 34093, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Majoral
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination du CNRS, 205 Route de Narbonne, BP 44099, 31077, Toulouse Cedex 4, France.,LCC-CNRS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Anne-Marie Caminade
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination du CNRS, 205 Route de Narbonne, BP 44099, 31077, Toulouse Cedex 4, France.,LCC-CNRS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Olivier Mongin
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, ISCR (Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes), UMR 6226, 35000, Rennes, France
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9
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Sirotkina MA, Matveev LA, Shirmanova MV, Zaitsev VY, Buyanova NL, Elagin VV, Gelikonov GV, Kuznetsov SS, Kiseleva EB, Moiseev AA, Gamayunov SV, Zagaynova EV, Feldchtein FI, Vitkin A, Gladkova ND. Photodynamic therapy monitoring with optical coherence angiography. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41506. [PMID: 28148963 PMCID: PMC5288644 DOI: 10.1038/srep41506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising modern approach for cancer therapy with low normal tissue toxicity. This study was focused on a vascular-targeting Chlorine E6 mediated PDT. A new angiographic imaging approach known as M-mode-like optical coherence angiography (MML-OCA) was able to sensitively detect PDT-induced microvascular alterations in the mouse ear tumour model CT26. Histological analysis showed that the main mechanisms of vascular PDT was thrombosis of blood vessels and hemorrhage, which agrees with angiographic imaging by MML-OCA. Relationship between MML-OCA-detected early microvascular damage post PDT (within 24 hours) and tumour regression/regrowth was confirmed by histology. The advantages of MML-OCA such as direct image acquisition, fast processing, robust and affordable system opto-electronics, and label-free high contrast 3D visualization of the microvasculature suggest attractive possibilities of this method in practical clinical monitoring of cancer therapies with microvascular involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Sirotkina
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - L A Matveev
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.,Institute of Applied Physics Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulyanova Street 46, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - M V Shirmanova
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - V Y Zaitsev
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.,Institute of Applied Physics Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulyanova Street 46, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - N L Buyanova
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - V V Elagin
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - G V Gelikonov
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.,Institute of Applied Physics Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulyanova Street 46, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - S S Kuznetsov
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - E B Kiseleva
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - A A Moiseev
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.,Institute of Applied Physics Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulyanova Street 46, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - S V Gamayunov
- Republican Clinical Oncology Dispensary, Gladkova F. Street 23, 428000 Cheboksary, Russia
| | - E V Zagaynova
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - F I Feldchtein
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - A Vitkin
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.,University of Toronto and University Health Network, 610 University Ave., Toronto, Ontario, M5G 2M9, Canada
| | - N D Gladkova
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Minina Square 10/1, 603005 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
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Abstract
This review summarizes the latest progress in deep photodynamic therapy (PDT), which overcomes the Achilles' heel of PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenpei Fan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- School of Medicine
- Shenzhen University
- Shenzhen 518060
| | - Peng Huang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- School of Medicine
- Shenzhen University
- Shenzhen 518060
| | - Xiaoyuan Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering
- National Institutes of Health
- Bethesda
- USA
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11
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Lelle M, Kaloyanova S, Freidel C, Theodoropoulou M, Musheev M, Niehrs C, Stalla G, Peneva K. Octreotide-Mediated Tumor-Targeted Drug Delivery via a Cleavable Doxorubicin-Peptide Conjugate. Mol Pharm 2015; 12:4290-300. [PMID: 26524088 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Although recent methods for targeted drug delivery have addressed many of the existing problems of cancer therapy associated with undesirable side effects, significant challenges remain that have to be met before they find significant clinical relevance. One such area is the delicate chemical bond that is applied to connect a cytotoxic drug with targeting moieties like antibodies or peptides. Here we describe a novel platform that can be utilized for the preparation of drug-carrier conjugates in a site-specific manner, which provides excellent versatility and enables triggered release inside cancer cells. Its key feature is a cleavable doxorubicin-octreotide bioconjugate that targets overexpressed somatostatin receptors on tumor cells, where the coupling between the two components was achieved through the first cleavable disulfide-intercalating linker. The tumor targeting ability and suppression of adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion in AtT-20 cells by both octreotide and the doxorubicin hybrid were determined via a specific radioimmunoassay. Both substances reduced the hormone secretion to a similar extent, which demonstrated that the tumor homing peptide is able to interact with the relevant cell surface receptors after the attachment of the drug. Effective drug release was quickly accomplished in the presence of the physiological reducing agent glutathione. We also demonstrate the relevance of this scaffold in biological context in cytotoxicity assays with pituitary, pancreatic, and breast cancer cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Lelle
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefka Kaloyanova
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Christoph Freidel
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Michael Musheev
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Ackermannweg 4, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Christof Niehrs
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Ackermannweg 4, 55128 Mainz, Germany.,Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance , 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Günter Stalla
- Max Planck Institute for Psychiatry, Kraepelinstraße 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Kalina Peneva
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany.,Institute of Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University Jena , Lessingstrasse 8, 07743 Jena, Germany
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12
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Yeung HY, Lo PC, Ng DKP, Fong WP. Anti-tumor immunity of BAM-SiPc-mediated vascular photodynamic therapy in a BALB/c mouse model. Cell Mol Immunol 2015; 14:223-234. [PMID: 26388236 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2015.84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, accumulating evidence from both animal and clinical studies has suggested that a sufficiently activated immune system may strongly augment various types of cancer treatment, including photodynamic therapy (PDT). Through the generation of reactive oxygen species, PDT eradicates tumors by triggering localized tumor damage and inducing anti-tumor immunity. As the major component of anti-tumor immunity, the involvement of a cell-mediated immune response in PDT has been well investigated in the past decade, whereas the role of humoral immunity has remained relatively unexplored. In the present investigation, using the photosensitizer BAM-SiPc and the CT26 tumor-bearing BALB/c mouse model, it was demonstrated that both cell-mediated and humoral adaptive immune components could be involved in PDT. With a vascular PDT (VPDT) regimen, BAM-SiPc could eradicate the tumors of ∼70% of tumor-bearing mice and trigger an anti-tumor immune response that could last for more than 1 year. An elevation of Th2 cytokines was detected ex vivo after VPDT, indicating the potential involvement of a humoral response. An analysis of serum from the VPDT-cured mice also revealed elevated levels of tumor-specific antibodies. Moreover, this serum could effectively hinder tumor growth and protect the mice against further re-challenge in a T-cell-dependent manner. Taken together, these results show that the humoral components induced after BAM-SiPc-VPDT could assist the development of anti-tumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hing-Yuen Yeung
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Pui-Chi Lo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Dennis K P Ng
- Department of Chemistry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Wing-Ping Fong
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
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13
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Shemesh Y, Yavin E. PNA-Rose Bengal Conjugates as Efficient DNA Photomodulators. Bioconjug Chem 2015; 26:1916-22. [PMID: 26263421 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.5b00406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Selective photoinduced modulation of DNA may provide a powerful therapeutic tool allowing spatial and temporal control of the photochemical reaction. We have explored the photoreactivity of peptide nucleic acid (PNA) conjugates that were conjugated to a highly potent photosensitizer, Rose Bengal (RB). In addition, a short PEGylated peptide (K-PEG8-K) was conjugated to the C-terminus of the PNA to improve its water solubility. A short irradiation (visible light) of PNA conjugates with a synthetic DNA resulted in highly efficient photomodulation of the DNA as evidenced by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). In addition, a PNA-RB conjugate replacing K-PEG8-K with four l-glutamic acids (E4) was found to be photoinactive. Irradiation of active PNA-RB conjugates with synthetic DNA in D20 augments the photoactivity; supporting the involvement of singlet oxygen. PAGE, HPLC, and MALDI-TOF analyses indicate that PNA-DNA photo-cross-linking is a significant pathway in the observed photoreactivity. Selective photo-cross-linking of such PNA-RB conjugates may be a novel approach to selective photodynamic therapy (sPDT) as such molecules would be sequence-specific, cell-permeable, and photoactivated in the visible region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yossi Shemesh
- The Institute for Drug Research, The School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , Hadassah Ein-Kerem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Eylon Yavin
- The Institute for Drug Research, The School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , Hadassah Ein-Kerem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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14
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Scherer KM, Bisby RH, Botchway SW, Hadfield JA, Parker AW. Anticancer phototherapy using activation of E-combretastatins by two-photon-induced isomerization. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2015; 20:051004. [PMID: 25347575 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.20.5.051004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The photoisomerization of relatively nontoxic E-combretastatins to clinically active Z-isomers is shown to occur in solution through both one- and two-photon excitations at 340 and 625 nm, respectively. The photoisomerization is also demonstrated to induce mammalian cell death by a two-photon absorption process at 625 nm. Unlike conventional photodynamic therapy (PDT), the mechanism of photoisomerization is oxygen-independent and active in hypoxic environments such as in tumors. The use of red or near-infrared (NIR) light for two-photon excitation allows greater tissue penetration than conventional UV one-photon excitation. The results provide a baseline for the development of a novel phototherapy that overcomes nondiscriminative systemic toxicity of Z-combretastatins and the limitations of PDT drugs that require the presence of oxygen to promote their activity, with the added benefits of two-photon red or NIR excitation for deeper tissue penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin M Scherer
- Research Complex at Harwell, Central Laser Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford, Didcot OX11 0FA, United KingdombUniversity of Salford, Biomedical Research Centre, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, United Kingdom
| | - Roger H Bisby
- University of Salford, Biomedical Research Centre, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, United Kingdom
| | - Stanley W Botchway
- Research Complex at Harwell, Central Laser Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford, Didcot OX11 0FA, United Kingdom
| | - John A Hadfield
- University of Salford, Biomedical Research Centre, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony W Parker
- Research Complex at Harwell, Central Laser Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford, Didcot OX11 0FA, United Kingdom
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15
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Shahbaz M, Ruliang F, Xu Z, Benjia L, Cong W, Zhaobin H, Jun N. mRNA expression of somatostatin receptor subtypes SSTR-2, SSTR-3, and SSTR-5 and its significance in pancreatic cancer. World J Surg Oncol 2015; 13:46. [PMID: 25890201 PMCID: PMC4328977 DOI: 10.1186/s12957-015-0467-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of this study is to investigate the expressions of somatostatin receptor (SSTR), SSTR-2, SSTR-3, and SSTR-5, in pancreatic tissue and non-cancerous tissue and elucidate their clinical significance. Methods The expression of somatostatin receptor subtypes SSTR-2, SSTR-3, and SSTR-5 messenger RNA (mRNA) in 108 cases of cancer tissue and adjacent tissue in patients with pancreatic cancer was detected by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Expression of SSTR-2, SSTR-3, and SSTR-5 mRNA was evaluated after specimens were taken from selected patients who underwent surgical resection by Whipple’s operation. We speculated the clinical significance of the expression of somatostatin receptor (SSTR) subtype genes SSTR-2, SSTR-3, and SSTR-5 in pancreatic tissue and non-cancerous tissue and further elucidated their clinical significance. Results The expression rates of SSTR-2 mRNA in cancer and adjacent tissue of 108 patients with pancreatic cancer were 81.5% (88/108) and 97.2% (105/108), respectively; SSTR-3 mRNA expression rates were 69.4% (75/108) and 55.6% (60/108). SSTR-5 mRNA expression rates were 13.0% (14/108) and 18.5% (20/108). Conclusion We propose that SSTR-2 plays an important role in clinical implications for patients with pancreatic cancer undergoing somatostatin or its analog therapy. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12957-015-0467-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Shahbaz
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Wenhua west Road #44, Jinan, 250012, China. .,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Public Health, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China.
| | - Fang Ruliang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Wenhua west Road #44, Jinan, 250012, China. .,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Public Health, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhang Xu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Wenhua west Road #44, Jinan, 250012, China.
| | - Liang Benjia
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Wenhua west Road #44, Jinan, 250012, China. .,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Public Health, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wang Cong
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China.
| | - He Zhaobin
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Wenhua west Road #44, Jinan, 250012, China.
| | - Niu Jun
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Wenhua west Road #44, Jinan, 250012, China.
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16
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Croissant J, Maynadier M, Mongin O, Hugues V, Blanchard-Desce M, Chaix A, Cattoën X, Wong Chi Man M, Gallud A, Gary-Bobo M, Garcia M, Raehm L, Durand JO. Enhanced two-photon fluorescence imaging and therapy of cancer cells via Gold@bridged silsesquioxane nanoparticles. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2015; 11:295-9. [PMID: 25208237 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201401759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A two-photon photosensitizer with four triethoxysilyl groups is synthesized through the click reaction. This photosensitizer allows the design of bridged silsesquioxane (BS) nanoparticles through a sol-gel process; moreover, gold core BS shells or BS nanoparticles decorated with gold nanospheres are synthesized. An enhancement of the two-photon properties is noted with gold and the nanoparticles are efficient for two-photon imaging and two-photon photodynamic therapy of cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Croissant
- Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier, UMR-5253, CNRS-UM2-ENSCM-UM1, cc 1701, Place Eugène Bataillon, F-34095, Montpellier cedex 05, France
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17
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Yao D, Hugues V, Blanchard-Desce M, Mongin O, Paul-Roth CO, Paul F. Dendritic molecular assemblies for singlet oxygen generation: meso-tetraphenylporphyrin-based biphotonic sensitizers with remarkable luminescence. NEW J CHEM 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5nj01381j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Thanks to its 2-ethynylflorenyl-containing arms, dendrimer 1 sensitizes molecular oxygen in 70% yield and exhibits a fluorescence yield of 20%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Yao
- Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (UMR CNRS 6226) Université de Rennes 1
- 35042 Rennes Cedex
- France
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées
- INSA-ISCR
| | - Vincent Hugues
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires (UMR CNRS 5255)
- Université de Bordeaux
- 33405 Talence
- France
| | | | - Olivier Mongin
- Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (UMR CNRS 6226) Université de Rennes 1
- 35042 Rennes Cedex
- France
| | - Christine O. Paul-Roth
- Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (UMR CNRS 6226) Université de Rennes 1
- 35042 Rennes Cedex
- France
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées
- INSA-ISCR
| | - Frédéric Paul
- Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (UMR CNRS 6226) Université de Rennes 1
- 35042 Rennes Cedex
- France
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Rowlands CJ, Wu J, Uzel SGM, Klein O, Evans CL, So PTC. 3D-resolved targeting of photodynamic therapy using temporal focusing. LASER PHYSICS LETTERS 2014; 11:115605. [PMID: 25620902 PMCID: PMC4301304 DOI: 10.1088/1612-2011/11/11/115605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
A method for selectively inducing apoptosis in tumor nodules is presented, with close-to-cellular level resolution, using 3D-resolved widefield temporal focusing illumination. Treatment times on the order of seconds were achieved using Verteporfin as the photosensitizer, with doses of 30 μg ml-1 and below. Results were achieved on both 2D and 3D cell cultures, demonstrating that treatment was possible through approximately one hundred microns of dense tumor nodules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Rowlands
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jackie Wu
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Sebastien G M Uzel
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Oliver Klein
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Conor L Evans
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Peter T C So
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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19
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Nelson CA, Azure MT, Adams CT, Zinn KR. The somatostatin analog 188Re-P2045 inhibits the growth of AR42J pancreatic tumor xenografts. J Nucl Med 2014; 55:2020-5. [PMID: 25359879 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.114.140780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED P2045 is a peptide analog of somatostatin with picomolar affinity for the somatostatin receptor subtype 2 (SSTR2) upregulated in some pancreatic tumors. Studies were conducted in rat AR42J pancreatic tumor xenograft mice to determine whether (188)Re-P2045 could inhibit the growth of pancreatic cancer in an animal model. METHODS (188)Re-P2045 was intravenously administered every 3 d for 16 d to nude mice with AR42J tumor xenografts that were approximately 20 mm(3) at study initiation. Tumor volumes were recorded throughout the dosing period. At necropsy, all tissues were assessed for levels of radioactivity and evaluated for histologic abnormalities. Clinical chemistry and hematology parameters were determined from terminal blood samples. The affinity of nonradioactive (185/187)Re-P2045 for somatostatin receptors was compared in human NCI-H69 and rat AR42J tumor cell membranes expressing predominantly SSTR2. RESULTS In the 1.85- and 5.55-MBq groups, tumor growth was inhibited in a dose-dependent fashion. In the 11.1-MBq group, tumor growth was completely inhibited throughout the dosing period and for 12 d after the last administered dose. The radioactivity level in tumors 4 h after injection was 10 percentage injected dose per gram, which was 2-fold higher than in the kidneys. (188)Re-P2045 was well tolerated in all dose groups, with no adverse clinical, histologic, or hematologic findings. The nonradioactive (185/187)Re-P2045 bound more avidly (0.2 nM) to SSTR2 in human than rat tumor membranes, suggesting that these studies are relevant to human studies. CONCLUSION (188)Re-P2045 is a promising therapeutic candidate for patients with somatostatin receptor-positive cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Nelson
- Translational Medicine Consulting, Westford, Massachusetts Department of Research and Development, Andarix Pharmaceuticals, Watertown, Massachusetts; and
| | - Michael T Azure
- Department of Radiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Christopher T Adams
- Department of Research and Development, Andarix Pharmaceuticals, Watertown, Massachusetts; and
| | - Kurt R Zinn
- Department of Radiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
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Kaščáková S, Hofland LJ, De Bruijn HS, Ye Y, Achilefu S, van der Wansem K, van der Ploeg-van den Heuvel A, van Koetsveld PM, Brugts MP, van der Lelij AJ, Sterenborg HJCM, ten Hagen TLM, Robinson DJ, van Hagen MP. Somatostatin analogues for receptor targeted photodynamic therapy. PLoS One 2014; 9:e104448. [PMID: 25111655 PMCID: PMC4128677 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an established treatment modality, used mainly for anticancer therapy that relies on the interaction of photosensitizer, light and oxygen. For the treatment of pathologies in certain anatomical sites, improved targeting of the photosensitizer is necessary to prevent damage to healthy tissue. We report on a novel dual approach of targeted PDT (vascular and cellular targeting) utilizing the expression of neuropeptide somatostatin receptor (sst2) on tumor and neovascular-endothelial cells. We synthesized two conjugates containing the somatostatin analogue [Tyr3]-octreotate and Chlorin e6 (Ce6): Ce6-K3-[Tyr3]-octreotate (1) and Ce6-[Tyr3]-octreotate-K3-[Tyr3]-octreotate (2). Investigation of the uptake and photodynamic activity of conjugates in-vitro in human erythroleukemic K562 cells showed that conjugation of [Tyr3]-octreotate with Ce6 in conjugate 1 enhances uptake (by a factor 2) in cells over-expressing sst2 compared to wild-type cells. Co-treatment with excess free Octreotide abrogated the phototoxicity of conjugate 1 indicative of a specific sst2-mediated effect. In contrast conjugate 2 showed no receptor-mediated effect due to its high hydrophobicity. When compared with un-conjugated Ce6, the PDT activity of conjugate 1 was lower. However, it showed higher photostability which may compensate for its lower phototoxicity. Intra-vital fluorescence pharmacokinetic studies of conjugate 1 in rat skin-fold observation chambers transplanted with sst2+ AR42J acinar pancreas tumors showed significantly different uptake profiles compared to free Ce6. Co-treatment with free Octreotide significantly reduced conjugate uptake in tumor tissue (by a factor 4) as well as in the chamber neo-vasculature. These results show that conjugate 1 might have potential as an in-vivo sst2 targeting photosensitizer conjugate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slávka Kaščáková
- Center for Optical Diagnostics and Therapy, Department of Radiation Oncology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Leo J. Hofland
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Henriette S. De Bruijn
- Department of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yunpeng Ye
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Samuel Achilefu
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | | | | | | | - Michael P. Brugts
- Department of Immunology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Henricus J. C. M. Sterenborg
- Center for Optical Diagnostics and Therapy, Department of Radiation Oncology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Timo L. M. ten Hagen
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dominic J. Robinson
- Department of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martin P. van Hagen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Immunology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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