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Zhao C, Chen J, Liu Z, Liang H, Chen X, Cheng L, Xie S, Lin Z, Wu R, Zhao Q, Xue Y, Lai X, Jin X, Xu JF, Su X. Activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α7 subunit limits Zika viral infection via promoting autophagy and ferroptosis. Mol Ther 2024; 32:2641-2661. [PMID: 38822526 PMCID: PMC11405161 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2024.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Vagus nerve regulates viral infection and inflammation via the alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR); however, the role of α7 nAChR in ZIKA virus (ZIKV) infection, which can cause severe neurological diseases such as microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome, remains unknown. Here, we first examined the role of α7 nAChR in ZIKV infection in vitro. A broad effect of α7 nAChR activation was identified in limiting ZIKV infection in multiple cell lines. Combined with transcriptomics analysis, we further demonstrated that α7 nAChR activation promoted autophagy and ferroptosis pathways to limit cellular ZIKV viral loads. Additionally, activation of α7 nAChR prevented ZIKV-induced p62 nucleus accumulation, which mediated an enhanced autophagy pathway. By regulating proteasome complex and an E3 ligase NEDD4, activation of α7 nAChR resulted in increased amount of cellular p62, which further enhanced the ferroptosis pathway to reduce ZIKV infection. Moreover, utilizing in vivo neonatal mouse models, we showed that α7 nAChR is essential in controlling the disease severity of ZIKV infection. Taken together, our findings identify an α7 nAChR-mediated effect that critically contributes to limiting ZIKV infection, and α7 nAChR activation offers a novel strategy for combating ZIKV infection and its complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiqi Zhao
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200000, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jie Chen
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Lung Inflammation and Injury, Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhihua Liu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Vaccine Center, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huabin Liang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Vaccine Center, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiaoyan Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Lung Inflammation and Injury, Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Lianping Cheng
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shitao Xie
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhekai Lin
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Renlan Wu
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qi Zhao
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yue Xue
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiaoyun Lai
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xia Jin
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Vaccine Center, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China.
| | - Jin-Fu Xu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Xiao Su
- Unit of Respiratory Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; Vaccine Center, Shanghai Institute of Immunity and Infection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Lung Inflammation and Injury, Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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Wang T, Li S, Hu X, Geng Y, Chen L, Liu W, Zhao J, Tian W, Wang C, Li Y, Li L. Heme oxygenase-1 is an equid alphaherpesvirus 8 replication restriction host protein and suppresses viral replication via the PKCβ/ERK1/ERK2 and NO/cGMP/PKG pathway. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0322023. [PMID: 38441979 PMCID: PMC10986571 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03220-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Equid alphaherpesvirus 8 (EqHV-8) is one of the most economically important viruses that is known to cause severe respiratory disease, abortion, and neurological syndromes in equines. However, no effective vaccines or therapeutic agents are available to control EqHV-8 infection. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an antioxidant defense enzyme that displays significant cytoprotective effects against different viral infections. However, the literature on the function of HO-1 during EqHV-8 infection is little. We explored the effects of HO-1 on EqHV-8 infection and revealed its potential mechanisms. Our results demonstrated that HO-1 induced by cobalt-protoporphyrin (CoPP) or HO-1 overexpression inhibited EqHV-8 replication in susceptible cells. In contrast, HO-1 inhibitor (zinc protoporphyria) or siRNA targeting HO-1 reversed the anti-EqHV-8 activity. Furthermore, biliverdin, a metabolic product of HO-1, mediated the anti-EqHV-8 effect of HO-1 via both the protein kinase C (PKC)β/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/ERK2 and nitric oxide (NO)-dependent cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-protein kinase G (PKG) signaling pathways. In addition, CoPP protected the mice by reducing the EqHV-8 infection in the lungs. Altogether, these results indicated that HO-1 can be developed as a promising therapeutic strategy to control EqHV-8 infection.IMPORTANCEEqHV-8 infections have threatened continuously donkey and horse industry worldwide, which induces huge economic losses every year. However, no effective vaccination strategies or drug against EqHV-8 infection until now. Our present study found that one host protien HO-1 restrict EqHV-8 replication in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we demonstrate that HO-1 and its metabolite biliverdin suppress EqHV-8 relication via the PKCβ/ERK1/ERK2 and NO/cGMP/PKG pathways. Hence, we believe that HO-1 can be developed as a promising therapeutic strategy to control EqHV-8 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongtong Wang
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Shuwen Li
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Xinyao Hu
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Yiqing Geng
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Li Chen
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Wenqiang Liu
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Juan Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Wenxia Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
| | - Changfa Wang
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Yubao Li
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Liangliang Li
- College of Agronomy, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
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Blagodarov SV, Zheltukhina GA, Nebolsin VE. Iron metabolism in the cell as a target in the development of potential antimicrobial and antiviral agents. BIOMEDITSINSKAIA KHIMIIA 2023; 69:199-218. [PMID: 37705481 DOI: 10.18097/pbmc20236904199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
The search and creation of innovative antimicrobial drugs, acting against resistant and multiresistant strains of bacteria and fungi, are one of the most important tasks of modern bioorganic chemistry and pharmaceuticals. Since iron is essential for the vital activity of almost all organisms, including mammals and bacteria, the proteins involved in its metabolism can serve as potential targets in the development of new promising antimicrobial agents. Such targets include endogenous mammalian biomolecules, heme oxygenases, siderophores, protein 24p3, as well as bacterial heme oxygenases and siderophores. Other proteins that are responsible for the delivery of iron to cells and its balance between bacteria and the host organism also attract certain particular interest. The review summarizes data on the development of inhibitors and inducers (activators) of heme oxygenases, selective for mammals and bacteria, and considers the characteristic features of their mechanisms of action and structure. Based on the reviewed literature data, it was concluded that the use of hemin, the most powerful hemooxygenase inducer, and its derivatives as potential antimicrobial and antiviral agents, in particular against COVID-19 and other dangerous infections, would be a promising approach. In this case, an important role is attributed to the products of hemin degradation formed by heme oxygenases in vitro and in vivo. Certain attention has been paid to the data on the antimicrobial action of iron-free protoporphyrinates, namely complexes with Co, Ga, Zn, Mn, their advantages and disadvantages compared to hemin. Modification of the well-known antibiotic ceftazidime with a siderophore molecule increased its effectiveness against resistant bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- S V Blagodarov
- MIREA - Russian Technological University (MITHT), Moscow, Russia; LLC "Pharmenterprises", Moscow, Russia
| | - G A Zheltukhina
- MIREA - Russian Technological University (MITHT), Moscow, Russia; LLC "Pharmenterprises", Moscow, Russia
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de Lima F, Moraes CRP, Barbosa MS, Bombassaro B, Palma AC, Dertkigil SSJ, Moretti ML, Orsi FA, Annichino-Bizzacchi JM, Mansour E, Velloso LA, De Paula EV. Association of heme-oxygenase 1, hemopexin, and heme levels with markers of disease severity in COVID-19. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2023; 248:309-316. [PMID: 36740756 PMCID: PMC9902789 DOI: 10.1177/15353702221139185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme-oxygenase 1 (HO-1) is an enzyme with well-known anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, whose levels have been previously associated with disease severity in the context of sterile and infectious diseases. Moreover, the heme/HO-1 pathway has been associated with prothrombotic changes in other diseases. Accordingly, the potential of modulating HO-1 levels for the treatment of COVID-19 was extensively speculated during the COVID-19 pandemic, but very few actual data were generated. The aim of our study was to explore the association of HO-1, heme, and hemopexin (HPX) levels with COVID-19 severity and with markers of inflammation and coagulation activation. The study was conducted in 30 consecutive patients with COVID-19 admitted due to hypoxemia, and 30 healthy volunteers matched by sex, age, and geographic region. HO-1 and HPX levels were measured by enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) and heme levels were measured by a colorimetric method. A comprehensive panel of coagulation and fibrinolysis activation was also used. Patients with COVID-19 presented increased levels of HO-1 when compared to controls (5741 ± 2696 vs 1953 ± 612 pg/mL, respectively, P < 0.0001), as well as a trend toward increased levels of HPX (3.724 ± 0.880 vs 3.254 ± 1.022 mg/mL, respectively; P = 0.06). In addition, HO-1 and HPX levels reduced from admission to day + 4. HO-1 levels were associated with duration of intensive care unit stay and with several markers of coagulation activation. In conclusion, modulation of HO-1 could be associated with the prothrombotic state observed in COVID-19, and HO-1 could also represent a relevant biomarker for COVID-19. New independent studies are warranted to explore and expand these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franciele de Lima
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil,Franciele de Lima.
| | | | - Mayck Silva Barbosa
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil
| | - Bruna Bombassaro
- Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-864, Brazil
| | - André C Palma
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil
| | | | - Maria Luiza Moretti
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil
| | | | - Joyce M Annichino-Bizzacchi
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil,Hematology and Hemotherapy Center, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-878, Brazil
| | - Eli Mansour
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil
| | - Licio A Velloso
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil,Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-864, Brazil
| | - Erich Vinicius De Paula
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, Brazil,Hematology and Hemotherapy Center, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-878, Brazil
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Andreu S, von Kobbe C, Delgado P, Ripa I, Buzón MJ, Genescà M, Gironès N, del Moral-Salmoral J, Ramírez GA, Zúñiga S, Enjuanes L, López-Guerrero JA, Bello-Morales R. Dextran sulfate from Leuconostoc mesenteroides B512F exerts potent antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and in vivo. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1185504. [PMID: 37206325 PMCID: PMC10189130 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1185504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergent human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 and its resistance to current drugs makes the need for new potent treatments for COVID-19 patients strongly necessary. Dextran sulfate (DS) polysaccharides have long demonstrated antiviral activity against different enveloped viruses in vitro. However, their poor bioavailability has led to their abandonment as antiviral candidates. Here, we report for the first time the broad-spectrum antiviral activity of a DS-based extrapolymeric substance produced by the lactic acid bacterium Leuconostoc mesenteroides B512F. Time of addition assays with SARS-CoV-2 pseudoviruses in in vitro models confirm the inhibitory activity of DSs in the early stages of viral infection (viral entry). In addition, this exopolysaccharide substance also reports broad-spectrum antiviral activity against several enveloped viruses such as SARS-CoV-2, HCoV229E, HSV-1, in in vitro models and in human lung tissue. The toxicity and antiviral capacity of DS from L. mesenteroides was tested in vivo in mouse models which are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. The described DS, administered by inhalation, a new route of administration for these types of polymers, shows strong inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 infection in vivo, significantly reducing animal mortality and morbidity at non-toxic doses. Therefore, we suggest that it may be considered as a potential candidate for antiviral therapy against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Andreu
- Department of Molecular Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
- *Correspondence: Sabina Andreu
| | - Cayetano von Kobbe
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Delgado
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Inés Ripa
- Department of Molecular Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - María José Buzón
- Infectious Diseases Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, VHIR Task Force COVID-19, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Meritxell Genescà
- Infectious Diseases Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, VHIR Task Force COVID-19, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Gironès
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier del Moral-Salmoral
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Sonia Zúñiga
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Enjuanes
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - José Antonio López-Guerrero
- Department of Molecular Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Bello-Morales
- Department of Molecular Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Spanish National Research Council—Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
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Olagüe C, Mitxelena-Iribarren O, Sierra-García JE, Rodriguez-Merino F, Maestro S, Pérez-Lorenzo E, Guillen-Grima F, González-Aseguinolaza G, Arana S, Smerdou C. Rapid SARS-CoV-2 disinfection on distant surfaces with UV-C: The inactivation is affected by the type of material. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY 2022; 11:100138. [PMID: 35958025 PMCID: PMC9356637 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpap.2022.100138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, which has caused almost 570 million infections and over six million deaths worldwide. To help curb its spread, solutions using ultraviolet light (UV) for quick virus inactivation inside buildings without human intervention could be very useful to reduce chances of contagion. The UV dose must be sufficient to inactivate the virus considering the different materials in the room, but it should not be too high, not to degrade the environment. In the present study, we have analyzed the ability of a 254 nm wavelength UV-C lamp to inactivate dried samples of SARS-CoV-2 exposed at a distance of two meters, simulating a full-scale scenario. Our results showed that virus inactivation was extremely efficient in most tested materials, which included plastic, metal, wood, and textile, with a UV-C exposure of only 42 s (equivalent to 10 mJ/cm2). However, porous materials like medium density fibreboard, were hard to decontaminate, indicating that they should be avoided in hospital rooms and public places.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Olagüe
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Oihane Mitxelena-Iribarren
- CEIT-Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Manuel Lardizábal 15, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Universidad de Navarra, Tecnun, Manuel Lardizábal 13, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | | | | | - Sheila Maestro
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Eva Pérez-Lorenzo
- CEIT-Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Manuel Lardizábal 15, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Universidad de Navarra, Tecnun, Manuel Lardizábal 13, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Francisco Guillen-Grima
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pio XII 36, 3108 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
| | - Gloria González-Aseguinolaza
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Sergio Arana
- CEIT-Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Manuel Lardizábal 15, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Universidad de Navarra, Tecnun, Manuel Lardizábal 13, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Cristian Smerdou
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), 31008 Pamplona, Spain
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Mitra J, Kodavati M, Provasek VE, Rao KS, Mitra S, Hamilton DJ, Horner PJ, Vahidy FS, Britz GW, Kent TA, Hegde ML. SARS-CoV-2 and the central nervous system: Emerging insights into hemorrhage-associated neurological consequences and therapeutic considerations. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 80:101687. [PMID: 35843590 PMCID: PMC9288264 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to impact our lives by causing widespread illness and death and poses a threat due to the possibility of emerging strains. SARS-CoV-2 targets angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) before entering vital organs of the body, including the brain. Studies have shown systemic inflammation, cellular senescence, and viral toxicity-mediated multi-organ failure occur during infectious periods. However, prognostic investigations suggest that both acute and long-term neurological complications, including predisposition to irreversible neurodegenerative diseases, can be a serious concern for COVID-19 survivors, especially the elderly population. As emerging studies reveal sites of SARS-CoV-2 infection in different parts of the brain, potential causes of chronic lesions including cerebral and deep-brain microbleeds and the likelihood of developing stroke-like pathologies increases, with critical long-term consequences, particularly for individuals with neuropathological and/or age-associated comorbid conditions. Our recent studies linking the blood degradation products to genome instability, leading to cellular senescence and ferroptosis, raise the possibility of similar neurovascular events as a result of SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this review, we discuss the neuropathological consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID survivors, focusing on possible hemorrhagic damage in brain cells, its association to aging, and the future directions in developing mechanism-guided therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joy Mitra
- Division of DNA Repair Research, Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Manohar Kodavati
- Division of DNA Repair Research, Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Vincent E Provasek
- Division of DNA Repair Research, Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - K S Rao
- Department of Biotechnology, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation Deemed to be University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh 522502, India
| | - Sankar Mitra
- Division of DNA Repair Research, Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Dale J Hamilton
- Center for Bioenergetics, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, USA
| | - Philip J Horner
- Division of DNA Repair Research, Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, USA
| | - Farhaan S Vahidy
- Center for Outcomes Research, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Gavin W Britz
- Division of DNA Repair Research, Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, USA
| | - Thomas A Kent
- Center for Genomics and Precision Medicine, Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Muralidhar L Hegde
- Division of DNA Repair Research, Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, USA.
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8
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Detsika MG, Nikitopoulou I, Veroutis D, Vassiliou AG, Jahaj E, Tsipilis S, Athanassiou N, Gakiopoulou H, Gorgoulis VG, Dimopoulou I, Orfanos SE, Kotanidou A. Increase of HO-1 Expression in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients Is Associated with Poor Prognosis and Outcome. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11071300. [PMID: 35883791 PMCID: PMC9311906 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11071300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme-oxygenase (HO)-1 is a cytoprotective enzyme with strong antioxidant and anti-apoptotic properties and previous reports have also emphasized the antiviral properties of HO-1, either directly or via induction of interferons. To investigate the potential role of HO-1 in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the present study assessed changes in HO-1 expression in whole blood and tissue samples. Upregulation of HO-1 protein was observed in lung, liver, and skin tissue independently of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) presence. A significant increase of blood HO-1 mRNA levels was observed in critically ill COVID-19 patients compared to those in severe COVID-19 patients and healthy controls. This increase was accompanied by significantly elevated levels of serum ferritin and bilirubin in critically ill compared to patients with severe disease. Further grouping of patients in survivors and non-survivors revealed a significant increase of blood HO-1 mRNA levels in the later. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis for prediction of ICU admission and mortality yielded an AUC of 0.705 (p = 0.016) and 0.789 (p = 0.007) respectively indicating that HO-1 increase is associated with poor COVID-19 progression and outcome. The increase in HO-1 expression observed in critically ill COVID-19 patients could serve as a mechanism to counteract increased heme levels driving coagulation and thrombosis or as an induced protective mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria G. Detsika
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Ioanna Nikitopoulou
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Dimitris Veroutis
- Molecular Carcinogenesis Group, Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (D.V.); (V.G.G.)
| | - Alice G. Vassiliou
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Edison Jahaj
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Stamatis Tsipilis
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Nikolaos Athanassiou
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Hariklia Gakiopoulou
- First Department of Pathology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece;
| | - Vassilis G. Gorgoulis
- Molecular Carcinogenesis Group, Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (D.V.); (V.G.G.)
- Biomedical Research Foundation, Academy of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece
- Faculty Institute for Cancer Sciences, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester M20 4GJ, UK
- Center for New Biotechnologies and Precision Medicine, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Surrey GU2 7YH, UK
| | - Ioanna Dimopoulou
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Stylianos E. Orfanos
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
| | - Anastasia Kotanidou
- 1st Department of Critical Care Medicine & Pulmonary Services, GP Livanos and M Simou Laboratories, Evangelismos Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10675 Athens, Greece; (M.G.D.); (I.N.); (A.G.V.); (E.J.); (S.T.); (N.A.); (I.D.); (S.E.O.)
- Correspondence:
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9
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Dhawan S. Therapeutic Potential of Inducible Endogenous Cytoprotective Heme Oxygenase-1 in Mitigating SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Associated Inflammation. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:662. [PMID: 35453347 PMCID: PMC9028590 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11040662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The inducible cytoprotective enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has gained significant recognition in recent years for mediating strong cellular resistance to a broad range of viral infections, regardless of the type of viruses, viral strains, or mutants. HO-1 is not a typical antiviral agent that targets any particular pathogen. It is a "viral tropism independent" endogenous host defense factor that upon induction provides general cellular protection against pathogens. By virtue of HO-1 being widely distributed intracellular enzyme in virtually every cell, this unique host factor presents a novel class of generic host defense system against a variety of viral infections. This Viewpoint proposes pharmacological evaluation of the HO-1-dependent cellular resistance for its potential in mitigating infections by deadly viruses, including the current severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), its variants, and mutants. HO-1-dependent cellular resistance against SARS-CoV-2 can complement current medical modalities for much effective control of the COVID-19 pandemic, especially with constantly emerging new viral variants and limited therapeutic options to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated severe health consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash Dhawan
- Retired Senior FDA Research & Regulatory Scientist, 9890 Washingtonian Blvd., #703, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
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10
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A Journey into the Clinical Relevance of Heme Oxygenase 1 for Human Inflammatory Disease and Viral Clearance: Why Does It Matter on the COVID-19 Scene? Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11020276. [PMID: 35204159 PMCID: PMC8868141 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11020276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), the rate-limiting enzyme in heme degradation, is involved in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis, exerting a cytoprotective role by its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory functions. HO-1 and its end products, biliverdin, carbon monoxide and free iron (Fe2+), confer cytoprotection against inflammatory and oxidative injury. Additionally, HO-1 exerts antiviral properties against a diverse range of viral infections by interfering with replication or activating the interferon (IFN) pathway. Severe cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), are characterized by systemic hyperinflammation, which, in some cases, leads to severe or fatal symptoms as a consequence of respiratory failure, lung and heart damage, kidney failure, and nervous system complications. This review summarizes the current research on the protective role of HO-1 in inflammatory diseases and against a wide range of viral infections, positioning HO-1 as an attractive target to ameliorate clinical manifestations during COVID-19.
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11
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Aparicio B, Casares N, Egea J, Ruiz M, Llopiz D, Maestro S, Olagüe C, González-Aseguinolaza G, Smerdou C, López-Díaz de Cerio A, Inogés S, Prósper F, Yuste JR, Carmona-Torre F, Reina G, Lasarte JJ, Sarobe P. Preclinical evaluation of a synthetic peptide vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 inducing multiepitopic and cross-reactive humoral neutralizing and cellular CD4 and CD8 responses. Emerg Microbes Infect 2021; 10:1931-1946. [PMID: 34538222 PMCID: PMC8480813 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2021.1978823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Identification of relevant epitopes is crucial for the development of subunit peptide vaccines inducing neutralizing and cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2. Our aim was the characterization of epitopes in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein to generate a peptide vaccine. Epitope mapping using a panel of 10 amino acid overlapped 15-mer peptides covering region 401-515 from RBD did not identify linear epitopes when tested with sera from infected individuals or from RBD-immunized mice. However, immunization of mice with these 15-mer peptides identified four peptides located at region 446-480 that induced antibodies recognizing the peptides and RBD/S1 proteins. Immunization with peptide 446-480 from S protein formulated with Freund's adjuvant or with CpG oligodeoxinucleotide/Alum induced polyepitopic antibody responses in BALB/c and C56BL/6J mice, recognizing RBD (titres of 3 × 104-3 × 105, depending on the adjuvant) and displaying neutralizing capacity (80-95% inhibition capacity; p < 0.05) against SARS-CoV-2. Murine CD4 and CD8T-cell epitopes were identified in region 446-480 and vaccination experiments using HLA transgenic mice suggested the presence of multiple human T-cell epitopes. Antibodies induced by peptide 446-480 showed broad recognition of S proteins and S-derived peptides belonging to SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Importantly, vaccination with peptide 446-480 or with a cyclic version of peptide 446-488 containing a disulphide bridge between cysteines 480 and 488, protected humanized K18-hACE2 mice from a lethal dose of SARS-CoV-2 (62.5 and 75% of protection; p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). This region could be the basis for a peptide vaccine or other vaccine platforms against Covid-19.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Animals
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/blood
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- COVID-19/immunology
- COVID-19/prevention & control
- COVID-19 Vaccines/immunology
- COVID-19 Vaccines/standards
- Cross Reactions/immunology
- Epitope Mapping
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular
- Immunity, Humoral
- Immunization
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- SARS-CoV-2/genetics
- SARS-CoV-2/immunology
- Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/genetics
- Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology
- Vaccines, Subunit/immunology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Belén Aparicio
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Noelia Casares
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Josune Egea
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Marta Ruiz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Diana Llopiz
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Sheila Maestro
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Cristina Olagüe
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Gloria González-Aseguinolaza
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Cristian Smerdou
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | | | | | - Felipe Prósper
- Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Pamplona, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Juan J. Lasarte
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Pablo Sarobe
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- IdiSNA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
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12
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Kim DH, Ahn HS, Go HJ, Kim DY, Kim JH, Lee JB, Park SY, Song CS, Lee SW, Ha SD, Choi C, Choi IS. Hemin as a novel candidate for treating COVID-19 via heme oxygenase-1 induction. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21462. [PMID: 34728736 PMCID: PMC8563742 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01054-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). More than 143 million cases of COVID-19 have been reported to date, with the global death rate at 2.13%. Currently, there are no licensed therapeutics for controlling SARS-CoV-2 infection. The antiviral effects of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a cytoprotective enzyme that inhibits the inflammatory response and reduces oxidative stress, have been investigated in several viral infections. To confirm whether HO-1 suppresses SARS-CoV-2 infection, we assessed the antiviral activity of hemin, an effective and safe HO-1 inducer, in SARS-CoV-2 infection. We found that treatment with hemin efficiently suppressed SARS-CoV-2 replication (selectivity index: 249.7012). Besides, the transient expression of HO-1 using an expression vector also suppressed the growth of the virus in cells. Free iron and biliverdin, which are metabolic byproducts of heme catalysis by HO-1, also suppressed the viral infection. Additionally, hemin indirectly increased the expression of interferon-stimulated proteins known to restrict SARS-CoV-2 replication. Overall, the findings suggested that HO-1, induced by hemin, effectively suppressed SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Therefore, HO-1 could be potential therapeutic candidate for COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Hwi Kim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Seop Ahn
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon-Jeong Go
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Da-Yoon Kim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hyeong Kim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong-Bok Lee
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Yong Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Seon Song
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Won Lee
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Do Ha
- Advanced Food Safety Research Group, BrainKorea21 Plus, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi, 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Changsun Choi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi, 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soo Choi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea.
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