In situ T-cell transfection by anti-CD3-conjugated lipid nanoparticles leads to T-cell activation, migration, and phenotypic shift

Chimeric Antigen Receptor-Engineered Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles Promote Dual-Targeted mRNA-Based Cancer Gene Therapy

Gene therapy using mRNA has facilitated progress in cancer therapy. However, its application is hindered by a limited tumor-targeted delivery approach, leading to off-target effects and safety concerns. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) molecules enable T cells to recognize specific antigens in a major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted manner. CAR approaches provide an "off-the-shelf" solution for introducing additional targeting functionality to a cell membrane. Cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles with homotypic tumor-targeted properties provide a readily accessible platform for gene engineering and membrane extraction. Herein, we demonstrate a CAR-inspired cancer cell membrane-coated platform for delivering an mRNA formulation through a dual tumor-targeted mechanism. The simplified human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-specific CAR molecule (comprising an extracellular HER2-binding domain, a hinge, and a transmembrane domain) was engineered on the cell membrane of cancer cells to establish CAR-CT26 cells. The extracted CAR-CT26 membrane (CARM) was subsequently coated onto the lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-mRNA surface to form a CARM@LNP-mRNA complex. In vitro, the CARM-coated nanoparticles exhibited enhanced mRNA transfection efficiency toward CT26 cells overexpressing target HER2 antigens. Systemic administration of the CARM@LNP-mRNA formulation resulted in stronger tumor-targeting ability and tumor suppression in HER2+ CT26 subcutaneous tumors and peritoneal cavity metastasis models than that observed with the CT26 cell membrane-coated version. Our data suggest that CARM@LNP is a feasible choice for mRNA-based gene therapy. These results provide evidence for the systemic administration of CARM@LNP-mRNA as a promising tumor-targeted therapeutic strategy.

State of the art in CAR-based therapy: In vivo CAR production as a revolution in cell-based cancer treatment

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy has successfully treated relapsed/refractory hematological cancers. This strategy can effectively target tumor cells. However, despite positive outcomes in clinical applications, challenges remain to overcome. These hurdles pertain to the production of the drugs, solid tumor resistance, and side effects related to the treatment. Some cases have been missed during the drug preparation due to manufacturing issues, prolonged production times, and high costs. These challenges mainly arise from the in vitro manufacturing process, so reevaluating this process could minimize the number of missed patients. The immune cells are traditionally collected and sent to the laboratory; after several steps, the cells are modified to express the CAR gene before being injected back into the patient's body. During the in vivo method, the CAR gene is introduced to the immune cells inside the body. This allows for treatment to begin sooner, avoiding potential failures in drug preparation and the associated high costs. In this review, we will elaborate on the production and treatment process using in vivo CAR, examine the benefits and challenges of this approach, and ultimately present the available solutions for incorporating this treatment into clinical practice.

Targeted immunotherapy rescues pulmonary fibrosis by reducing activated fibroblasts and regulating alveolar cell profile

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a severe lung disease occurring throughout the world; however, few clinical therapies are available for treating this disorder. Overactivated fibroblasts drive abnormal fibrosis accumulation to maintain dynamic balance between inflammation and extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness. Given pulmonary cell can regenerate, the lung may possess self-repairing abilities if fibrosis is removed via clearance of overactivated fibroblasts. The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic activity of transient antifibrotic chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells (generated via a novelly-designed lipid nanoparticle-messenger RNA (LNP-mRNA) system) and explore the regeneration mechanisms of lung in a male mouse model of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Here we found that fibrosis-induced ECM stiffening impaired alveolar epithelial cell compensation. The proposed LNP-mRNA therapy eliminated overactivated fibroblasts to rescue pulmonary fibrosis. The restored ECM environment regulated the cellular profile. The elevated plasticity of AT2 and Pclaf+ cells increased AT1 cell population via polarization. Apoe+ macrophages and increased numbers of effector T cells were shown to reestablish pulmonary immunity. Hence, LNP-mRNA treatment for fibrosis can restore pulmonary structure and function to similar degrees to those of a healthy lung. This therapy is a potential treatment for IPF patients.

HIV Tat as a latency reversing agent: turning the tables on viral persistence

The 'shock and kill' approach to an HIV cure involves the use of latency reversing agents (LRAs) to reactivate latent HIV, with the aim to induce death of infected cells through virus induced cytolysis or immune mediated clearance. Most LRAs tested to date have been unable to overcome the blocks to transcription elongation and splicing that persist in resting CD4+ T cells. Furthermore, most LRAs target host factors and therefore have associated toxicities. Therefore, there remains a high need for HIV-specific LRAs that can also potently upregulate expression of multiply-spliced HIV RNA and viral protein. The HIV Transactivator of Transcription (Tat) protein plays an important role in viral replication - amplifying transcription from the viral promoter - but it is present at low to negligible levels in latently infected cells. As such, it has been hypothesized that providing Tat in trans could result in efficient HIV reactivation from latency. Recent studies exploring different types of Tat-based LRAs have used different nanoparticles for Tat delivery and describe potent, HIV-specific induction of multiply-spliced HIV RNA and protein ex vivo. However, there are several potential challenges to using Tat as a therapeutic, including the ability of Tat to cause systemic toxicities in vivo, limited delivery of Tat to the HIV reservoir due to poor uptake of nucleic acid by resting cells, and challenges in activating truly transcriptionally silent viruses. Identifying ways to mitigate these challenges will be critical to developing effective Tat-based LRA approaches towards an HIV cure.

Metabolic Stability and Targeted Delivery of Oligonucleotides: Advancing RNA Therapeutics Beyond The Liver

Oligonucleotides have emerged as a formidable new class of nucleic acid therapeutics. Fully modified oligonucleotides exhibit enhanced metabolic stability and display successful clinical applicability for targets formerly considered "undruggable". Accumulating studies show that conjugation to targeting modalities of stabilized oligonucleotides, especially small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), has enabled robust delivery to intended cells/tissues. However, the major challenge in the field has been the stability and targeted delivery of oligonucleotides (siRNAs and antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs)) to extrahepatic tissues. In this Perspective, we review chemistry innovations and emerging delivery approaches that have revolutionized oligonucleotide drug discovery and development. We explore findings from both academia and industry that highlight the potential of oligonucleotides for indications involving different extrahepatic organs─including skeletal muscles, brain, lungs, skin, heart, adipose tissue, and eyes. In all, continued advances in chemistry coupled with conjugation-based approaches or novel administration routes will further advance the delivery of oligonucleotides to extrahepatic tissues.

Antibody-Nanoparticle Conjugates in Therapy: Combining the Best of Two Worlds

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and antibody fragments have revolutionized medicine as highly specific binding agents and inhibitors. At the same time, several types of nanomaterials, including liposomes, lipid nanoparticles (NPs), polymersomes, metal and metal oxide NPs, and protein nanostructures, are increasingly utilized and explored for therapeutic potential due to their versatility, chemical and physical properties, and tunability. However, nanomaterials alone often lack specificity, leading to relatively low efficacy and/or high toxicity. To address this problem, a rapidly emerging area is antibody-nanomaterial conjugates (ANCs), which combine the precise targeting specificity of antibodies with the effector functionality of the nanomaterial. In this review, we give a brief introduction to mAbs and major conjugation techniques, describe major classes of nanomaterials being studied for therapeutic potential, and review the literature on ANCs of each class. Special focus is given to emerging applications including ANCs addressing the blood-brain barrier, ANCs delivering nucleic acids, and light-activated ANCs. While many disease targets are related to cancer, ANCs are also under development to address autoimmune, neurological, and infectious diseases. While important challenges remain, ANCs are poised to become a next-generation therapeutic technology.

T Cell-Targeting Nanotherapies for Atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Specifically, atherosclerosis is a primary cause of acute cardiac events. However, current therapies mainly focus on lipid-lowering versus addressing the underlying inflammatory response that leads to its development and progression. Nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery offers a promising approach for targeting and regulating these inflammatory responses. In atherosclerotic lesions, inflammatory cascades result in increased T helper (Th) 1 and Th17 activity and reduced T regulatory activation. The regulation of T cell responses is critical in preventing the inflammatory imbalance in atherosclerosis, making them a key therapeutic target for nanotherapy to achieve precise atherosclerosis treatment. By functionalizing nanoparticles with targeting modalities, therapeutic agents can be delivered specifically to immune cells in atherosclerotic lesions. In this Review, we outline the role of T cells in atherosclerosis, examine current nanotherapeutic strategies for targeting T cells and modulating their differentiation, and provide perspectives for the development of nanoparticles specifically tailored to target T cells for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Targeted spleen modulation: a novel strategy for next-generation disease immunotherapy

The spleen, the largest lymphatic organ, comprises a diverse array of immunocytes in approximately one quarter of the body, including T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, and myeloid cells (such as dendritic cells, neutrophils, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and macrophages). These immune cells undergo dynamic transitions and mobilization, enabling the spleen to execute a wide range of immunological functions. The spleen's structural organization and multicellular composition, along with its reservoir of lymphocytes, facilitate the capture and clearance of blood-borne antigens while also orchestrating both innate and adaptive immune responses. Additionally, the spleen plays critical roles in hematopoiesis and the removal of aged or damaged red blood cells. Despite being innervated by sympathetic (catecholaminergic) nerve fibers, the spleen lacks parasympathetic (vagal or cholinergic) innervation. The neuroimmune axis, particularly the interplay between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system immune circuits, significantly influences disease onset and progression. Extensive research employing physical, genetic, and pharmacological approaches has sought to directly modulate splenic immunocytes and activate neuroimmune interactions to restore immune homeostasis and counteract disease. Two primary mechanisms underlie these immunomodulatory interventions: (1) the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, wherein norepinephrine released by splenic catecholaminergic fibers binds to β2-adrenergic receptors on CD4⁺ T cells, triggering acetylcholine secretion, which in turn suppresses inflammatory cytokine production in macrophages via α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor signaling, and (2) direct immunomodulation of splenic immunocytes, which regulates key genes and signaling pathways, alters cytokine secretion, and modulates ion flux to influence cellular functions. Among various therapeutic strategies, physical methods, particularly electrical stimulation and splenic ultrasound stimulation, have demonstrated the greatest promise for clinical applications in splenic immunomodulation and disease management.

A review of common immunotherapy and nano immunotherapy for acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a highly aggressive hematological malignancy. Traditional chemotherapy methods not only bring serious side effects, but also lead to high recurrence rate and drug resistance in some patients. However, as an emerging therapeutic strategy, immunotherapy has shown great potential in the field of AML treatment in recent years. At present, common immunotherapy methods for AML include monoclonal antibodies, CAR-T cell therapy, and immune checkpoint inhibitors. With the deepening of research and technological progress, especially the application of nanotechnology in medicine, new immunotherapy is expected to become one of the important means for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia in the future.

Pharmaceutical strategies for optimized mRNA expression

Messenger RNA (mRNA)-based immunotherapies and protein in situ production therapies hold great promise for addressing theoretically all the diseases characterized by aberrant protein levels. The safe, stable, and precise delivery of mRNA to target cells via appropriate pharmaceutical strategies is a prerequisite for its optimal efficacy. In this review, we summarize the structural characteristics, mode of action, development prospects, and limitations of existing mRNA delivery systems from a pharmaceutical perspective, with an emphasis on the impacts from formulation adjustments and preparation techniques of non-viral vectors on mRNA stability, target site accumulation and transfection efficiency. In addition, we introduce strategies for synergistical combination of mRNA and small molecules to augment the potency or mitigate the adverse effects of mRNA therapeutics. Lastly, we delve into the challenges impeding the development of mRNA drugs while exploring promising avenues for future advancements.

Enhancing non-viral gene delivery to human T cells through tuning nanoparticles physicochemical features, modulation cellular physiology, and refining transfection strategies

Genetically engineered immune cells hold great promise for treating immune-related diseases, but their development is hindered by technical challenges, primarily related to nucleic acid delivery. Polyethylenimine (PEI) is a cost-effective transfection agent, yet it requires significant optimization for effective T cell transfection. In this study, we comprehensively fine-tuned the characteristics of PEI/DNA nanoparticles, culture conditions, cellular physiology, and transfection protocols to enhance gene delivery into T cells. Gel retardation and dynamic light scattering (DLS) analyses confirmed that PEI effectively bound to DNA, forming size- and charge-adjustable particles based on the N/P ratio, which remained stable in RPMI 1640 medium for 3 days at 25°C. At an N/P ratio of 8.0, these nanoparticles achieved an optimal transfection rate, which improved further with adjustments in DNA dosage and complex volume. Additionally, increasing the cell seeding density and adding complete media shortly after transfection significantly boosted PEI-mediated gene delivery. Notably, reversing the transfection in vials resulted in a 20-fold increase in cellular uptake and transfection efficiency compared to the conventional direct transfection method in culture plates. Finally, modifying cellular physiology with hypotonic extracellular media at pH 9.0 dramatically enhanced transfection rates while maintaining minimal cytotoxicity. These findings could reduce the cost and complexity of preparing engineered T cells, potentially accelerating the development of immune cell therapies for human diseases.

Ionizable Cholesterol Analogs as the Fifth Component of Lipid Nanoparticles for Selective Targeting Delivery of mRNA

Lipid nanoparticles (LNP) have shown great promise in clinical applications for delivering mRNA. Targeted delivery of mRNA to particular tissues or organs is essential for precise therapeutic outcomes and minimized side effects in various disease models. However, achieving targeted delivery beyond the liver is a challenge based on current LNP formulations. In this report, we synthesized four ionizable cholesterol analogs by attaching two tertiary amine groups onto the head of a cholesterol-like structure and incorporated them as a fifth component into conventional commercial LNPs based on ALC-0315 or SM-102. Selective targeting delivery of mRNA is achieved by adjusting the proportion of the fifth component in the LNP. Specifically, a spleen-targeted 0315-Ergo-40% formulation demonstrated an impressive 95% delivery efficiency, while a lung-targeted 102-Sito-40% formulation achieved up to 78%. Moreover, when this strategy is applied to a self-developed ionizable lipid named U-101 instead of ALC-0315 or SM-102, the targeting delivery efficiencies to the spleen and lungs reach 96 and 71%, respectively. Multiple assessments suggest that inclusion of the fifth component does not compromise LNP stability, as indicated by consistent particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and encapsulation efficiency. Furthermore, the test results of liver and kidney function and immunogenicity reveal no increase of toxicity in vivo following the introduction of the fifth component. Additional studies on in vitro cytotoxicity, lysosomal escape, and cellular transfection efficiency confirm that the fifth component does not diminish delivery performance. Taken together, the incorporation of ionizable cholesterol analogs leads to targeting of LNP delivery, which features strong organ selectivity, high safety, and suitability for further evaluation.

Harnessing antiviral RNAi therapeutics for pandemic viruses: SARS-CoV-2 and HIV

Using the knowledge from decades of research into RNA-based therapies, the COVID-19 pandemic response saw the rapid design, testing and production of the first ever mRNA vaccines approved for human use in the clinic. This breakthrough has been a significant milestone for RNA therapeutics and vaccines, driving an exponential growth of research into the field. The development of novel RNA therapeutics targeting high-threat pathogens, that pose a substantial risk to global health, could transform the future of health delivery. In this review, we provide a detailed overview of the two RNA interference (RNAi) pathways and how antiviral RNAi therapies can be used to treat acute or chronic diseases caused by the pandemic viruses SARS-CoV-2 and HIV, respectively. We also provide insights into short-interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery systems, with a focus on how lipid nanoparticles can be functionalized to achieve targeted delivery to specific sites of disease. This review will provide the current developments of SARS-CoV-2 and HIV targeted siRNAs, highlighting strategies to advance the progression of antiviral siRNA along the clinical development pathway.

Nonviral targeted mRNA delivery: principles, progresses, and challenges

Messenger RNA (mRNA) therapeutics have garnered considerable attention due to their remarkable efficacy in the treatment of various diseases. The COVID-19 mRNA vaccine and RSV mRNA vaccine have been approved on the market. Due to the inherent nuclease-instability and negative charge of mRNA, delivery systems are developed to protect the mRNA from degradation and facilitate its crossing cell membrane to express functional proteins or peptides in the cytoplasm. However, the deficiency in transfection efficiency and targeted biological distribution are still the major challenges for the mRNA delivery systems. In this review, we first described the physiological barriers in the process of mRNA delivery and then discussed the design approach and recent advances in mRNA delivery systems with an emphasis on their tissue/cell-targeted abilities. Finally, we pointed out the existing challenges and future directions with deep insights into the design of efficient mRNA delivery systems. We believe that a high-precision targeted delivery system can greatly improve the therapeutic effects and bio-safety of mRNA therapeutics and accelerate their clinical transformations. This review may provide a new direction for the design of mRNA delivery systems and serve as a useful guide for researchers who are looking for a suitable mRNA delivery system.

Nanoparticle-mediated universal CAR-T therapy

In recent years, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy has been highly successful in treating hematological malignancies, leading to significant advancements in the cancer immunotherapy field. However, the typical CAR-T therapy necessitates the enrichment of patients' own leukocytes for ex vivo production of CAR-T cells, this customized pattern requires a complicated and time-consuming manufacturing procedure, making it costly and less accessible. The off-the-shelf universal CAR-T strategy could reduce manufacturing costs and realize timely drug administration, presenting as an ideal substitute for typical CAR-T therapy. Utilizing nanocarriers for targeted gene delivery is one of the approaches for the realization of universal CAR-T therapy, as biocompatible and versatile nanoparticles could deliver CAR genes to generate CAR-T cells in vivo. Nanoparticle-mediated in situ generation of CAR-T cells possesses multiple advantages, including lowered cost, simplified manufacturing procedure, and shortened administration time, this strategy is anticipated to provide a potentially cost-effective alternative to current autologous CAR-T cell manufacturing, thus facilitating the prevalence and improvement of CAR-T therapy.

Therapeutic Immunomodulation of Tumor-Lymphatic Crosstalk via Intratumoral Immunotherapy

Intra- and peritumoral lymphatics and tumor-draining lymph nodes play major roles in mediating the adaptive immune response to cancer immunotherapy. Despite this, current paradigms of clinical cancer management seldom seek to therapeutically modulate tumor-lymphatic immune crosstalk. This review explores recent developments that set the stage for how this regulatory axis can be therapeutically manipulated, with a particular emphasis on tumor-localized immunomodulation. Building on this idea, the nature of tumor-lymphatic immune crosstalk and relevant immunotherapeutic targets and pathways are reviewed, with a focus on their translational potential. Engineered drug delivery systems that enhance intratumoral immunotherapy by improving drug delivery to both the tumor and lymph nodes are also highlighted.

Lipid nanoparticle-mediated RNA delivery for immune cell modulation

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as the preeminent nonviral drug delivery vehicles for nucleic acid therapeutics, as exemplified by their usage in the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. As a safe and highly modular delivery platform, LNPs are attractive for a wide range of applications. In addition to vaccines, LNPs are being utilized as platforms for other immunoengineering efforts, especially as cancer immunotherapies by modulating immune cells and their functionality via nucleic acid delivery. In this review, we focus on the methods and applications of LNP-based immunotherapy in five cell types: T cells, NK cells, macrophages, stem cells, and dendritic cells. Each of these cell types has wide-reaching applications in immunotherapy but comes with unique challenges and delivery barriers. By combining knowledge of immunology and nanotechnology, LNPs can be developed for improved immune cell targeting and transfection, ultimately working toward novel clinical therapeutics.

RNA technology and nanocarriers empowering in vivo chimeric antigen receptor therapy

The remarkable success of mRNA-based coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines has propelled the advancement of nanomedicine, specifically in the realm of RNA technology and nanomaterial delivery systems. Notably, significant strides have been made in the development of RNA-based in vivo chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy. In comparison to the conventional ex vivo CAR therapy, in vivo CAR therapy offers several benefits including simplified preparation, reduced costs, broad applicability and decreased potential for carcinogenic effects. This review summarises the RNA-based CAR constructs in in vivo CAR therapy, discusses the current applications of in vivo delivery vectors and outlines the immune cells edited with CAR molecules. We aim for the conveyed messages to contribute towards the advancement of in vivo CAR application.

Navigating the intricate in-vivo journey of lipid nanoparticles tailored for the targeted delivery of RNA therapeutics: a quality-by-design approach

RNA therapeutics, such as mRNA, siRNA, and CRISPR-Cas9, present exciting avenues for treating diverse diseases. However, their potential is commonly hindered by vulnerability to degradation and poor cellular uptake, requiring effective delivery systems. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as a leading choice for in vivo RNA delivery, offering protection against degradation, enhanced cellular uptake, and facilitation of endosomal escape. However, LNPs encounter numerous challenges for targeted RNA delivery in vivo, demanding advanced particle engineering, surface functionalization with targeting ligands, and a profound comprehension of the biological milieu in which they function. This review explores the structural and physicochemical characteristics of LNPs, in-vivo fate, and customization for RNA therapeutics. We highlight the quality-by-design (QbD) approach for targeted delivery beyond the liver, focusing on biodistribution, immunogenicity, and toxicity. In addition, we explored the current challenges and strategies associated with LNPs for in-vivo RNA delivery, such as ensuring repeated-dose efficacy, safety, and tissue-specific gene delivery. Furthermore, we provide insights into the current clinical applications in various classes of diseases and finally prospects of LNPs in RNA therapeutics.

Recent advances in polymeric and lipid stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for cell-based cancer immunotherapy

Conventional cancer therapy has major limitations, including non-specificity, unavoidable side effects, low specific tumor accumulation and systemic toxicity. In recent years, more effective and precise treatment methods have been developed, including cell-based immunotherapy. Carriers that can accurately and specifically target cells and equip them to combat cancer cells are particularly important for developing this therapy. As a result, attention has been drawn to smart nanocarriers that can react to specific stimuli. Thus, stimuli-responsive nanocarriers have attracted increasing attention because they can change their physicochemical properties in response to stimulus conditions, such as pH, enzymes, redox agents, hypoxia, light and temperature. This review highlights recent advances in various stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, discussing loading, targeted delivery, cellular uptake, biocompatibility and immunomodulation in cell-based immunotherapy. Finally, future challenges and perspectives regarding the possible clinical translation of nanocarriers are discussed.

Better, Faster, Stronger: Accelerating mRNA-Based Immunotherapies With Nanocarriers

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) therapeutics are attracting attention as promising tools in cancer immunotherapy due to their ability to leverage the in vivo expression of all known protein sequences. Even small amounts of mRNA can have a powerful effect on cancer vaccines by promoting the synthesis of tumor-specific antigens (TSA) or tumor-associated antigens (TAA) by antigen-presenting cells (APC). These antigens are then presented to T cells, eliciting strong antitumor immune stimulation. The potential of mRNA can be further enhanced by expressing immunomodulatory agents, such as cytokines, antibodies, and chimeric antigen receptors (CAR), enhancing tumor immunity. Recent research also explores mRNA-encoded tumor death inducers or tumor microenvironment (TME) modulators. Despite its promise, the clinical translation of mRNA-based anticancer strategies faces challenges, including inefficient targeted delivery in vivo, failure of endosomal escape, and inadequate intracellular mRNA release, resulting in poor transfection efficiencies. Inspired by the approval of lipid nanoparticle-loaded mRNA vaccines against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the encouraging outcomes of mRNA-based cancer therapies in trials, innovative nonviral nanotechnology delivery systems have been engineered. These aim to advance mRNA-based cancer immunotherapies from research to clinical application. This review summarizes recent preclinical and clinical progress in lipid and polymeric nanomedicines for delivering mRNA-encoded antitumor therapeutics, including cytokines and antibody-based immunotherapies, cancer vaccines, and CAR therapies. It also addresses advanced delivery systems for direct oncolysis or TME reprogramming and highlights key challenges in translating these therapies to clinical use, exploring future perspectives, including the role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in their development.

Innovative lipid nanoparticles: A cutting-edge approach for potential renal cell carcinoma therapeutics

The kidney plays a crucial role in regulating homeostasis within the human body. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common form of kidney cancer, accounting for nearly 90 % of all renal malignancies. Despite the availability of various therapeutic strategies, RCC remains a challenging disease due to its resistance to conventional treatments. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising field, offering new opportunities in cancer therapeutics. It presents several advantages over traditional methods, enabling diverse biomedical applications, including drug delivery, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), approximately 100 nm in size, are derived from a range of lipids and other biochemical compounds. these particulates are designed to overcome biological barriers, allowing them to selectively accumulate at diseased target sites for effective therapeutic action. Many pharmaceutically important compounds face challenges such as poor solubility in aqueous solutions, chemical and physiological instability, or toxicity. LNP technology stands out as a promising drug delivery system for bioactive organic compounds. This article reviews the applications of LNPs in RCC treatment and explores their potential clinical translation, identifying the most viable LNPs for medical use. With ongoing advancement in LNP-based anticancer strategies, there is a growing potential to improve the management and treatment of renal cancer.

Targeted gene delivery systems for T-cell engineering

T lymphocytes are indispensable for the host systems of defense against pathogens, tumors, and environmental threats. The therapeutic potential of harnessing the cytotoxic properties of T lymphocytes for antigen-specific cell elimination is both evident and efficacious. Genetically engineered T-cells, such as those employed in CAR-T and TCR-T cell therapies, have demonstrated significant clinical benefits in treating cancer and autoimmune disorders. However, the current landscape of T-cell genetic engineering is dominated by strategies that necessitate in vitro T-cell isolation and modification, which introduce complexity and prolong the development timeline of T-cell based immunotherapies. This review explores the complexities of gene delivery systems designed for T cells, covering both viral and nonviral vectors. Viral vectors are known for their high transduction efficiency, yet they face significant limitations, such as potential immunogenicity and the complexities involved in large-scale production. Nonviral vectors, conversely, offer a safer profile and the potential for scalable manufacturing, yet they often struggle with lower transduction efficiency. The pursuit of gene delivery systems that can achieve targeted gene transfer to T cell without the need for isolation represents a significant advancement in the field. This review assesses the design principles and current research progress of such systems, highlighting the potential for in vivo gene modification therapies that could revolutionize T-cell based treatments. By providing a comprehensive analysis of these systems, we aim to contribute valuable insights into the future development of T-cell immunotherapy.

Current landscape of mRNA technologies and delivery systems for new modality therapeutics

Realizing the immense clinical potential of mRNA-based drugs will require continued development of methods to safely deliver the bioactive agents with high efficiency and without triggering side effects. In this regard, lipid nanoparticles have been successfully utilized to improve mRNA delivery and protect the cargo from extracellular degradation. Encapsulation in lipid nanoparticles was an essential factor in the successful clinical application of mRNA vaccines, which conclusively demonstrated the technology's potential to yield approved medicines. In this review, we begin by describing current advances in mRNA modifications, design of novel lipids and development of lipid nanoparticle components for mRNA-based drugs. Then, we summarize key points pertaining to preclinical and clinical development of mRNA therapeutics. Finally, we cover topics related to targeted delivery systems, including endosomal escape and targeting of immune cells, tumors and organs for use with mRNA vaccines and new treatment modalities for human diseases.

Advances in targeted delivery of mRNA into immune cells for enhanced cancer therapy

Messenger RNA (mRNA) therapy has been applied to the treatment of various human diseases including malignant tumors. Increasing evidences have shown that mRNA can enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy by modulating the functions of immune cells and stimulating their activity. However, mRNA is a type of negatively charged biomacromolecules that are susceptible to serum nucleases and cannot readily cross the cell membrane. In the past few decades, various nanoparticles (NPs)-based delivery systems have been rationally designed and developed to facilitate the intracellular uptake and cytosolic delivery of mRNA. More importantly, by means of the specific recognition between the targeting ligands decorated on NP surface and receptors specifically expressed on immune cells, these mRNA delivery systems could be functionalized to target immune cells to further enhance the mRNA-based cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we briefly introduced the advancements of mRNA in cancer therapy, discussed the challenges faced by mRNA delivery, and systematically summarized the recent development in NPs-based mRNA delivery systems targeting various types of immune cells for cancer immunotherapy. The future development of NPs-mediated targeted mRNA delivery and their challenges in clinical translation are also discussed.

Nanoparticle Targeting Strategies for Lipid and Polymer-Based Gene Delivery to Immune Cells In Vivo

Lipid nanoparticles and polymeric nanoparticles are promising biomaterial platforms for robust intracellular DNA and mRNA delivery, highlighted by the widespread use of nanoparticle- (NP) based mRNA vaccines to help end the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent research has sought to adapt this nanotechnology to transfect and engineer immune cells in vivo. The immune system is an especially appealing target due to its involvement in many different diseases, and ex vivo-engineered immune cell therapies like chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T therapy have already demonstrated remarkable clinical success in certain blood cancers. Although gene delivery can potentially address some of the cost and manufacturing concerns associated with current autologous immune cell therapies, transfecting immune cells in vivo is challenging. Not only is extrahepatic NP delivery to lymphoid organs difficult, but immune cells like T cells have demonstrated particular resistance to transfection. Despite these challenges, the modular nature of NPs allows researchers to examine critical structure-function relationships between a particle's properties and its ability to specifically engineer immune cells in vivo. Herein, several nanomaterial components are outlined, including targeting ligands, nucleic acid cargo, chemical properties, physical properties, and the route of administration to specifically target NPs to immune cells for optimal in vivo transfection.

The histone methyltransferase Mixed-lineage-leukemia-1 drives T cell phenotype via Notch signaling in diabetic tissue repair

Immune cell-mediated inflammation is important in normal tissue regeneration but can be pathologic in diabetic wounds. Limited literature exists on the role of CD4+ T cells in normal or diabetic wound repair; however, the imbalance of CD4+ Th17/Tregs has been found to promote inflammation in other diabetic tissues. Here, using human tissue and murine transgenic models, we identified that the histone methyltransferase Mixed-lineage-leukemia-1 (MLL1) directly regulates the Th17 transcription factor RORγ via an H3K4me3 mechanism and increases expression of Notch receptors and downstream Notch signaling. Furthermore, we found that Notch receptor signaling regulates CD4+ Th cell differentiation and is critical for normal wound repair, and loss of upstream Notch pathway mediators or receptors in CD4+ T cells resulted in the loss of CD4+ Th cell differentiation in wounds. In diabetes, MLL1 and Notch-receptor signaling was upregulated in wound CD4+ Th cells, driving CD4+ T cells toward the Th17 cell phenotype. Treatment of diabetic wound CD4+ T cells with a small molecule inhibitor of MLL1 (MI-2) yielded a significant reduction in CD4+ Th17 cells and IL-17A. This is the first study to our knowledge to identify the MLL1-mediated mechanisms responsible for regulating the Th17/Treg balance in normal and diabetic wounds and to define the complex role of Notch signaling in CD4+ T cells in wounds, where increased or decreased Notch signaling both result in pathologic wound repair. Therapeutic targeting of MLL1 in diabetic CD4+ Th cells may decrease pathologic inflammation through regulation of CD4+ T cell differentiation.

Lipid-based nanosystems: the next generation of cancer immune therapy

Immunotherapy has become an important part of the oncotherapy arsenal. Its applicability in various cancer types is impressive, as well as its use of endogenous mechanisms to achieve desired ends. However, off-target or on-target-off-tumor toxicity, limited activity, lack of control in combination treatments and, especially for solid tumors, low local accumulation, have collectively limited clinical use thereof. These limitations are partially alleviated by delivery systems. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as revolutionary carriers due to favorable physicochemical characteristics, with specific applications and strengths particularly useful in immunotherapeutic agent delivery. The aim of this review is to highlight the challenges faced by immunotherapy and how lipid-based NPs have been, and may be further utilized to address such challenges. We discuss recent fundamental and clinical applications of NPs in a range of areas and provide a detailed discussion of the main obstacles in immune checkpoint inhibition therapies, adoptive cellular therapies, and cytokine therapies. We highlight how lipid-based nanosystems could address these through either delivery, direct modulation of the immune system, or targeting of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. We explore advanced and emerging liposomal and lipid nanoparticle (LNP) systems for nucleic acid delivery, intrinsic and extrinsic stimulus-responsive formulations, and biomimetic lipid-based nanosystems in immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the key challenges relating to the clinical use of lipid-based NP immunotherapies, suggesting future research directions for the near term to realize the potential of these innovative lipid-based nanosystems, as they become the crucial steppingstone towards the necessary enhancement of the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Steering the course of CAR T cell therapy with lipid nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have proven themselves as transformative actors in chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy, surpassing traditional methods and addressing challenges like immunogenicity, reduced toxicity, and improved safety. Promising preclinical results signal a shift toward safer and more effective CAR T cell treatments. Ongoing research aims to validate these findings in clinical trials, marking a new era guided by LNPs utility in CAR therapy. Herein, we explore the preference for LNPs over traditional methods, highlighting the versatility of LNPs and their effective delivery of nucleic acids. Additionally, we address key challenges in clinical considerations, heralding a new era in CAR T cell therapy.

Unlocking the Therapeutic Applicability of LNP-mRNA: Chemistry, Formulation, and Clinical Strategies

Messenger RNA (mRNA) has emerged as an innovative therapeutic modality, offering promising avenues for the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases. The tremendous success of mRNA vaccines in effectively combatting coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) evidences the unlimited medical and therapeutic potential of mRNA technology. Overcoming challenges related to mRNA stability, immunogenicity, and precision targeting has been made possible by recent advancements in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). This review summarizes state-of-the-art LNP-mRNA-based therapeutics, including their structure, material compositions, design guidelines, and screening principles. Additionally, we highlight current preclinical and clinical trends in LNP-mRNA therapeutics in a broad range of treatments in ophthalmological conditions, cancer immunotherapy, gene editing, and rare-disease medicine. Particular attention is given to the translation and evolution of LNP-mRNA vaccines into a broader spectrum of therapeutics. We explore concerns in the aspects of inadequate extrahepatic targeting efficacy, elevated doses, safety concerns, and challenges of large-scale production procedures. This discussion may offer insights and perspectives on near- and long-term clinical development prospects for LNP-mRNA therapeutics.

Non-viral vector-based genome editing for cancer immunotherapy

Despite the exciting promise of cancer immunotherapy in the clinic, immune checkpoint blockade therapy and T cell-based therapies are often associated with low response rates, intrinsic and adaptive immune resistance, and systemic side effects. CRISPR-Cas-based genome editing appears to be an effective strategy to overcome these unmet clinical needs. As a safer delivery platform for the CRISPR-Cas system, non-viral nanoformulations have been recently explored to target tumor cells and immune cells, aiming to improve cancer immunotherapy on a gene level. In this review, we summarized the efforts of non-viral vector-based CRISPR-Cas-mediated genome editing in tumor cells and immune cells for cancer immunotherapy. Their design rationale and specific applications were highlighted.

Joint effects of CD8A and ICOS in Long QT Syndrome (LQTS) and Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome (BWS)

BACKGROUND

Long QT Syndrome (LQTS) and Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome (BWS) are complex disorders with unclear origins, underscoring the need for in-depth molecular investigations into their mechanisms. The main aim of this study is to identify the shared key genes between LQTS and BWS, shedding light on potential common molecular pathways underlying these syndromes.

METHODS

The LQTS and BWS datasets are available for download from the GEO database. Differential expression genes (DEGs) were identified. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was used to detect significant modules and central genes. Gene enrichment analysis was performed. CIBERSORT was used for immune cell infiltration analysis. The predictive protein interaction (PPI) network of core genes was constructed using STRING, and miRNAs regulating central genes were screened using TargetScan.

RESULTS

Five hundred DEGs associated with Long QT Syndrome and Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome were identified. GSEA analysis revealed enrichment in pathways such as T cell receptor signaling, MAPK signaling, and adrenergic signaling in cardiac myocytes. Immune cell infiltration indicated higher levels of memory B cells and naive CD4 T cells. Four core genes (CD8A, ICOS, CTLA4, LCK) were identified, with CD8A and ICOS showing low expression in the syndromes and high expression in normal samples, suggesting potential inverse regulatory roles.

CONCLUSION

The expression of CD8A and ICOS is low in long QT syndrome and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, indicating their potential as key genes in the pathogenesis of these syndromes. The identification of shared key genes between LQTS and BWS provides insights into common molecular mechanisms underlying these disorders, potentially facilitating the development of targeted therapeutic strategies.

Impact of physicochemical properties on biological effects of lipid nanoparticles: Are they completely safe

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are promising materials and human-use approved excipients, with manifold applications in biomedicine. Researchers have tended to focus on improving the pharmacological efficiency and organ targeting of LNPs, while paid relatively less attention to the negative aspects created by their specific physicochemical properties. Here, we discuss the impacts of LNPs' physicochemical properties (size, surface hydrophobicity, surface charge, surface modification and lipid composition) on the adsorption-transportation-distribution-clearance processes and bio-nano interactions. In addition, since there is a lack of review emphasizing on toxicological profiles of LNPs, this review outlined immunogenicity, inflammation, hemolytic toxicity, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by LNPs and the underlying mechanisms, with the aim to understand the properties that underlie the biological effects of these materials. This provides a basic strategy that increased efficacy of medical application with minimized side-effects can be achieved by modulating the physicochemical properties of LNPs. Therefore, addressing the effects of physicochemical properties on toxicity induced by LNPs is critical for understanding their environmental and health risks and will help clear the way for LNPs-based drugs to eventually fulfill their promise as a highly effective therapeutic agents for diverse diseases in clinic.

Design of PD-L1-Targeted Lipid Nanoparticles to Turn on PTEN for Efficient Cancer Therapy

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) exhibit remarkable mRNA delivery efficiency, yet their majority accumulate in the liver or spleen after injection. Tissue-specific mRNA delivery can be achieved through modulating LNP properties, such as tuning PEGylation or varying lipid components systematically. In this paper, a streamlined method is used for incorporating tumor-targeting peptides into the LNPs; the programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) binding peptides are conjugated to PEGylated lipids via a copper-free click reaction, and directly incorporated into the LNP composition (Pep LNPs). Notably, Pep LNPs display robust interaction with PD-L1 proteins, which leads to the uptake of LNPs into PD-L1 overexpressing cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. To evaluate anticancer immunotherapy mediated by restoring tumor suppressor, mRNA encoding phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is delivered via Pep LNPs to PTEN-deficient triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs). Pep LNPs loaded with PTEN mRNA specifically promotes autophagy-mediated immunogenic cell death in 4T1 tumors, resulting in effective anticancer immune responses. This study highlights the potential of tumor-targeted LNPs for mRNA-based cancer therapy.

Progress in novel delivery technologies to improve efficacy of therapeutic antibodies

Monoclonal antibody-based therapeutics have achieved remarkable success in treating a wide range of human diseases. However, conventional systemic delivery methods have limitations in insufficient target tissue permeability, high costs, repeated administrations, etc. Novel technologies have been developed to address these limitations and further enhance antibody therapy. Local antibody delivery via respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, eye and blood-brain barrier have shown promising results in increasing local concentrations and overcoming barriers. Nucleic acid-encoded antibodies expressed from plasmid DNA, viral vectors or mRNA delivery platforms also offer advantages over recombinant proteins such as sustained expression, rapid onset, and lower costs. This review summarizes recent advances in antibody delivery methods and highlights innovative technologies that have potential to expand therapeutic applications of antibodies.

Tailoring lipid nanoparticles for T-cell targeting in allergic asthma: Insights into efficacy and specificity

Asthma impacts over 300 million patients globally, with significant health implications, especially in cases of its allergic subtype. The disease is characterized by a complex interplay of airway inflammation and immune responses, often mediated by Th2 cell-related cytokines. In this study, we engineered lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to specifically deliver therapeutic siRNA via the transferrin receptor to T cells. Strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) was employed for the conjugation of transferrin ligands to PEGylated lipids in the LNPs, with the goal of enhancing cellular uptake and gene knockdown. The obtained LNPs exhibited characteristics that make them suitable for pulmonary delivery. Using methods such as nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we determined the average number of transferrin molecules bound to individual LNPs. Additionally, we found that cellular uptake was ligand-dependent, achieving a GATA3 knockdown of more than 50% in relevant in vitro and ex vivo models. Notably, our findings highlight the limitations inherent to modifying the surface of LNPs, particularly with regard to their targeting capabilities. This work paves the way for future research aimed at optimizing targeted LNPs for the treatment of immunologic diseases such as allergic asthma.

Physiological Barriers and Strategies of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Drug Delivery

Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are currently the most promising vehicles for nucleic acid drug (NAD) delivery. Although their clinical applications have achieved success, the NAD delivery efficiency and safety are still unsatisfactory, which are, to a large extent, due to the existence of multi-level physiological barriers in vivo. It is important to elucidate the interactions between these barriers and LBNPs, which will guide more rational design of efficient NAD vehicles with low adverse effects and facilitate broader applications of nucleic acid therapeutics. This review describes the obstacles and challenges of biological barriers to NAD delivery at systemic, organ, sub-organ, cellular, and subcellular levels. The strategies to overcome these barriers are comprehensively reviewed, mainly including physically/chemically engineering LBNPs and directly modifying physiological barriers by auxiliary treatments. Then the potentials and challenges for successful translation of these preclinical studies into the clinic are discussed. In the end, a forward look at the strategies on manipulating protein corona (PC) is addressed, which may pull off the trick of overcoming those physiological barriers and significantly improve the efficacy and safety of LBNP-based NADs delivery.

Direct in vivo CAR T cell engineering

T cells modified to express intelligently designed chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) are exceptionally powerful therapeutic agents for relapsed and refractory blood cancers and have the potential to revolutionize therapy for many other diseases. To circumvent the complexity and cost associated with broad-scale implementation of ex vivo manufactured adoptive cell therapy products, alternative strategies to generate CAR T cells in vivo by direct infusion of nanoparticle-formulated nucleic acids or engineered viral vectors under development have received a great deal of attention in the past few years. Here, we outline the ex vivo manufacturing process as a motivating framework for direct in vivo strategies and discuss emerging data from preclinical models to highlight the potency of the in vivo approach, the applicability for new disease indications, and the remaining challenges associated with clinical readiness, including delivery specificity, long term efficacy, and safety.

Non-viral delivery of RNA for therapeutic T cell engineering

Adoptive T cell transfer has shown great success in treating blood cancers, resulting in a growing number of FDA-approved therapies using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T cells. However, the effectiveness of this treatment for solid tumors is still not satisfactory, emphasizing the need for improved T cell engineering strategies and combination approaches. Currently, CAR T cells are mainly manufactured using gammaretroviral and lentiviral vectors due to their high transduction efficiency. However, there are concerns about their safety, the high cost of producing them in compliance with current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP), regulatory obstacles, and limited cargo capacity, which limit the broader use of engineered T cell therapies. To overcome these limitations, researchers have explored non-viral approaches, such as membrane permeabilization and carrier-mediated methods, as more versatile and sustainable alternatives for next-generation T cell engineering. Non-viral delivery methods can be designed to transport a wide range of molecules, including RNA, which allows for more controlled and safe modulation of T cell phenotype and function. In this review, we provide an overview of non-viral RNA delivery in adoptive T cell therapy. We first define the different types of RNA therapeutics, highlighting recent advancements in manufacturing for their therapeutic use. We then discuss the challenges associated with achieving effective RNA delivery in T cells. Next, we provide an overview of current and emerging technologies for delivering RNA into T cells. Finally, we discuss ongoing preclinical and clinical studies involving RNA-modified T cells.

Nanocarrier-based gene delivery for immune cell engineering

Clinical advances in genetically modified immune cell therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapies, have raised hope for cancer treatment. The majority of these biotechnologies are based on viral methods for ex vivo genetic modification of the immune cells, while the non-viral methods are still in the developmental phase. Nanocarriers have been emerging as materials of choice for gene delivery to immune cells. This is due to their versatile physicochemical properties such as large surface area and size that can be optimized to overcome several practical barriers to successful gene delivery. The in vivo nanocarrier-based gene delivery can revolutionize cell-based cancer immunotherapies by replacing the current expensive autologous cell manufacturing with an off-the-shelf biomaterial-based platform. The aim of this research is to review current advances and strategies to overcome the challenges in nanoparticle-based gene delivery and their impact on the efficiency, safety, and specificity of the process. The main focus is on polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers, and their recent preclinical applications for cancer immunotherapy.

IL7 increases targeted lipid nanoparticle-mediated mRNA expression in T cells in vitro and in vivo by enhancing T cell protein translation

The use of lipid nanoparticles (LNP) to encapsulate and deliver mRNA has become an important therapeutic advance. In addition to vaccines, LNP-mRNA can be used in many other applications. For example, targeting the LNP with anti-CD5 antibodies (CD5/tLNP) can allow for efficient delivery of mRNA payloads to T cells to express protein. As the percentage of protein expressing T cells induced by an intravenous injection of CD5/tLNP is relatively low (4-20%), our goal was to find ways to increase mRNA-induced translation efficiency. We showed that T cell activation using an anti-CD3 antibody improved protein expression after CD5/tLNP transfection in vitro but not in vivo. T cell health and activation can be increased with cytokines, therefore, using mCherry mRNA as a reporter, we found that culturing either mouse or human T cells with the cytokine IL7 significantly improved protein expression of delivered mRNA in both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in vitro. By pre-treating mice with systemic IL7 followed by tLNP administration, we observed significantly increased mCherry protein expression by T cells in vivo. Transcriptomic analysis of mouse T cells treated with IL7 in vitro revealed enhanced genomic pathways associated with protein translation. Improved translational ability was demonstrated by showing increased levels of protein expression after electroporation with mCherry mRNA in T cells cultured in the presence of IL7, but not with IL2 or IL15. These data show that IL7 selectively increases protein translation in T cells, and this property can be used to improve expression of tLNP-delivered mRNA in vivo.

Electrostatic adsorption of polyanions onto lipid nanoparticles controls uptake, trafficking, and transfection of RNA and DNA therapies

Rapid advances in nucleic acid therapies highlight the immense therapeutic potential of genetic therapeutics. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are highly potent nonviral transfection agents that can encapsulate and deliver various nucleic acid therapeutics, including but not limited to messenger RNA (mRNA), silencing RNA (siRNA), and plasmid DNA (pDNA). However, a major challenge of targeted LNP-mediated systemic delivery is the nanoparticles' nonspecific uptake by the liver and the mononuclear phagocytic system, due partly to the adsorption of endogenous serum proteins onto LNP surfaces. Tunable LNP surface chemistries may enable efficacious delivery across a range of organs and cell types. Here, we describe a method to electrostatically adsorb bioactive polyelectrolytes onto LNPs to create layered LNPs (LLNPs). LNP cores varying in nucleic acid cargo and component lipids were stably layered with four biologically relevant polyanions: hyaluronate (HA), poly-L-aspartate (PLD), poly-L-glutamate (PLE), and polyacrylate (PAA). We further investigated the impact of the four surface polyanions on the transfection and uptake of mRNA- and pDNA-loaded LNPs in cell cultures. PLD- and PLE-LLNPs increased mRNA transfection twofold over unlayered LNPs in immune cells. HA-LLNPs increased pDNA transfection rates by more than twofold in epithelial and immune cells. In a healthy C57BL/6 murine model, PLE- and HA-LLNPs increased transfection by 1.8-fold to 2.5-fold over unlayered LNPs in the liver and spleen. These results suggest that LbL assembly is a generalizable, highly tunable platform to modify the targeting specificity, stability, and transfection efficacy of LNPs, as well as incorporate other charged targeting and therapeutic molecules into these systems.

Recent advances in nanoparticulate RNA delivery systems

Nanoparticle-based RNA delivery has shown great progress in recent years with the approval of two mRNA vaccines for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and a liver-targeted siRNA therapy. Here, we discuss the preclinical and clinical advancement of new generations of RNA delivery therapies along multiple axes. Improvements in cargo design such as RNA circularization and data-driven untranslated region optimization can drive better mRNA expression. New materials discovery research has driven improved delivery to extrahepatic targets such as the lung and splenic immune cells, which could lead to pulmonary gene therapy and better cancer vaccines, respectively. Other organs and even specific cell types can be targeted for delivery via conjugation of small molecule ligands, antibodies, or peptides to RNA delivery nanoparticles. Moreover, the immune response to any RNA delivery nanoparticle plays a crucial role in determining efficacy. Targeting increased immunogenicity without induction of reactogenic side effects is crucial for vaccines, while minimization of immune response is important for gene therapies. New developments have addressed each of these priorities. Last, we discuss the range of RNA delivery clinical trials targeting diverse organs, cell types, and diseases and suggest some key advances that may play a role in the next wave of therapies.

In Vivo mRNA CAR T Cell Engineering via Targeted Ionizable Lipid Nanoparticles with Extrahepatic Tropism

With six therapies approved by the Food and Drug Association, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have reshaped cancer immunotherapy. However, these therapies rely on ex vivo viral transduction to induce permanent CAR expression in T cells, which contributes to high production costs and long-term side effects. Thus, this work aims to develop an in vivo CAR T cell engineering platform to streamline production while using mRNA to induce transient, tunable CAR expression. Specifically, an ionizable lipid nanoparticle (LNP) is utilized as these platforms have demonstrated clinical success in nucleic acid delivery. Though LNPs often accumulate in the liver, the LNP platform used here achieves extrahepatic transfection with enhanced delivery to the spleen, and it is further modified via antibody conjugation (Ab-LNPs) to target pan-T cell markers. The in vivo evaluation of these Ab-LNPs confirms that targeting is necessary for potent T cell transfection. When using these Ab-LNPs for the delivery of CAR mRNA, antibody and dose-dependent CAR expression and cytokine release are observed along with B cell depletion of up to 90%. In all, this work conjugates antibodies to LNPs with extrahepatic tropism, evaluates pan-T cell markers, and develops Ab-LNPs capable of generating functional CAR T cells in vivo.

Lipid Nanoparticle (LNP) Delivery Carrier-Assisted Targeted Controlled Release mRNA Vaccines in Tumor Immunity

In recent years, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have attracted extensive attention in tumor immunotherapy. Targeting immune cells in cancer therapy has become a strategy of great research interest. mRNA vaccines are a potential choice for tumor immunotherapy, due to their ability to directly encode antigen proteins and stimulate a strong immune response. However, the mode of delivery and lack of stability of mRNA are key issues limiting its application. LNPs are an excellent mRNA delivery carrier, and their structural stability and biocompatibility make them an effective means for delivering mRNA to specific targets. This study summarizes the research progress in LNP delivery carrier-assisted targeted controlled release mRNA vaccines in tumor immunity. The role of LNPs in improving mRNA stability, immunogenicity, and targeting is discussed. This review aims to systematically summarize the latest research progress in LNP delivery carrier-assisted targeted controlled release mRNA vaccines in tumor immunity to provide new ideas and strategies for tumor immunotherapy, as well as to provide more effective treatment plans for patients.

Chimeric antigen receptor therapy meets mRNA technology

Genetically engineered immune cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) have emerged as a new game changer in cancer immunotherapy. The utility of CAR T cell therapy against hematological malignancies has been validated in clinical practice. Other CAR immune cells are currently under investigation to improve the potency of CAR therapy in solid tumors. As a new class of therapeutic modalities, mRNA-based therapeutics hold enormous potential beyond COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. Arming immune cells with mRNA-encoded CARs represents a new frontier in cancer and beyond, enabling in vivo generation of CAR cells without causing transgene integration. In this review, we summarize recent advances in mRNA-based CAR immunotherapies and highlight their opportunities and challenges for the development of a new generation of living drugs.

Surface modification of lipid nanoparticles for gene therapy

Gene therapies have the potential to target and effectively treat a variety of diseases including cancer as well as genetic, neurological, and autoimmune disorders. Although we have made significant advances in identifying non-viral strategies to deliver genetic cargo, certain limitations remain. In general, gene delivery is challenging for several reasons including the instabilities of nucleic acids to enzymatic and chemical degradation and the presence of restrictive biological barriers such as cell, endosomal and nuclear membranes. The emergence of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) helped overcome many of these challenges. Despite its success, further optimization is required for LNPs to yield efficient gene delivery to extrahepatic tissues, as LNPs favor accumulation in the liver after systemic administration. In this mini-review, we provide an overview of current preclinical approaches in that LNP surface modification was leveraged for cell and tissue targeting by conjugating aptamers, antibodies, and peptides among others. In addition to their cell uptake and efficiency-enhancing effects, we outline the (dis-)advantages of the different targeting moieties and commonly used conjugation strategies.

Unleashing the Potential: Designing Antibody-Targeted Lipid Nanoparticles for Industrial Applications with CMC Considerations and Clinical Outlook

Antibody-targeted lipid nanoparticles (Ab-LNPs) are rapidly gaining traction as multifaceted platforms in precision medicine, adept at delivering a diverse array of therapeutic agents, including nucleic acids and small molecules. This review provides an incisive overview of the latest developments in the field of Ab-LNP technology, with a special emphasis on pivotal design aspects such as antibody engineering, bioconjugation strategies, and advanced formulation techniques. Furthermore, it addresses critical chemistry, manufacturing, and controls (CMC) considerations and thoroughly examines the in vivo dynamics of Ab-LNPs, underscoring their promising potential for clinical application. By seamlessly blending scientific advancements with practical industrial perspectives, this review casts a spotlight on the burgeoning role of Ab-LNPs as an innovative and potent tool in the realm of targeted drug delivery.

Sniping Cancer Stem Cells with Nanomaterials

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) drive tumor initiation, progression, and therapeutic resistance due to their self-renewal and differentiation capabilities. Despite encouraging progress in cancer treatment, conventional approaches often fail to eliminate CSCs, necessitating the development of precise targeted strategies. Recent advances in materials science and nanotechnology have enabled promising CSC-targeted approaches, harnessing the power of tailoring nanomaterials in diverse therapeutic applications. This review provides an update on the current landscape of nanobased precision targeting approaches against CSCs. We elucidate the nuanced application of organic, inorganic, and bioinspired nanomaterials across a spectrum of therapeutic paradigms, encompassing targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and multimodal synergistic therapies. By examining the accomplishments and challenges in this potential field, we aim to inform future efforts to advance nanomaterial-based therapies toward more effective "sniping" of CSCs and tumor clearance.