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Lubec J, Hussein AM, Kalaba P, Feyissa DD, Arias-Sandoval E, Cybulska-Klosowicz A, Bezu M, Stojanovic T, Korz V, Malikovic J, Aher NY, Zehl M, Dragacevic V, Leban JJ, Sagheddu C, Wackerlig J, Pistis M, Correa M, Langer T, Urban E, Höger H, Lubec G. Low-Affinity/High-Selectivity Dopamine Transport Inhibition Sufficient to Rescue Cognitive Functions in the Aging Rat. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13030467. [PMID: 36979402 PMCID: PMC10046369 DOI: 10.3390/biom13030467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The worldwide increase in cognitive decline, both in aging and with psychiatric disorders, warrants a search for pharmacological treatment. Although dopaminergic treatment approaches represent a major step forward, current dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibitors are not sufficiently specific as they also target other transporters and receptors, thus showing unwanted side effects. Herein, we describe an enantiomerically pure, highly specific DAT inhibitor, S-CE-123, synthetized in our laboratory. Following binding studies to DAT, NET and SERT, GPCR and kinome screening, pharmacokinetics and a basic neurotoxic screen, S-CE-123 was tested for its potential to enhance and/or rescue cognitive functions in young and in aged rats in the non-invasive reward-motivated paradigm of a hole-board test for spatial learning. In addition, an open field study with young rats was carried out. We demonstrated that S-CE-123 is a low-affinity but highly selective dopamine reuptake inhibitor with good bioavailability. S-CE-123 did not induce hyperlocomotion or anxiogenic or stereotypic behaviour in young rats. Our compound improved the performance of aged but not young rats in a reward-motivated task. The well-described impairment of the dopaminergic system in aging may underlie the age-specific effect. We propose S-CE-123 as a possible candidate for developing a tentative therapeutic strategy for age-related cognitive decline and cognitive dysfunction in psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Lubec
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Ahmed M. Hussein
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 71524, Egypt
| | - Predrag Kalaba
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniel Daba Feyissa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Anita Cybulska-Klosowicz
- Neurobiology of Emotions Laboratory, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, 02093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Mekite Bezu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Tamara Stojanovic
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Volker Korz
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Jovana Malikovic
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nilima Y. Aher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Zehl
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Vladimir Dragacevic
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johann Jakob Leban
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Claudia Sagheddu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy
| | - Judith Wackerlig
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marco Pistis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy
- Section of Cagliari, Neuroscience Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 09042 Cagliari, Italy
| | - Merce Correa
- Department of Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, 12006 Castelló, Spain
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Behavioral Neuroscience Division, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Thierry Langer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ernst Urban
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald Höger
- Core Unit of Biomedical Research, Division of Laboratory Animal Science and Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, 2325 Himberg, Austria
| | - Gert Lubec
- Programme for Proteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +43-676-569-4816
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Fois GR, Bosque-Cordero KY, Vazquez-Torres R, Miliano C, Nogues X, Jimenez-Rivera CA, Caille S, Georges F. Locus coeruleus activation during environmental novelty gates cocaine-induced long-term hyperactivity of dopamine neurons. iScience 2022; 25:104154. [PMID: 35434548 PMCID: PMC9010629 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A key feature of the brain is the ability to handle novelty. Anything that is new will stimulate curiosity and trigger exploration. Novelty preference has been proposed to predict increased sensitivity to cocaine. Different brain circuits are activated by novelty, but three specific brain regions are critical for exploring a novel environment: the noradrenergic neurons originating from the locus coeruleus (LC), the dopaminergic neurons from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the hippocampus. However, how exploring a novel environment can interfere with the reward system and control cocaine impact on VTA dopamine neuron plasticity is unclear. Here, we first investigated the effects of exposure to a novel environment on the tonic electrophysiological properties of VTA dopamine neurons. Then, we explored how exposure to a novel environment controls cocaine-evoked plasticity in dopamine neurons. Our findings indicate that LC controls VTA dopamine neurons under physiological conditions but also after cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia R. Fois
- CNRS, IMN, UMR5293, Université de Bordeaux, 33000 Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Rafael Vazquez-Torres
- Physiology Department, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Cristina Miliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuropsychopharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | | | | | - Stéphanie Caille
- CNRS, EPHE, INCIA, UMR5287, Université de Bordeaux, 33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - François Georges
- CNRS, IMN, UMR5293, Université de Bordeaux, 33000 Bordeaux, France
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Administration of low doses of the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT attenuates the discriminative signal of amphetamine in the conditioned taste aversion procedure. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 193:172932. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Carey RJ. Drugs and memory: Evidence that drug effects can become associated with contextual cues by being paired post-trial with consolidation/re-consolidation. Mini review. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 192:172911. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Post-trial low dose apomorphine prevents the development of morphine sensitization. Behav Brain Res 2020; 380:112398. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Santos BG, Carey RJ, Carrera MP. Repeated pre-trial and post-trial low and high dose apomorphine treatments induce comparable inhibitory/excitatory sensitization and conditioned drug effects. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2018; 175:108-115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2018.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2018] [Revised: 09/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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7
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Wang J, Fang Q, Yang C. Effects of paternal deprivation on cocaine-induced behavioral response and hypothalamic oxytocin immunoreactivity and serum oxytocin level in female mandarin voles. Behav Brain Res 2017; 334:135-141. [PMID: 28756211 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Early paternal behavior plays a critical role in behavioral development in monogamous species. The vast majority of laboratory studies investigating the influence of parental behavior on cocaine vulnerability focus on the effects of early maternal separation. However, comparable studies on whether early paternal deprivation influences cocaine-induced behavioral response are substantially lacking. Mandarin vole (Microtus mandarinus) is a monogamous rodent with high levels of paternal care. After mandarin vole pups were subjected to early paternal deprivation, acute cocaine- induced locomotion, anxiety- like behavior and social behavior were examined in 45day old female pups, while hypothalamic oxytocin immunoreactivity and serum oxytocin level were also assessed. We found that cocaine increased locomotion and decreased social investigation, contact behavior and serum oxytocin level regardless of paternal care. Cocaine increased anxiety levels and decreased oxytocin immunoreactive neurons of the paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei in the bi-parental care group, whilst there were no specific effects in the paternal deprivation group. These results indicate that paternal deprivation results in different behavioral response to acute cocaine exposure in adolescents, which may be in part associated with the alterations in oxytocin immunoreactivity and peripheral OT level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianli Wang
- College of Biological Sciences and Engineering, Beifang University of Nationalities, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China.
| | - Qianqian Fang
- College of Biological Sciences and Engineering, Beifang University of Nationalities, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China; College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xian, Shaanxi 710062, China
| | - Chenxi Yang
- College of Biological Sciences and Engineering, Beifang University of Nationalities, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750021, China
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Santos BG, Carey RJ, Carrera MP. The acquisition, extinction and spontaneous recovery of Pavlovian drug conditioning induced by post-trial dopaminergic stimulation/inhibition. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 156:24-29. [PMID: 28392213 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In contextual drug conditioning, the onset of the drug treatment is contiguous with the contextual cues. Evidence suggests that drug conditioning also can occur if there is a discontinuity between the onset of the drug effect and offset of the contextual cues. Here we examine whether post-trial contextual drug conditioning conforms to several Pavlovian conditioning tenets namely: acquisition, extinction and spontaneous recovery. Six groups of rats received apomorphine (0.05 or 2.0mg/kg) and vehicle immediately or after a 15min delay following a 5min non-drug exposure to an open-field during three successive days (conditioning phase). The extinction phase occurred on days 4-8, in which all post-trial treatments were vehicle injections. After 2days of non-testing, the final test was performed. The results showed that on the first test day, the activity levels of the 6 groups were statistically equivalent. On test day 2, there were marked differences in activity levels selectively between the two immediate post-trial apomorphine treatment groups. The immediate low dose apomorphine group displayed a reduction in activity and the immediate high dose group an increase in activity relative to their day 1 levels. The activity levels of both vehicle groups and both apomorphine delay groups remained equivalent to their day 1 activity levels. On test day 3, the differences in activity levels between the two immediate post-trial apomorphine groups increased but the activity levels of the vehicle groups and the 15min delay post-trial apomorphine groups remained unchanged. In the extinction phase, the conditioned activity differences between the two immediate post-trial apomorphine groups were gradually eliminated. During the final test, the activity differences between the immediate post-trial apomorphine groups were partially restored, indicative of spontaneous recovery. These findings are consistent with several basic elements of Pavlovian conditioning and are supportive of drug induced trace conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breno Garone Santos
- Behavioral Pharmacology Group, Laboratory of Morphology and Pathology Animal Health, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Avenida Alberto Lamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes 28013-600, RJ, Brazil
| | - Robert J Carey
- Research and Development (151), VA Medical Center and SUNY Upstate Medical University, 800 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Marinete Pinheiro Carrera
- Behavioral Pharmacology Group, Laboratory of Morphology and Pathology Animal Health, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Avenida Alberto Lamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes 28013-600, RJ, Brazil.
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Post-trial dopaminergic modulation of conditioned catalepsy: A single apomorphine induced increase/decrease in dopaminergic activation immediately following a conditioned catalepsy response can reverse/enhance a haloperidol conditioned and sensitized catalepsy response. Behav Brain Res 2016; 311:87-98. [PMID: 27173428 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Haloperidol can induce catalepsy and this drug effect can be conditioned as well as sensitized to contextual cues. We used a paired/unpaired Pavlovian conditioning protocol to establish haloperidol catalepsy conditioned and sensitized responses. Groups of rats were given 10 daily catalepsy tests following administration of vehicle (n=24) or haloperidol (1.0mg/kg) either paired (n=18) or unpaired (n=18) to testing. Subsequently, testing for conditioning was conducted and conditioning and sensitization of catalepsy were observed selectively in the paired group. Immediately following a second test for catalepsy conditioning, the groups were subdivided into 4 vehicle groups, 3 unpaired haloperidol groups and 3 paired haloperidol groups and were given one of three post-trial treatments (vehicle, 0.05mg/kg or 2.0mg/kg apomorphine). One day later the conditioned catalepsy test 3 was carried out and on the next day, a haloperidol challenge test was performed. The post-trial apomorphine treatments had major effects on the paired groups upon both conditioning and the haloperidol challenge test. The low dose apomorphine post-trial treatment enhanced both the conditioned and the haloperidol sensitized catalepsy responses. The high dose apomorphine post-trial treatment eliminated conditioned catalepsy and eliminated the initial acute catalepsy response to haloperidol that was induced in the vehicle control groups. These results demonstrate the sensitivity of conditioned drug cues to modification by increases/decreases in activity of the dopamine system in the immediate post-trial interval after a conditioning trial. This demonstration that post-trial dopaminergic drug treatments can modify conditioned drug behavior has broad implications for conditioned drug effects.
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Sanguedo FV, Dias CVB, Dias FRC, Samuels RI, Carey RJ, Carrera MP. Reciprocal activation/inactivation of ERK in the amygdala and frontal cortex is correlated with the degree of novelty of an open-field environment. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:841-50. [PMID: 26685992 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4163-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) has been used to identify brain areas activated by exogenous stimuli including psychostimulant drugs. OBJECTIVE Assess the role of the amygdala in emotional responses. METHODS Experimental manipulations were performed in which environmental familiarity was the variable. To provide the maximal degree of familiarity, ERK was measured after removal from the home cage and re-placement back into the same cage. To maximize exposure to an unfamiliar environment, ERK was measured following placement into a novel open field. To assess whether familiarity was the critical variable in the ERK response to the novel open field, ERK was also measured after either four or eight placements into the same environment. ERK quantification was carried out in the amygdala, frontal cortex, and the nucleus accumbens. RESULTS After home cage re-placement, ERK activation was found in the frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens but was absent in the amygdala. Following placement in a novel environment, ERK activation was more prominent in the amygdala than the frontal cortex or nucleus accumbens. In contrast, with habituation to the novel environment, ERK phosphors declined markedly in the amygdala but increased in the frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens to the level observed following home cage re-placement. CONCLUSIONS The differential responsiveness of the amygdala versus the frontal cortex and the nucleus accumbens to a novel versus a habituated environment is consistent with a reciprocal interaction between these neural systems and points to their important role in the mediation of behavioral activation to novelty and behavioral inactivation with habituation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederico Velasco Sanguedo
- Behavioral Pharmacology Group, Laboratory of Animal Morphology and Pathology, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Avenida Alberto Lamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes, 28013-600, RJ, Brazil
| | - Caio Vitor Bueno Dias
- Behavioral Pharmacology Group, Laboratory of Animal Morphology and Pathology, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Avenida Alberto Lamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes, 28013-600, RJ, Brazil
| | - Flavia Regina Cruz Dias
- Behavioral Pharmacology Group, Laboratory of Animal Morphology and Pathology, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Avenida Alberto Lamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes, 28013-600, RJ, Brazil
| | - Richard Ian Samuels
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Robert J Carey
- Research and Development (151), VA Medical Center and SUNY Upstate Medical University, 800 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Marinete Pinheiro Carrera
- Behavioral Pharmacology Group, Laboratory of Animal Morphology and Pathology, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Avenida Alberto Lamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes, 28013-600, RJ, Brazil.
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Carey RJ, Damianopoulos EN. Serotonin and conditioning: focus on Pavlovian psychostimulant drug conditioning. Behav Brain Res 2015; 282:227-36. [PMID: 25446748 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Serotonin containing neurons are located in nuclei deep in the brainstem and send axons throughout the central nervous system from the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex. The vast scope of these connections and interactions enable serotonin and serotonin analogs to have profound effects upon sensory/motor processes. In that conditioning represents a neuroplastic process that leads to new sensory/motor connections, it is apparent that the serotonin system has the potential for a critical role in conditioning. In this article we review the basics of conditioning as well as the serotonergic system and point up the number of non-associative ways in which manipulations of serotonin neurotransmission have an impact upon conditioning. We focus upon psychostimulant drug conditioning and review the contribution of drug stimuli in the use of serotonin drugs to investigate drug conditioning and the important impact drug stimuli can have on conditioning by introducing new sensory stimuli that can create or mask a CS. We also review the ways in which experimental manipulations of serotonin can disrupt conditioned behavioral effects but not the associative processes in conditioning. In addition, we propose the use of the recently developed memory re-consolidation model of conditioning as an approach to assess the possible role of serotonin in associative processes without the complexities of performance effects related to serotonin treatment induced alterations in sensory/motor systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Carey
- Research Service and Development (151), VA Medical Center, 800 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Graduate School, SUNY Upstate Medical University at Syracuse, Syracuse, NY, USA.
| | - Ernest N Damianopoulos
- Research Service and Development (151), VA Medical Center, Room 326, 800 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
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Peters SM, Pothuizen HHJ, Spruijt BM. Ethological concepts enhance the translational value of animal models. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 759:42-50. [PMID: 25823814 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Revised: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The translational value of animal models is an issue of ongoing discussion. We argue that 'Refinement' of animal experiments is needed and this can be achieved by exploiting an ethological approach when setting up and conducting experiments. Ethology aims to assess the functional meaning of behavioral changes, due to experimental manipulation or treatment, in animal models. Although the use of ethological concepts is particularly important for studies involving the measurement of animal behavior (as is the case for most studies on neuro-psychiatric conditions), it will also substantially benefit other disciplines, such as those investigating the immune system or inflammatory response. Using an ethological approach also involves using more optimal testing conditions are employed that have a biological relevance to the animal. Moreover, using a more biological relevant analysis of the data will help to clarify the functional meaning of the modeled readout (e.g. whether it is psychopathological or adaptive in nature). We advocate for instance that more behavioral studies should use animals in group-housed conditions, including the recording of their ultrasonic vocalizations, because (1) social behavior is an essential feature of animal models for human 'social' psychopathologies, such as autism and schizophrenia, and (2) social conditions are indispensable conditions for appropriate behavioral studies in social species, such as the rat. Only when taking these elements into account, the validity of animal experiments and, thus, the translation value of animal models can be enhanced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M Peters
- Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, NL-3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands; Delta Phenomics B.V., Nistelrooisebaan 3, NL-5374 RE Schaijk, The Netherlands.
| | - Helen H J Pothuizen
- Delta Phenomics B.V., Nistelrooisebaan 3, NL-5374 RE Schaijk, The Netherlands
| | - Berry M Spruijt
- Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, NL-3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Post-trial induction of conditioned apomorphine stimulant and inhibitory response effects: Evidence for potent trace conditioning of drug effects. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 129:79-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Revised: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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A new proposal for drug conditioning with implications for drug addiction: The Pavlovian two-step from delay to trace conditioning. Behav Brain Res 2014; 275:150-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 08/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Reproducibility and relevance of future behavioral sciences should benefit from a cross fertilization of past recommendations and today's technology: "Back to the future". J Neurosci Methods 2014; 234:2-12. [PMID: 24632384 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Thanks to the discovery of novel technologies and sophisticated analysis tools we can now 'see' molecules, genes and even patterns of gene expression, which have resulted in major advances in many areas of biology. Recently, similar technologies have been developed for behavioral studies. However, the wide implementation of such technological progress in behavioral research remains behind, as if there are inhibiting factors for accepting and adopting available innovations. The methods of the majority of studies measuring and interpreting behavior of laboratory animals seem to have frozen in time somewhere in the last century. As an example of the so-called classical tests, we will present the history and shortcomings of one of the most frequently used tests, the open field. Similar objections and critical remarks, however, can be made with regard to the elevated plus maze, light-dark box, various other mazes, object recognition tests, etc. Possible solutions and recommendations on how progress in behavioral neuroscience can be achieved and accelerated will be discussed in the second part of this review.
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Acute and chronic ethanol differentially modify the emotional significance of a novel environment: implications for addiction. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2012; 15:1109-20. [PMID: 21854680 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145711001283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Using open-field behaviour as an experimental paradigm, we demonstrated a complex interaction between the rewarding/stimulating effects and the anxiogenic/stressful effects of both novelty and acute or chronic amphetamine in mice. As a consequence of this interaction, acute amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion was inhibited, whereas the expression of its sensitization was facilitated in a novel environment. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the interactions between exposure to a novel environment and the acute and chronic effects of ethanol (Eth), a drug of abuse known to produce anxiolytic-like behaviour in mice. Previously habituated and non-habituated male Swiss mice (3 months old) were tested in an open field after receiving an acute injection of Eth or following repeated treatment with Eth. Acute Eth administration increased locomotion with a greater magnitude in mice exposed to the apparatus for the first time, and this was thought to be related to the attenuation of the stressful effects of novelty produced by the anxiolytic-like effect of acute Eth, leading to a subsequent prevalence of its stimulant effects. However, locomotor sensitization produced by repeated Eth administration was expressed only in the previously explored environment. This result might be related to the well-known tolerance of Eth-induced anxiolytic-like behaviour following repeated treatment, which would restore the anxiogenic effect of novelty. Our data suggest that a complex and plastic interaction between the emotional and motivational properties of novelty and drugs of abuse can critically modify the behavioural expression of addiction-related mechanisms.
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Fukushiro DF, Josino FS, Saito LP, Costa JM, Zanlorenci LHF, Berro LF, Fernandes-Santos L, Morgado F, Mári-Kawamoto E, Frussa-Filho R. Differential effects of intermittent and continuous exposure to novel environmental stimuli on the development of amphetamine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice: implications for addiction. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 124:135-41. [PMID: 22296920 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Revised: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/30/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have demonstrated a preventive effect of continuous environmental enrichment during early development on the vulnerability of rodents to drug addiction-related behaviors. Recently, it was demonstrated that a continuous environmental enrichment could eliminate already established addiction-related behaviors in mice. The present study compared the effects of intermittent or continuous exposure to novel stimuli during repeated amphetamine (Amp) treatment on the development of behavioral sensitization (an animal model of addiction-related neuroadaptations) in adult mice. METHODS Three-month-old male Swiss mice were treated with 2.5mg/kg Amp every other day for 13 days in their home cages. Novel objects were presented in their home cages for 2h on non-drug treatment days (experiment 1) or for 24h/day during the 13 days of drug treatment (experiment 2). Seven days after the drug treatment had finished, the mice were challenged with 2.5mg/kg Amp, and their locomotor activity was quantified in a familiar open field for 10 min. RESULTS Intermittent exposure to the novel objects did not modify the acute Amp locomotor stimulatory effect but potentiated the development of Amp-induced locomotor sensitization. This enhanced sensitization was due to increased locomotion in the central squares of the apparatus, which suggests anxiolysis or increased impulsiveness. Conversely, continuous exposure to the novel objects potentiated the acute Amp locomotor stimulatory effect and blunted the development of Amp-induced locomotor sensitization. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that addiction-related behaviors can be differentially and critically modified depending on the schedule and period of the novelty exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela F Fukushiro
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R Botucatu, 862, Ed Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Chronic amphetamine transforms the emotional significance of a novel but not a familiar environment: implications for addiction. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2011; 14:955-65. [PMID: 21156091 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145710001379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Both drug-induced locomotor sensitization and reactivity to novelty in rodents have been related to drug-craving mechanisms in humans. We investigated whether the exposure to a completely novel environment would modulate the expression of locomotor sensitization induced by repeated administration of amphetamine (Amp) in mice. In addition to locomotion, different open-field behavioural parameters were used to evaluate the possible involvement of anxiogenic-like effects induced by Amp, novelty or a combination of the two. In order to avoid misinterpretations due to different locomotor baseline conditions, we used an open-field illumination condition in which previous exposure to the apparatus did not modify locomotion (although it reliably increased grooming behaviour). Acute Amp administration increased locomotion in mice previously habituated to the open field (Hab) but not in mice exposed to the apparatus for the first time (Nov). This absence of Amp-induced locomotor activation in Nov mice may be related to higher anxiety-like levels, because these animals displayed longer freezing duration. However, only Nov mice developed locomotor sensitization. Because Amp challenge in Amp pre-treated Nov mice did not induce an increase in freezing behaviour, the locomotor sensitization in Nov mice might be related to the tolerance of Amp-induced anxiogenic-like behaviour in novel environments. Repeated Amp administration increased motivation to explore the environment in Nov mice in that these animals presented a within-session locomotion-habituation deficit. Our data suggest that a complex and plastic interaction between the anxiogenic and motivational properties of both novelty and Amp can critically modify the behavioural expression of craving-related mechanisms.
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Carrera MP, Carey RJ, Dias FRC, de Matos LW. Reversal of apomorphine locomotor sensitization by a single post-conditioning trial treatment with a low autoreceptor dose of apomorphine: a memory re-consolidation approach. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 99:29-34. [PMID: 21447355 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Sensitization is a common feature of psychostimulants and sensitization effects are generally considered to be linked to the addictive properties of these drugs. We used a conventional paired/unpaired Pavlovian protocol to induce a context specific sensitization to the locomotor stimulant effect of a high dose of apomorphine (2.0mg/kg). Two days following a 5 session sensitization induction phase, a brief 5min non-drug test for conditioning was conducted. Only the paired groups exhibited locomotor stimulant conditioned response effects. Immediately following this brief test for conditioning, the paired and the unpaired groups received injections of 0.05mg/kg apomorphine, 2.0mg/kg apomorphine or vehicle designed to differentially impact memory re-consolidation of the conditioning. Two days later, all groups received a sensitization challenge test with 2.0mg/kg apomorphine. The 2.0mg/kg apomorphine post-trial treatment potentiated sensitization while the 0.05mg/kg eliminated sensitization. These effects were only observed in the paired groups. The activation of dopaminergic systems by the high dose of apomorphine strengthened the drug/environment association whereas the inhibition of dopamine activity by the low auto-receptor dose eliminated this association. The results point to the importance of conditioning to context specific sensitization and targeting memory re-consolidation of conditioning as a paradigm to modify sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marinete Pinheiro Carrera
- Behavioral Pharmacology Group, Laboratory of Animal Morphology and Pathology, State University of North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Avenida Alberto Lamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes, 28013-600, RJ, Brazil.
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20
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Abstract
Anhedonia is a core symptom of depression that also characterizes substance abuse-related mood disorders, in particular those secondary to stimulant abuse. This study investigated the long-lasting condition of cocaine sensitization as an inducing condition for anhedonia in rats. Cortical-mesolimbic dopamine plays a central role in assessing the incentive value of a stimulus and an increased dopamine output in these areas after a novel palatable meal seems to correlate with the ability to acquire an instrumental behaviour aimed at earning it again. This dopaminergic response is associated with consistent modifications in the phosphorylation pattern of some cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) substrates and it is mediated by dopamine D1 receptor stimulation. Thus, since behavioural cocaine sensitization is characterized by tonically increased levels of phospho-Thr75 DARPP-32 that is a potent PKA inhibitor, we hypothesized that cocaine-sensitized rats might reveal deficits in palatable food responding. Indeed, non-food-deprived cocaine-sensitized rats showed no interest in palatable food, no dopaminergic response after a palatable meal in terms of increased dopamine output and DARPP-32 phosphorylation changes, and no ability to acquire a palatable food-sustained instrumental behaviour. Repeated administration of an established antidepressant compound, imipramine, corrected these deficits and reinstated the dopaminergic response in the cortico-mesolimbic areas to control values. Thus, the behavioural modifications observed in cocaine-sensitized rats satisfy some requirements for an experimental model of anhedonia since they are induced by repeated cocaine administration (aetiological validity), they mimic an anhedonia-like symptom (construct validity), and are reversed by the administration of imipramine (predictive validity).
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Kameda SR, Fukushiro DF, Trombin TF, Procópio-Souza R, Patti CL, Hollais AW, Calzavara MB, Abílio VC, Ribeiro RA, Tufik S, D'Almeida V, Frussa-Filho R. Adolescent mice are more vulnerable than adults to single injection-induced behavioral sensitization to amphetamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 98:320-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2010] [Revised: 01/11/2011] [Accepted: 01/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Pinkston JW, Branch MN. Acute and chronic effects of cocaine on the spontaneous behavior of pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav 2010; 94:25-36. [PMID: 21279160 PMCID: PMC2893615 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2010.94-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Accepted: 03/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The present experiment examined the effects of acute and daily cocaine on spontaneous behavior patterns of pigeons. After determining the acute effects of a range of doses, 9 pigeons were divided into three groups that received one of three doses of cocaine daily, either 1.0, 3.0, or 10.0 mg/kg cocaine. Measures were taken of spontaneous locomotion, pecking, preening, and emesis. Under daily administration, cocaine induced consistent and substantial enhancements of its locomotor effects in all 9 pigeons, consistent with the phenomenon of locomotor sensitization. The maximum locomotor output did not differ according to the size of the daily dose. Locomotion was not elevated following tests of the saline vehicle, suggesting the effect was due to cocaine, not to a change in baseline or reactivity to the injection procedure. Cocaine dose-dependently decreased preening when given acutely, and those effects were not altered by repeated cocaine administration. Pecking occurred at very low rates and was unresponsive to cocaine treatment. Cocaine-induced emesis showed a dose-dependent increase under initial tests with cocaine, and those effects were attenuated following daily exposure. In a final condition, cocaine was replaced with daily saline for 30 days to assess the persistence cocaine-related increases in locomotion. Approximately half of the pigeons continued to show enhanced effects even after 30 days without cocaine, so although persistence was obtained, it showed marked intersubject variability. The data indicate that the effects of repeated cocaine administration on the behavior of pigeons shows parallels with many effects commonly reported with rodents (i.e., increased locomotion following repeated treatment, decrease in preening or grooming, persistence following drug withdrawal).
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Filip M, Alenina N, Bader M, Przegaliński E. Behavioral evidence for the significance of serotoninergic (5-HT) receptors in cocaine addiction. Addict Biol 2010; 15:227-49. [PMID: 20456287 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2010.00214.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine addiction has somatic, psychological, psychiatric, socio-economic and legal implications in the developed world. Presently, there is no medication approved for the treatment of cocaine addiction. In recent years, data from the literature (pre-clinical studies and clinical trials) have provided several lines of evidence that serotonin (5-HT) and 5-HT receptors play a modulatory role in the mechanisms of action of cocaine. Here we review the contribution of 5-HT receptor subtypes to cocaine sensitization, discrimination, conditioned place preference, self-administration, reinstatement of seeking behavior and withdrawal symptoms in laboratory animals. Additionally, the consequences of chronic cocaine exposure on particular 5-HT receptor-assigned functions in pre-clinical studies are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Małgorzata Filip
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343 Kraków, 12 Smetna, Poland.
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24
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Fukushiro DF, Benetti LF, Josino FS, Oliveira GP, Fernandes MD, Saito LP, Uehara RA, Wuo-Silva R, Oliveira CS, Frussa-Filho R. Environmental novelty and illumination modify ethanol-induced open-field behavioral effects in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 95:13-22. [PMID: 19969017 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2009] [Revised: 11/13/2009] [Accepted: 12/01/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Both spontaneous and drug-induced animal behaviors can be modified by exposure to novel stimuli or different levels of environmental illumination. However, research into how these factors specifically impact ethanol (ETH)-induced behavioral effects is currently lacking. We aimed to investigate the effects of these two factors, considered separately or in conjunction, on ETH-induced acute hyperlocomotor effect and its sensitization in adult male Swiss mice. Mice were placed in a novel or familiar open-field under normal light (200 lx) or low light (9 lx) immediately after receiving an ip injection of either 1.8 g/kg ETH or saline (SAL). After 7 days, all animals received an ip challenge injection of 1.8 g/kg ETH, and were placed in the open-field under the same light conditions described above. Novelty increased central locomotion and decreased grooming, while low light increased grooming. Acute ETH administration increased both total and peripheral locomotion and these effects were potentiated by low light. Both low light and novelty were able to facilitate ETH-induced locomotor sensitization, which was detected by the central locomotion parameter. However, there was no synergism between the effects of these two modulating factors on ETH-induced behavioral sensitization. We conclude that both the acute behavioral effects of ETH and behavioral sensitization induced by previous administration of this drug can be critically modified by environmental factors. In addition, our study stresses the importance of using different behavioral parameters to evaluate the interaction between environmental factors and ETH effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela F Fukushiro
- Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Arias C, Mlewski EC, Miller S, Molina JC, Spear NE. Novelty modulates the stimulating motor effects of ethanol in preweanling rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 92:448-56. [PMID: 19463258 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2008] [Revised: 01/08/2009] [Accepted: 01/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
During early ontogeny heterogeneous rats are sensitive to ethanol's stimulating effects. In adulthood locomotor activity in a novel environment is a valuable predictor of acute sensitivity to the activating effects of various drugs, including ethanol. Environmental novelty modulates response to ethanol and other drugs in adult rats. The present study analyzed the role of novelty in the acute locomotor response induced by ethanol earlier in development, during the preweanling period, a stage characterized by enhanced sensitivity to ethanol's reinforcing effects. In Experiment 1 we evaluated the predictive value of baseline locomotor activity upon ethanol-induced locomotor effects in 12-day-old rats. In Experiment 2 we tested whether repeated familiarization with the testing environment would reduce the stimulating effects induced by ethanol on postnatal day 12. Individual differences in response to an inescapable novel environment significantly predicted the locomotor activating effects of ethanol, but not other acute effects of the drug, such as hypothermia, motor impairment or sedation. Behavioral activation induced by ethanol during the preweanling period was attenuated after familiarization with the testing environment, suggesting that environmental novelty is critical for activating effects of ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Arias
- Center for Development and Behavioral Neuroscience, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA.
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26
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Magalhães A, Melo P, Alves CJ, Tavares MA, de Sousa L, Summavielle T. Exploratory behavior in rats postnatally exposed to cocaine and housed in an enriched environment. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1139:358-65. [PMID: 18991882 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1432.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to cocaine in early periods of postnatal life is usually associated with changes in development of neurotransmitter systems and structure of the central nervous system. Such changes are most likely correlated with behavioral alterations. Environmental enrichment conditions (EC) in early stages is a factor that affects structural and behavioral development. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of EC on rats postnatally exposed to cocaine on exploratory behavior. Wistar rats were assigned to four groups-Group 1: pups exposed to cocaine hydrochloride (15 mg/kg body weight/day) s.c., in two daily doses, from postnatal day (PND) 1 to 28 and reared in EC; Group 2: pups exposed to cocaine as previously described and reared in a standard environmental conditions (SC); Group 3: pups saline-injected and reared in EC; and Group 4: pups saline-injected and reared in SC. On PND 21, 24, and 28, groups of four rats (to reduce anxiety) were placed for 10 minutes into an arena with several objects. The following exploratory behavioral categories were examined: object interaction, exploration, manipulation, approximation, and total time of object contact. Animals from Group 2 showed decreased object interaction and total contact on PND 21. Control offspring reared in EE showed decreases in exploratory behavior at all ages analyzed compared with the control SE group, while cocaine-exposed animals reared in EC showed decreased object interaction, object approximation, and total exploratory behavior. The results in this group suggest that EC improved information acquisition and memory processes in animals postnatally exposed to cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Magalhães
- Neurocomportamento, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Cunningham RL, McGinnis MY. Prepubertal social subjugation and anabolic androgenic steroid-induced aggression in male rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2008; 20:997-1005. [PMID: 18510706 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2008.01756.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Abused children are more prone to abuse drugs, such as anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), as teenagers and display violence as adults. AAS use has been linked with elevated aggression. Thus, exposure to child abuse and AAS may potentiate aggression. A social subjugation paradigm was used as an animal model of childhood abuse to determine whether prior subjugation increases AAS-induced aggression in male rats. Prepubertal gonadally intact male rats were exposed to social subjugation, a novel cage experience, or remained undisturbed in their home cages. Experimental males were socially subjugated by being placed in the home cage of an adult male. At puberty, both subjugated and nonsubjugated rats were injected with either the AAS testosterone or vehicle. AAS treatment continued for 5 weeks. Aggression was measured during the last week of AAS exposure. AAS was then discontinued. Aggression was again tested 12 weeks after AAS withdrawal. Aggression was tested under three conditions: (i) physical provocation of the experimental male; (ii) provocation of the intruder male; and (iii) without provocation. Both AAS-treated males and socially subjugated males displayed significantly more aggression than did controls. Elevated aggression by subjugated males was still present 17 weeks after social subjugation. AAS males also showed increased aggression 12 weeks after AAS withdrawal. However, exposure to both social subjugation and AAS had no long-term effects on aggression. The results of the present study indicate that social subjugation may have lasting consequences on the expression of adaptive social behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Cunningham
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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28
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Abstract
Repeated exposure to cocaine often leads to tolerance to effects on operant behavior, whereas sensitization often develops to effects on locomotor activity. The purpose of the present set of experiments was to examine if locomotor sensitization to cocaine would develop in the presence or absence of an operant contingency in rats. In Experiment 1, rats lever pressed on an FR schedule of reinforcement, and were administered chronic cocaine. Tolerance to effects of cocaine on lever pressing developed in most subjects. No subjects developed locomotor sensitization even when the operant contingency was removed. Experiment 2 examined effects of chronic cocaine administration in rats with no exposure to an operant contingency. Tolerance developed to locomotor effects of cocaine in some subjects, but none developed sensitization. In Experiment 3, rats were exposed to a shorter drug regimen, and given time off before a sensitization-test session. Some, but not all subjects showed locomotor sensitization during the test session. The present results, therefore, show that locomotor sensitization to cocaine is not an inevitable consequence of repeated exposure to the drug.
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Seymour CM, Wagner JJ. Simultaneous expression of cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization and conditioned place preference in individual rats. Brain Res 2008; 1213:57-68. [PMID: 18455710 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.03.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Revised: 03/19/2008] [Accepted: 03/20/2008] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Conditioned place preference and locomotor sensitization are rodent behavioral models commonly used to investigate the actions of drugs of abuse. However, few studies have examined both paradigms in the same group of animals. We were interested in developing a combined protocol which successfully induced both conditioned place preference and sensitization simultaneously in cocaine-treated Sprague-Dawley rats in order to test the hypothesis that the magnitude of these two phenomena would be positively correlated. We used an open-field with a removable place preference insert to assess these measures independently. Cocaine-conditioned animals demonstrated a significant shift in preference for the drug-paired compartment and a sensitized locomotor response which was not observed in saline-conditioned animals challenged with cocaine. There was no significant relationship between locomotor sensitization and conditioned place preference in individual animals. We further examined these results with respect to each rat's initial response to cocaine, response to a novel environment and central zone entries in an open-field. Locomotor sensitization demonstrated an inverse correlation with the initial cocaine response. In contrast, conditioned place preference demonstrated an inverse correlation with the centre response. These results demonstrate that the combination of the acute cocaine response and the centre response in a novel open-field environment can be used to indicate the propensity of a given rat to exhibit either behavioral sensitization or conditioned place preference; however, it seems that sensitization and place preference are not necessarily co-expressed to a similar extent in the same individual animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Seymour
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Georgia, 501 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602-7389, USA
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de Araujo FLB, Bertolino G, Funayama CAR, Coimbra NC, de Araujo JE. Influence of treadmill training on motor performance and organization of exploratory behavior in Meriones unguiculatus with unilateral ischemic stroke: Histological correlates in hippocampal CA1 region and the neostriatum. Neurosci Lett 2008; 431:179-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2007] [Revised: 11/19/2007] [Accepted: 11/23/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Wiley JL. Antipsychotic-induced suppression of locomotion in juvenile, adolescent and adult rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 578:216-21. [PMID: 17935710 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2007] [Revised: 09/17/2007] [Accepted: 09/18/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a serious psychiatric disorder that is most frequently treated with the administration of antipsychotics. Although onset of schizophrenia typically occurs in late adolescence, the majority of preclinical research on the behavioral effects of antipsychotics and their mechanism(s) of action has been conducted on adult male animals. In this study, the acute effects of haloperidol (0.03-0.3 mg/kg, i.p.) and clozapine (1-10 mg/kg, i.p.) on locomotor activity were examined in juvenile [postnatal day 22 (PN22)], adolescent (PN40), and adult (>PN70) rats of both sexes. Subsequently, in order to determine whether tolerance to the activity suppressive effects of these drugs would occur in adolescents, PN40 rats were dosed and assessed for an additional nine days. While all groups exhibited some degree of suppression following acute administration of both drugs, juvenile rats were considerably more sensitive to this effect. With sub-chronic administration during late adolescent development (PN40-PN49), tolerance failed to develop. These results emphasize the importance of age in pharmacological characterization of antipsychotics and suggest that pre-adolescents may have enhanced sensitivity to the motor effects of these drugs. Further, they suggest that, similar to adults, older adolescents may not develop tolerance to the activity suppression induced by these two antipsychotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 980613, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0613, USA.
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32
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López-Patiño MA, Yu L, Cabral H, Zhdanova IV. Anxiogenic effects of cocaine withdrawal in zebrafish. Physiol Behav 2007; 93:160-71. [PMID: 17889042 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2007] [Revised: 06/30/2007] [Accepted: 08/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Continued usage of cocaine is determined by genetic, conditioned and homeostatic factors, while it is reinforced by drug-induced reward and the emotionally negative state of drug withdrawal, which includes anxiety. The molecular mechanisms of these long-term behavioral and physiological alterations have yet to be fully elucidated. Here we demonstrate that in zebrafish, a wide range of non-anesthetic cocaine doses, 0.015-15 muM, does not result in acute alterations in locomotor activity, in spite of the high brain cocaine levels induced (7-120 pg/microg protein). Conversely, cocaine withdrawal causes hyperactivity associated with stereotypy. The behavioral hyperactivity is progressively increased during the initial period of withdrawal (24-72 h) and is maintained for at least 5 days. Such effect of cocaine withdrawal is aggravated by environmental stimulation and attenuated in the home environment. Administration of cocaine (1.5 microM) or a non-sedative dose of diazepam (5 microM, immersion) acutely counteracts withdrawal-associated hyperactivity and stereotypy in zebrafish, with the magnitude of these effects positively correlating with the degree of prior increase in basal activity. Administration of an anxiogenic benzodiazepine inverse agonist, FG-7142, results in zebrafish behavior similar to that observed during cocaine withdrawal. Together, the results suggest that cocaine withdrawal produces long-lasting behavioral effects in zebrafish which are consistent with an anxiety-like state. Thus, zebrafish, a powerful model for the study of vertebrate genetics, could provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of drug withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos A López-Patiño
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Boston University, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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Gulley JM, Everett CV, Zahniser NR. Inbred Lewis and Fischer 344 rat strains differ not only in novelty- and amphetamine-induced behaviors, but also in dopamine transporter activity in vivo. Brain Res 2007; 1151:32-45. [PMID: 17395161 PMCID: PMC1936412 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2006] [Revised: 02/28/2007] [Accepted: 03/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Inbred Lewis (LEW) and Fischer 344 (F344) rats are differentially sensitive to drugs of abuse, making them useful for studying addiction-related neural mechanisms. Here, we investigated whether strain differences in dopamine transporters (DATs) in dorsal striatum (dSTR) and/or nucleus accumbens (NAc) may help to explain their behavioral differences. The behavior of male LEW and F344 rats was assessed in an open-field arena during habituation to novelty and after an i.v. infusion of saline and/or 0.5 mg/kg d-amphetamine (AMPH). In vitro measures of DAT binding, protein and cell-surface expression, as well as in vitro and in vivo measures of function, were used to compare DATs in dSTR and NAc of these two strains. We found that LEW rats exhibited higher novelty- and AMPH-induced locomotion, but F344 rats exhibited greater AMPH-induced rearing and stereotypy. An initial habituation session with i.v. saline minimized the strain differences in AMPH-induced behaviors except that the more frequent AMPH-induced rearing in F344 rats persisted. Strain differences in DAT total protein and basal activity were also observed, with LEW rats having less protein and slower in vivo clearance of locally applied DA in dSTR and NAc. AMPH inhibited in vivo DA clearance in dSTR and NAc of both strains, but to a greater extent in F344 rats. Taken together, the lower basal DAT function in LEW rats is consistent with their greater novelty-induced locomotor activation, whereas the greater inhibition of DA clearance by AMPH in F344 rats is consistent with their marked AMPH-induced rearing behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua M Gulley
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Program, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO, USA.
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Chen R, Zhang M, Park S, Gnegy ME. C57BL/6J mice show greater amphetamine-induced locomotor activation and dopamine efflux in the striatum than 129S2/SvHsd mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 87:158-63. [PMID: 17524461 PMCID: PMC2104492 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2007] [Revised: 04/19/2007] [Accepted: 04/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Inbred strains of mice have served as valuable models for studying genetic susceptibility to drug addiction, an alternative to genetically modified mouse models. This is the first study comparing amphetamine (AMPH) effects on locomotor stimulation and dopamine efflux between two inbred strains of mice C57BL/6J and 129S2/SvHsd, frequently used as background strains for production of genetically engineered mice. There were no significant differences in basal locomotor activity and basal dopamine levels between the two strains. However, C57BL/6J mice showed greater AMPH-stimulated locomotor activity and AMPH-induced striatal dopamine efflux than 129S2/SvHsd mice. The differential AMPH effects could not be explained by differences in presynaptic dopamine components such as surface and total dopamine transporter (DAT) expression levels, striatal dopamine contents, and DAT activity. C57BL/6J and 129S2/SvHsd mice are excellent models for future identification of genetic, molecular, and behavioral components related to individual vulnerability to AMPH addiction. This study emphasizes the importance of mouse strain selections in the production of genetically modified mice for investigating phenotypes and mechanisms of psychostimulants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Panlilio LV, Solinas M, Matthews SA, Goldberg SR. Previous exposure to THC alters the reinforcing efficacy and anxiety-related effects of cocaine in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:646-57. [PMID: 16738542 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The hypothesis that prior cannabis exposure increases the likelihood of becoming addicted to other drugs can be evaluated by giving rats a history of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure, then allowing them to self-administer other drugs. In Experiment 1, THC pre-exposure did not alter the acquisition of cocaine self-administration or the amount of cocaine taken under a fixed-ratio 1 (FR1) schedule, with one response required for each injection. Under a progressive-ratio schedule, with the response requirement increasing exponentially with each injection, cocaine-seeking was significantly reduced in THC-exposed rats, suggesting that the regimen of THC exposure used in the present study caused cocaine to be devalued as a reinforcer. In contrast, in an earlier study that used the same regimen, a history of THC exposure did not alter the value of heroin as a reinforcer under the progressive-ratio schedule, but it increased heroin self-administration under the FR1 schedule. Experiment 2 examined how this regimen of THC pre-exposure alters the locomotor effects of cocaine and heroin. THC pre-exposure produced cross-tolerance to the motor-depressant effects of heroin; this may explain the shortened post-injection pauses exhibited by THC-exposed rats under FR1 heroin self-administration. When given cocaine, THC-exposed rats exhibited normal increases in locomotion, but they avoided the center of the open field, suggesting that this THC pre-exposure regimen enhances the anxiogenic effects of cocaine. This enhanced anxiogenic effect-which was verified in Experiment 3 using another model of anxiety, the light-dark test-may explain the reduced reinforcing value of cocaine observed in THC-exposed rats in Experiment 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh V Panlilio
- Department of Health and Human Services, Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Müller CP, Carey RJ, Huston JP, De Souza Silva MA. Serotonin and psychostimulant addiction: Focus on 5-HT1A-receptors. Prog Neurobiol 2007; 81:133-78. [PMID: 17316955 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2007.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2006] [Revised: 12/04/2006] [Accepted: 01/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Serotonin(1A)-receptors (5-HT(1A)-Rs) are important components of the 5-HT system in the brain. As somatodendritic autoreceptors they control the activity of 5-HT neurons, and, as postsynaptic receptors, the activity in terminal areas. Cocaine (COC), amphetamine (AMPH), methamphetamine (METH) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("Ecstasy", MDMA) are psychostimulant drugs that can lead to addiction-related behavior in humans and in animals. At the neurochemical level, these psychostimulant drugs interact with monoamine transporters and increase extracellular 5-HT, dopamine and noradrenalin activity in the brain. The increase in 5-HT, which, in addition to dopamine, is a core mechanism of action for drug addiction, hyperactivates 5-HT(1A)-Rs. Here, we first review the role of the various 5-HT(1A)-R populations in spontaneous behavior to provide a background to elucidate the contribution of the 5-HT(1A)-Rs to the organization of psychostimulant-induced addiction behavior. The progress achieved in this field shows the fundamental contribution of brain 5-HT(1A)-Rs to virtually all behaviors associated with psychostimulant addiction. Importantly, the contribution of pre- and postsynaptic 5-HT(1A)-Rs can be dissociated and frequently act in opposite directions. We conclude that 5-HT(1A)-autoreceptors mainly facilitate psychostimulant addiction-related behaviors by a limitation of the 5-HT response in terminal areas. Postsynaptic 5-HT(1A)-Rs, in contrast, predominantly inhibit the expression of various addiction-related behaviors directly. In addition, they may also influence the local 5-HT response by feedback mechanisms. The reviewed findings do not only show a crucial role of 5-HT(1A)-Rs in the control of brain 5-HT activity and spontaneous behavior, but also their complex role in the regulation of the psychostimulant-induced 5-HT response and subsequent addiction-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian P Müller
- Institute of Physiological Psychology I, University of Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Conversi D, Bonito-Oliva A, Orsini C, Cabib S. Habituation to the test cage influences amphetamine-induced locomotion and Fos expression and increases FosB/DeltaFosB-like immunoreactivity in mice. Neuroscience 2006; 141:597-605. [PMID: 16713106 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2005] [Revised: 04/04/2006] [Accepted: 04/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pre-exposure to the testing cage (habituation or familiarization) is a common procedure aimed at reducing the interference of novelty-induced arousal and drug-independent individual differences on neural and behavioral measures. However, recent results suggest that this procedure might exert a major influence on the effects of addictive drugs. The present experiments tested the effects of repeated exposure to a test cage (1 h daily for four consecutive days) on amphetamine-induced locomotion and Fos expression as well as on FosB/DeltaFosB-like immunoreactivity in mice of the C57BL/6J and DBA/2J inbred strains that differ for the response to amphetamine, stress and novelty. Daily experiences with the test cage increased FosB/DeltaFosB-like immunoreactivity in the medial-prefrontal cortex of both strains of mice and in the caudate of mice of the C57 strain, as reported for repeated stress in the rat. Moreover, previous habituation to the test cage reduced the locomotor response to a low dose of amphetamine only in DBA mice while it reduced amphetamine-induced Fos expression in medial-prefrontal cortex, dorsal caudate and the accumbens shell of mice of the C57 strain. These results demonstrate indexes of stress-like plasticity in the brains of mice exposed to a procedure of familiarization to the testing environment. Moreover, they suggest that the procedure of daily familiarization influences the pattern of brain Fos expression induced by amphetamine. Finally, they indicate complex interactions between experience with the testing environment, genotype and drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Conversi
- Department of Psychology, University "La Sapienza," via dei Marsi 78, Rome I-00185, Italy; Fondazione Santa Lucia, Istituto di Recovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Centro Europeo per la Ricerca sul Cervello, via del Fosso di Fiorano, Rome 01443, Italy
| | - A Bonito-Oliva
- Department of Psychology, University "La Sapienza," via dei Marsi 78, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - C Orsini
- Department of Psychology, University "La Sapienza," via dei Marsi 78, Rome I-00185, Italy; Fondazione Santa Lucia, Istituto di Recovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Centro Europeo per la Ricerca sul Cervello, via del Fosso di Fiorano, Rome 01443, Italy
| | - S Cabib
- Department of Psychology, University "La Sapienza," via dei Marsi 78, Rome I-00185, Italy; Fondazione Santa Lucia, Istituto di Recovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Centro Europeo per la Ricerca sul Cervello, via del Fosso di Fiorano, Rome 01443, Italy.
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Carey RJ, Damianopoulos EN. Cocaine conditioning and sensitization: The habituation factor. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2006; 84:128-33. [PMID: 16764915 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2006] [Revised: 04/12/2006] [Accepted: 04/25/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The behavioral and neurobiological impact of cocaine can be strongly influenced by the environmental context in which the cocaine effects are experienced. In this report, we present the results of an experimental study in which the effects of environmental context in terms of novelty/familiarity upon locomotor stimulant effects of cocaine were examined. In the first phase of the study, two groups of naïve rats (N=10/group) received either cocaine (10 mg/kg) or saline immediately prior to a 20-min test in a novel open-field environment. After three daily cocaine/saline test sessions, both groups received a saline test to evaluate cocaine conditioned drug effects. In the second phase, two groups (N=10/group) were administered a 20-min saline test 1 day prior to receiving the same cocaine and saline testing regimen as in the first phase. Cocaine sensitization effects were not observed when the cocaine treatments were initiated in a novel environment but were observed when the same cocaine treatments were preceded 1 day by a single 20-min test environment exposure. The maximal locomotion sensitization effects observed, however, did not exceed the locomotor stimulant effects induced by cocaine administered in a novel environment. Thus, the cocaine sensitization manifested following a brief 20-min exposure to the test environment 1 day prior to cocaine administration represented a reversal of an inhibitory habituation effect. Cocaine-conditioned effects were also observed in both phases. These cocaine conditioned effects approximated, but did not exceed, the activation effects generated by a novel environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Carey
- Research and Development Service (151), VA Medical Center, 800 Irving Avenue, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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Spruijt BM, DeVisser L. Advanced behavioural screening: automated home cage ethology. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2006; 3:231-237. [PMID: 24980412 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2006.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Animal behaviour has been studied using two approaches, (1) well-controlled experiments focusing on specific responses and (2) those with natural - fuzzy - but biologically relevant conditions. Ideally, one behavioural test should be able to address both. The home cage provided with various stimuli is proposed as an all-in-one possibility. This, however, results in an exponential increase in complexity regarding observation and analysis tools. It seems difficult to accept that behavioural expressions need a mathematical approach to unravel its organisation and meaning. Developments in artificial intelligence and data mining are essential to accelerate this necessary evolution in behavioural sciences.:
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Affiliation(s)
- Berry M Spruijt
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neurosciences, UMC Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Leonie DeVisser
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neurosciences, UMC Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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