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Yan Z, Rein B. Mechanisms of synaptic transmission dysregulation in the prefrontal cortex: pathophysiological implications. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:445-465. [PMID: 33875802 PMCID: PMC8523584 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01092-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) serves as the chief executive officer of the brain, controlling the highest level cognitive and emotional processes. Its local circuits among glutamatergic principal neurons and GABAergic interneurons, as well as its long-range connections with other brain regions, have been functionally linked to specific behaviors, ranging from working memory to reward seeking. The efficacy of synaptic signaling in the PFC network is profundedly influenced by monoaminergic inputs via the activation of dopamine, adrenergic, or serotonin receptors. Stress hormones and neuropeptides also exert complex effects on the synaptic structure and function of PFC neurons. Dysregulation of PFC synaptic transmission is strongly linked to social deficits, affective disturbance, and memory loss in brain disorders, including autism, schizophrenia, depression, and Alzheimer's disease. Critical neural circuits, biological pathways, and molecular players that go awry in these mental illnesses have been revealed by integrated electrophysiological, optogenetic, biochemical, and transcriptomic studies of PFC. Novel epigenetic mechanism-based strategies are proposed as potential avenues of therapeutic intervention for PFC-involved diseases. This review provides an overview of PFC network organization and synaptic modulation, as well as the mechanisms linking PFC dysfunction to the pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, and neurodegenerative diseases. Insights from the preclinical studies offer the potential for discovering new medical treatments for human patients with these brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Yan
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, State University of New York at Buffalo, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, NY, USA.
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Xu FL, Yao J, Wang BJ. Association between RGS4 gene polymorphisms and schizophrenia: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2021; 100:e27607. [PMID: 34871224 PMCID: PMC8568470 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000027607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a complex brain disorder, the pathogenesis of which remains unclear. Regulator of G-protein signaling 4 is regarded as a candidate gene for schizophrenia risk. The association between the regulator of G-protein signaling 4 gene and the risk of schizophrenia is complicated and controversial, thus, an updated meta-analysis is needed. METHODS A search strategy using Medical Subject Headings was developed in English (PubMed, SZGene) and Chinese (CNKI, Wanfang, and Weipu) databases. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to screen for eligible studies. Parameters, such as P value of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, odds ratios, 95% confidence intervals, P values of association, heterogeneity (Ph), and publication bias, were analyzed by the Stata software using a random effects model. Subgroup analyses were performed to detect heterogeneity. RESULTS There were 15 articles regarding rs10917670 (8046 cases and 8837 controls), 16 regarding rs951436 (8990 cases and 10,568 controls), 15 regarding rs951439 (7995 cases and 8646 controls), 15 regarding rs2661319 (8320 cases and 9440 controls), and 4 regarding rs10759 (2752 cases and 2866 controls). The frequencies of rs10917670 and rs951439 were not significantly different between the case and control groups (P > .05). As shown by the East Asian and hospital-based subgroup analyses, the genotype TT of rs951436 might be related to the risk of schizophrenia. The genotypes CC + CT of rs2661319 and CC + CA of rs10759 were statistically different between the 2 groups, and the East Asian population contributed to these differences. CONCLUSION The genotypes CC + CT of rs2661319 and CC + CA of rs10759 might be associated with the risk of schizophrenia.
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Jeon JH, Oh TR, Park S, Huh S, Kim JH, Mai BK, Lee JH, Kim SH, Lee MJ. The Antipsychotic Drug Clozapine Suppresses the RGS4 Polyubiquitylation and Proteasomal Degradation Mediated by the Arg/N-Degron Pathway. Neurotherapeutics 2021; 18:1768-1782. [PMID: 33884581 PMCID: PMC8608952 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-021-01039-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Although diverse antipsychotic drugs have been developed for the treatment of schizophrenia, most of their mechanisms of action remain elusive. Regulator of G-protein signaling 4 (RGS4) has been reported to be linked, both genetically and functionally, with schizophrenia and is a physiological substrate of the arginylation branch of the N-degron pathway (Arg/N-degron pathway). Here, we show that the atypical antipsychotic drug clozapine significantly inhibits proteasomal degradation of RGS4 proteins without affecting their transcriptional expression. In addition, the levels of Arg- and Phe-GFP (artificial substrates of the Arg/N-degron pathway) were significantly elevated by clozapine treatment. In silico computational model suggested that clozapine may interact with active sites of N-recognin E3 ubiquitin ligases. Accordingly, treatment with clozapine resulted in reduced polyubiquitylation of RGS4 and Arg-GFP in the test tube and in cultured cells. Clozapine attenuated the activation of downstream effectors of G protein-coupled receptor signaling, such as MEK1 and ERK1, in HEK293 and SH-SY5Y cells. Furthermore, intraperitoneal injection of clozapine into rats significantly stabilized the endogenous RGS4 protein in the prefrontal cortex. Overall, these results reveal an additional therapeutic mechanism of action of clozapine: this drug posttranslationally inhibits the degradation of Arg/N-degron substrates, including RGS4. These findings imply that modulation of protein post-translational modifications, in particular the Arg/N-degron pathway, may be a novel molecular therapeutic strategy against schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Hyoung Jeon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Tae Rim Oh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Seoyoung Park
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Sunghoo Huh
- Biomedical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Ji Hyeon Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Binh Khanh Mai
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Jung Hoon Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Se Hyun Kim
- Biomedical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, 03080, Korea.
- Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, 03080, Korea.
| | - Min Jae Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea.
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, Korea.
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Soler J, Miret S, Lázaro L, Parellada M, Martín M, Lera-Miguel S, Rosa A, de Castro-Catala M, Cuesta M, Fañanás L, Krebs M, Fatjó-Vilas M. Influence of DAOA and RGS4 genes on the risk for psychotic disorders and their associated executive dysfunctions: A family-based study. Eur Psychiatry 2020; 32:42-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundGlutamatergic neurotransmission dysfunction has classically been related to the aetiology of psychotic disorders. A substantial polygenic component shared across these disorders has been reported and molecular genetics studies have associated glutamatergic-related genes, such as d-amino acid oxidase activator (DAOA) and regulator of G-protein signalling 4 (RGS4) with the risk for psychotic disorders. Our aims were to examine: (i) the relationship between DAOA and RGS4 and the risk for psychotic disorders using a family-based association approach, and (ii) whether variations in these genes are associated with differences in patients’ cognitive performance.MethodsThe sample comprised 753 subjects (222 patients with psychotic disorders and 531 first-degree relatives). Six SNPs in DAOA and 5 SNPs in RGS4 were genotyped. Executive cognitive performance was assessed with Trail Making Test B (TMT-B) and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Genetic association analyses were conducted with PLINK, using the transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) for the family-based study and linear regression for cognitive performance analyses.ResultsThe haplotype GAGACT at DAOA was under-transmitted to patients (P = 0.0008), indicating its association with these disorders. With regards to cognitive performance, the DAOA haplotype GAGGCT was associated with worse scores in TMT-B (P = 0.018) in SZ patients only. RGS4 analyses did not report significant results.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that the DAOA gene may contribute to the risk for psychotic disorders and that this gene may play a role as a modulator of executive function, probably through the dysregulation of the glutamatergic signalling.
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Squires KE, Montañez-Miranda C, Pandya RR, Torres MP, Hepler JR. Genetic Analysis of Rare Human Variants of Regulators of G Protein Signaling Proteins and Their Role in Human Physiology and Disease. Pharmacol Rev 2018; 70:446-474. [PMID: 29871944 DOI: 10.1124/pr.117.015354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins modulate the physiologic actions of many neurotransmitters, hormones, and other signaling molecules. Human RGS proteins comprise a family of 20 canonical proteins that bind directly to G protein-coupled receptors/G protein complexes to limit the lifetime of their signaling events, which regulate all aspects of cell and organ physiology. Genetic variations account for diverse human traits and individual predispositions to disease. RGS proteins contribute to many complex polygenic human traits and pathologies such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, schizophrenia, depression, addiction, cancers, and many others. Recent analysis indicates that most human diseases are due to extremely rare genetic variants. In this study, we summarize physiologic roles for RGS proteins and links to human diseases/traits and report rare variants found within each human RGS protein exome sequence derived from global population studies. Each RGS sequence is analyzed using recently described bioinformatics and proteomic tools for measures of missense tolerance ratio paired with combined annotation-dependent depletion scores, and protein post-translational modification (PTM) alignment cluster analysis. We highlight selected variants within the well-studied RGS domain that likely disrupt RGS protein functions and provide comprehensive variant and PTM data for each RGS protein for future study. We propose that rare variants in functionally sensitive regions of RGS proteins confer profound change-of-function phenotypes that may contribute, in newly appreciated ways, to complex human diseases and/or traits. This information provides investigators with a valuable database to explore variation in RGS protein function, and for targeting RGS proteins as future therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E Squires
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (K.E.S., C.M.-M., J.R.H.); and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia (R.R.P., M.P.T.)
| | - Carolina Montañez-Miranda
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (K.E.S., C.M.-M., J.R.H.); and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia (R.R.P., M.P.T.)
| | - Rushika R Pandya
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (K.E.S., C.M.-M., J.R.H.); and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia (R.R.P., M.P.T.)
| | - Matthew P Torres
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (K.E.S., C.M.-M., J.R.H.); and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia (R.R.P., M.P.T.)
| | - John R Hepler
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia (K.E.S., C.M.-M., J.R.H.); and School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia (R.R.P., M.P.T.)
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O'Neill N, McLaughlin C, Komiyama N, Sylantyev S. Biphasic Modulation of NMDA Receptor Function by Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors. J Neurosci 2018; 38:9840-9855. [PMID: 30282730 PMCID: PMC6234301 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1000-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 09/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A recently reported rapid potentiation of NMDA receptors by Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRIs) via a Homer protein link is distinct from the classical, relatively slow inhibitory G-protein-associated signaling triggered by mGluRI activation. The relationship between these two mechanisms remains unknown. Here, we focused on the mGluRI-dependent modulation of NMDAR response in hippocampal dentate gyrus granule cells and cerebellar granule cells of C57BL6-J mice and found that these two contrasting mechanisms overlap competitively on the time scale from hundreds of milliseconds to seconds, with the net effect depending on the cell type. At a shorter time interval (units of millisecond), the Homer-mediated signal from mGluRIs prevails, causing upregulation of NMDAR function, in both dentate gyrus granule cells and cerebellar granule cells. Our results shed light on the possible mechanisms of anti-schizophrenia drugs that disrupt Homer-containing protein link.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Here we study modulation of NMDA receptors triggered by activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors Group I via two distinct pathways: classical G-protein signaling system and newly discovered high-speed modulatory mechanism associated with Homer-protein-containing direct molecular link. We found that these two contrasting mechanisms overlap competitively on the time scale from hundreds of milliseconds to seconds, with the net effect depending on the cell type. We have also found that both crosstalk mechanisms cause significant changes in synaptic strength and plasticity. Our results resolve an apparent discrepancy between earlier studies that demonstrated contradictive effects of Homer-containing protein link disruption on NMDA receptor signaling. On top of that, our data provide a plausible explanation for unclear action mechanisms of anti-schizophrenia drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathanael O'Neill
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine McLaughlin
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Noboru Komiyama
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, and
| | - Sergiy Sylantyev
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,
- Department for Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
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Schwarz E. A gene-based review of RGS4 as a putative risk gene for psychiatric illness. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2018; 177:267-273. [PMID: 28544755 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Considerable efforts have been made to characterize RGS4 as a potential candidate gene for schizophrenia. Investigations span across numerous modalities and include explorations of genetic risk associations, mRNA and protein levels in the brain, and functionally relevant interactions with other candidate genes as well as links to schizophrenia relevant neural phenotypes. While these lines of investigations have yielded partially inconsistent findings, they provide a perspective on RGS4 as an important part of a larger biological system contributing to schizophrenia risk. This gene-based review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of published data from different experimental modalities and discusses the current knowledge of RGS4's systems-biological impact on the schizophrenia pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Schwarz
- Medical Faculty Mannheim, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
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Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex disorder lacking an effective treatment option for the pervasive and debilitating cognitive impairments experienced by patients. Working memory is a core cognitive function impaired in schizophrenia that depends upon activation of distributed neural network, including the circuitry of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Accordingly, individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia show reduced DLPFC activation while performing working-memory tasks. This lower DLPFC activation appears to be an integral part of the disease pathophysiology, and not simply a reflection of poor performance. Thus, the cellular and circuitry alterations that underlie lower DLPFC neuronal activity in schizophrenia must be determined in order to identify appropriate therapeutic targets. Studies using human postmortem brain tissue provide a robust way to investigate and characterize these cellular and circuitry alterations at multiple levels of resolution, and such studies provide essential information that cannot be obtained either through in vivo studies in humans or through experimental animal models. Studies examining neuronal morphology, protein expression and localization, and transcript levels indicate that a microcircuit composed of excitatory pyramidal cells and inhibitory interneurons containing the calcium-binding protein parvalbumin is altered in the DLPFC of subjects with schizophrenia and likely contributes to DLPFC dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill R Glausier
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - David A Lewis
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
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Association between RGS4 variants and psychotic-like experiences in nonclinical individuals. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2017; 267:19-24. [PMID: 26910404 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-016-0676-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The psychosis phenotype is expressed across a continuum known as schizotypy, which ranges from personality variation through subclinical symptoms to severe psychopathology. The study of subclinical manifestations in non-affected individuals minimizes confounding factors associated with the clinical phenotype and facilitates the differentiation of dimension-specific etiological mechanisms. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between the variation in the regulator of G-protein signaling 4 (RGS4) gene, a putative candidate gene for psychosis previously associated with schizophrenia endophenotypes, and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs). In total, 808 healthy individuals completed the community assessment of psychic experiences (CAPE) to measure positive and negative PLEs and provided a DNA sample. Two RGS4 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs951436 [SNP4] and rs2661319 [SNP18]) were genotyped. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were used to explore the association of positive and negative PLEs with RGS4 variation. Our results showed associations of positive and negative PLEs with the two polymorphisms studied: subjects with the T allele (SNP4) and the A allele (SNP18) had higher scores on both the positive and the negative dimensions. Haplotypic analyses supported these results, showing the highest scores in those with the TA haplotype (SNP4-SNP18). The RGS4 variants might exert gene-specific modulating effects on psychosis proneness.
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Puhl MD, Mintzopoulos D, Jensen JE, Gillis TE, Konopaske GT, Kaufman MJ, Coyle JT. In vivo magnetic resonance studies reveal neuroanatomical and neurochemical abnormalities in the serine racemase knockout mouse model of schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 73:269-74. [PMID: 25461193 PMCID: PMC4408217 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Decreased availability of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) co-agonist D-serine is thought to promote NMDAR hypofunction and contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, including neuroanatomical abnormalities, such as cortical atrophy and ventricular enlargement, and neurochemical abnormalities, such as aberrant glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) signaling. It is thought that these abnormalities directly relate to the negative symptoms and cognitive impairments that are hallmarks of the disorder. Because of the genetic complexity of schizophrenia, animal models of the disorder are extremely valuable for the study of genetically predisposing factors. Our laboratory developed a transgenic mouse model lacking serine racemase (SR), the synthetic enzyme of d-serine, polymorphisms of which are associated with schizophrenia. Null mutants (SR-/-) exhibit NMDAR hypofunction and cognitive impairments. We used 9.4 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and proton spectroscopy (MRS) to compare in vivo brain structure and neurochemistry in wildtype (WT) and SR-/- mice. METHODS Mice were anesthetized with isoflurane for MRI and MRS scans. RESULTS Compared to WT controls, SR-/- mice exhibited 23% larger ventricular volumes (p<0.05). Additionally, in a medial frontal cortex voxel (15 μl), SR-/- mice exhibited significantly higher glutamate/water (12%, t=1.83, p<0.05) and GABA/water (72%, t=4.10, p<0.001) ratios. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, these data demonstrate in vivo neuroanatomical and neurochemical abnormalities in the SR-/- mouse comparable to those previously reported in humans with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Puhl
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Laboratory for Psychiatric and Molecular Neuroscience, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Dionyssios Mintzopoulos
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; McLean Imaging Center, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - J Eric Jensen
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; McLean Imaging Center, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Timothy E Gillis
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; McLean Imaging Center, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Glenn T Konopaske
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Laboratory for Psychiatric and Molecular Neuroscience, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Marc J Kaufman
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; McLean Imaging Center, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Joseph T Coyle
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Brain RGS4 and RGS10 protein expression in schizophrenia and depression. Effect of drug treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 226:177-88. [PMID: 23093381 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2888-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins, RGS4 and RGS10, may be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. RGS4 has attracted special interest since the reports of genetic association between SNPs in RGS4 and schizophrenia. However, there is no information about the subcellular distribution of RGS4 and RGS10 proteins in psychiatric disorders. OBJECTIVES Plasma membrane RGS4 and cytosolic RGS10 protein immunoreactivity in prefrontal cortex from schizophrenic subjects (n = 25), non-diagnosed suicides (n = 13), and control subjects (n = 35), matched by age, gender, and postmortem delay, was analyzed by western blot. A second group of depressed subjects (n = 25) and control subjects (n = 25) was evaluated. The effect of the antipsychotic or antidepressant treatments was also assessed. RESULTS No significant differences in plasma membrane RGS4 and cytosolic RGS10 protein expression were observed between schizophrenic subjects, non-diagnosed suicides, and control subjects. However, RGS4 immunoreactivity was significantly higher (Δ = 33 ± 10 %, p < 0.05) in the antipsychotic-treated subgroup (n = 12) than in the antipsychotic-free subgroup (n = 13). Immunodensities of plasma membrane RGS4 and cytosolic RGS10 proteins did not differ between depressed and matched control subjects. CONCLUSIONS Expression of RGS4 and RGS10 proteins at their predominant subcellular location was studied in the postmortem brain of subjects with psychiatric disorders. The results suggest unaltered membrane RGS4 and cytosolic RGS10 proteins levels in schizophrenia and major depression. Antipsychotic treatment seems to increase membrane RGS4 immunoreactivity. Further studies are needed to elucidate RGS4 and RGS10 functional status.
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Lee JK, Chung J, Druey KM, Tansey MG. RGS10 exerts a neuroprotective role through the PKA/c-AMP response-element (CREB) pathway in dopaminergic neuron-like cells. J Neurochem 2012; 122:333-43. [PMID: 22564151 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07780.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Regulator of G-protein signaling-10 (RGS10) is a GTPase activating protein for Gαi/q/z subunits that is highly expressed in the immune system and in a broad range of brain regions including the hippocampus, striatum, dorsal raphe, and ventral midbrain. Previously, we reported that RGS10-null mice display increased vulnerability to chronic systemic inflammation-induced degeneration of nigral dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Given that RGS10 is expressed in DA neurons, we investigated the extent to which RGS10 regulates cell survival under conditions of inflammatory stress. Because of the inherent limitations associated with use of primary DA neurons for biochemical analyses, we employed a well-characterized ventral mesencephalon DA neuroblastoma cell line (MN9D) for our studies. We found that stable over-expression of RGS10 rendered them resistant to TNF-induced cytotoxicity; whereas MN9D cells expressing mutant RGS10-S168A (which is resistant to phosphorylation by protein kinase A at a serine residue that promotes its nuclear translocation) showed similar sensitivity to TNF as the parental MN9D cells. Using biochemical and pharmacologic approaches, we identified protein kinase A and the downstream phospho-cAMP response element-binding signaling pathway (and ruled out ERK 1/2, JNK, and NFkB) as key mediators of the neuroprotective effect of RGS10 against inflammatory stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Kyung Lee
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Kattoulas E, Stefanis NC, Avramopoulos D, Stefanis CN, Evdokimidis I, Smyrnis N. Schizophrenia-related RGS4 gene variations specifically disrupt prefrontal control of saccadic eye movements. Psychol Med 2012; 42:757-767. [PMID: 21910931 DOI: 10.1017/s003329171100167x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The gene encoding the regulator of G-protein signaling subtype 4 (RGS4), located on chromosome 1q23-3, has been proposed as a possible susceptibility gene for schizophrenia and has been specifically linked to prefrontal cortical structural and functional integrity. METHOD The effects of four core single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the RGS4 gene on oculomotor parameters in a battery of oculomotor tasks (saccade, antisaccade, smooth eye pursuit, fixation) were investigated in a sample of 2243 young male military conscripts. RESULTS The risk allele of RGS4SNP18 was found to be associated with two variables of antisaccade performance, increased error rate and variation in the correct antisaccade latency. By contrast, the same allele and also the risk allele of RGS4SNP4 led to an improvement in smooth eye pursuit performance (increased gain). Structural equation modeling confirmed that the combined gene variation of RGS4SNP4 and RGS4SNP18 was a significant predictor of antisaccade but not smooth eye pursuit performance. CONCLUSIONS These results provide evidence for a specific effect of schizophrenia-related RGS4 genotype variations to prefrontal dysfunction measured by oculomotor indices of performance in normal individuals, further validating the hypothesis that RGS4 is related to prefrontal dysfunction in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Kattoulas
- Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Horváth S, Janka Z, Mirnics K. Analyzing schizophrenia by DNA microarrays. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 69:157-62. [PMID: 20801428 PMCID: PMC2994975 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2010] [Revised: 07/12/2010] [Accepted: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
To understand the pathological processes of schizophrenia, we must embrace the analysis of the diseased human brain: we will never be able to recapitulate the pathology of uniquely human disorders in an animal model. Based on the outcome of the transcriptome profiling experiments performed to date, it appears that schizophrenia is associated with a global gene expression disturbance across many cortical regions. In addition, transcriptome changes are present in multiple cell types, including specific subclasses of principal neurons, interneurons, and oligodendrocytes. Furthermore, transcripts related to synaptic transmission, energy metabolism, and inhibitory neurotransmission are routinely found underexpressed in the postmortem brain tissue of subjects with schizophrenia. To put these transcriptome data in biological context, we must make our data publicly available and report our findings in a proper, expanded Minimum Information About a Microarray Experiment format. Cell-type specific expression profiling and sequencing-based transcript assessments should be expanded, with particular attention to understanding splice-variant changes in various mental disorders. Deciphering the pathophysiology of mental disorders depends on integrating data from across many research fields and techniques. Leads from postmortem transcriptome profiling will be essential to generate model animals, perform tissue culture experiments, and develop or evaluate novel drugs to treat this devastating disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szatmár Horváth
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA,Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Janka
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Károly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA,Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA,Correspondence: Karoly Mirnics, Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, 8130A MRB III, 465 21st Avenue South, Nashville TN 37232, USA, , Office phone: 615-936-1074, http://mirnicslab.vanderbilt.edu/mirnicslab/
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Rivero G, Gabilondo AM, García-Sevilla JA, La Harpe R, Morentín B, Javier Meana J. Characterization of regulators of G-protein signaling RGS4 and RGS10 proteins in the postmortem human brain. Neurochem Int 2010; 57:722-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2010] [Revised: 07/29/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Prasad KM, Almasy L, Gur RC, Gur RE, Pogue-Geile M, Chowdari KV, Talkowski ME, Nimgaonkar VL. RGS4 polymorphisms associated with variability of cognitive performance in a family-based schizophrenia sample. Schizophr Bull 2010; 36:983-90. [PMID: 19282471 PMCID: PMC2930339 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbp002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphisms of the gene encoding the regulator of G protein signaling, subtype 4 (RGS4), may be associated with schizophrenia. Among first-episode schizophrenia patients, they are also associated with dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) volume. The DLPFC is a key region that regulates heritable cognitive functions implicated in schizophrenia pathogenesis. To further understand the relationship of RGS4 variants to schizophrenia, we examined their associations with cognitive functions among schizophrenia patients and their relatives. We analyzed 31 multiplex, multigenerational Caucasian families with schizophrenia recruited on the basis of 2 affected first-degree relatives. All participants underwent a computerized neurocognitive battery that evaluates accuracy and speed (response time) of performance on abstraction/mental flexibility; attention; verbal, spatial, and face memory; and spatial ability. "Tag" single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) representing common polymorphisms were genotyped. Measured genotype analyses accounting for family relationships were performed using Sequential Oligogenic Linkage Analysis Routines. SNPs rs10917670 ("SNP1") and rs951439 ("SNP7") were associated with face memory speed (P = .0003) at a significance level that survived Bonferroni correction (P = .039). The same SNPs have earlier been reported to be associated with schizophrenia. There also were uncorrected associations with rs10917670 ("SNP1") and rs951439 ("SNP7") on face memory efficiency (P = .03) and verbal memory efficiency (P = 0.02), rs28757217 on abstraction/mental flexibility speed (P = .02) and verbal memory efficiency (P = .03), SNP18 (rs2661319) on spatial memory accuracy (P = 0.02) and face memory speed (P = .03). RGS4 polymorphisms are associated with variations in cognitive functions and contribute a small but statistically significant proportion of variance in a family-based sample.
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Delorme R, Betancur C, Scheid I, Anckarsäter H, Chaste P, Jamain S, Schuroff F, Nygren G, Herbrecht E, Dumaine A, Mouren MC, Råstam M, Leboyer M, Gillberg C, Bourgeron T. Mutation screening of NOS1AP gene in a large sample of psychiatric patients and controls. BMC MEDICAL GENETICS 2010; 11:108. [PMID: 20602773 PMCID: PMC2919462 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2350-11-108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2009] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Background The gene encoding carboxyl-terminal PDZ ligand of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS1AP) is located on chromosome 1q23.3, a candidate region for schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Previous genetic and functional studies explored the role of NOS1AP in these psychiatric conditions, but only a limited number explored the sequence variability of NOS1AP. Methods We analyzed the coding sequence of NOS1AP in a large population (n = 280), including patients with schizophrenia (n = 72), ASD (n = 81) or OCD (n = 34), and in healthy volunteers controlled for the absence of personal or familial history of psychiatric disorders (n = 93). Results Two non-synonymous variations, V37I and D423N were identified in two families, one with two siblings with OCD and the other with two brothers with ASD. These rare variations apparently segregate with the presence of psychiatric conditions. Conclusions Coding variations of NOS1AP are relatively rare in patients and controls. Nevertheless, we report the first non-synonymous variations within the human NOS1AP gene that warrant further genetic and functional investigations to ascertain their roles in the susceptibility to psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Delorme
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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Ivleva EI, Morris DW, Moates AF, Suppes T, Thaker GK, Tamminga CA. Genetics and intermediate phenotypes of the schizophrenia--bipolar disorder boundary. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 34:897-921. [PMID: 19954751 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2009] [Revised: 11/20/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Categorization of psychotic illnesses into schizophrenic and affective psychoses remains an ongoing controversy. Although Kraepelinian subtyping of psychosis was historically beneficial, modern genetic and neurophysiological studies do not support dichotomous conceptualization of psychosis. Evidence suggests that schizophrenia and bipolar disorder rather present a clinical continuum with partially overlapping symptom dimensions, neurophysiology, genetics and treatment responses. Recent large scale genetic studies have produced inconsistent findings and exposed an urgent need for re-thinking phenomenology-based approach in psychiatric research. Epidemiological, linkage and molecular genetic studies, as well as studies in intermediate phenotypes (neurocognitive, neurophysiological and anatomical imaging) in schizophrenia and bipolar disorders are reviewed in order to support a dimensional conceptualization of psychosis. Overlapping and unique genetic and intermediate phenotypic signatures of the two psychoses are comprehensively recapitulated. Alternative strategies which may be implicated into genetic research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena I Ivleva
- Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA.
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Dysbindin regulates the transcriptional level of myristoylated alanine-rich protein kinase C substrate via the interaction with NF-YB in mice brain. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8773. [PMID: 20098743 PMCID: PMC2808252 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2009] [Accepted: 12/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background An accumulating body of evidence suggests that Dtnbp1 (Dysbindin) is a key susceptibility gene for schizophrenia. Using the yeast-two-hybrid screening system, we examined the candidate proteins interacting with Dysbindin and revealed one of these candidates to be the transcription factor NF-YB. Methods We employed an immunoprecipitation (IP) assay to demonstrate the Dysbindin-NF-YB interaction. DNA chips were used to screen for altered expression of genes in cells in which Dysbindin or NF-YB was down regulated, while Chromatin IP and Reporter assays were used to confirm the involvement of these genes in transcription of Myristoylated alanine-rich protein kinase C substrate (MARCKS). The sdy mutant mice with a deletion in Dysbindin, which exhibit behavioral abnormalities, and wild-type DBA2J mice were used to investigate MARCKS expression. Results We revealed an interaction between Dysbindin and NF-YB. DNA chips showed that MARCKS expression was increased in both Dysbindin knockdown cells and NF-YB knockdown cells, and Chromatin IP revealed interaction of these proteins at the MARCKS promoter region. Reporter assay results suggested functional involvement of the interaction between Dysbindin and NF-YB in MARCKS transcription levels, via the CCAAT motif which is a NF-YB binding sequence. MARCKS expression was increased in sdy mutant mice when compared to wild-type mice. Conclusions These findings suggest that abnormal expression of MARCKS via dysfunction of Dysbindin might cause impairment of neural transmission and abnormal synaptogenesis. Our results should provide new insights into the mechanisms of neuronal development and the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.
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Krach S, Jansen A, Krug A, Markov V, Thimm M, Sheldrick AJ, Eggermann T, Zerres K, Stöcker T, Shah NJ, Kircher T. COMT genotype and its role on hippocampal-prefrontal regions in declarative memory. Neuroimage 2010; 53:978-84. [PMID: 20060911 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2009] [Revised: 12/03/2009] [Accepted: 12/22/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Memory dysfunction is a prominent feature in schizophrenia. Impairments of declarative memory have been consistently linked to alterations especially within hippocampal-prefrontal regions. Due to the high heritability of schizophrenia, susceptibility genes and their modulatory impact on the neural correlates on memory are of major relevance. In the present study the influence of the COMT val(158)met status on the neural correlates of declarative memory was investigated in healthy subjects. METHODS From an initial behavioural sample of 522 healthy individuals (Sheldrick et al., 2008), 84 subjects underwent fMRI scanning while performing a memory encoding and a retrieval task. The COMT val(158)met status was determined for the whole sample and correlated with cortical activation within the group of n=84 individuals. RESULTS There were no effects of COMT status on behavioural performance. For declarative memory processing the number of met alleles predicted circumscribed bilateral insula and anterior hippocampus activations during memory encoding as well as less deactivations within the bilateral posterior parahippocampal gyri during memory retrieval. DISCUSSION Although declarative memory performance was unaffected, the neural correlates within hippocampal-prefrontal regions demonstrate a link between COMT val(158)met carrier status and brain areas associated with declarative memory processing. The study contributes to a better understanding of the role that susceptibility genes might play in the aetiology of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sören Krach
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Brain Imaging, Philipps-University Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Str. 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany.
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Kircher T, Krug A, Markov V, Whitney C, Krach S, Zerres K, Eggermann T, Stöcker T, Shah NJ, Treutlein J, Nöthen MM, Becker T, Rietschel M. Genetic variation in the schizophrenia-risk gene neuregulin 1 correlates with brain activation and impaired speech production in a verbal fluency task in healthy individuals. Hum Brain Mapp 2009; 30:3406-16. [PMID: 19350564 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.20761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Impaired performance in verbal fluency tasks is an often replicated finding in schizophrenia. In functional neuroimaging studies, this dysfunction has been linked to signal changes in prefrontal and temporal areas. Since schizophrenia has a high heritability, it is of interest whether susceptibility genes for the disorder, such as NRG1, modulate verbal fluency performance and its neural correlates. Four hundred twenty-nine healthy individuals performed a semantic and a lexical verbal fluency task. A subsample of 85 subjects performed an overt semantic verbal fluency task while brain activation was measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). NRG1 (SNP8NRG221533; rs35753505) status was determined and correlated with verbal fluency performance and brain activation. For the behavioral measure, there was a linear effect of NRG1 status on semantic but not on lexical verbal fluency. Performance decreased with number of risk-alleles. In the fMRI experiment, decreased activation in the left inferior frontal and the right middle temporal gyri as well as the anterior cingulate gyrus was correlated with the number of risk-alleles in the semantic verbal fluency task. NRG1 genotype does influence language production on a semantic level in conjunction with the underlying neural systems. These findings are in line with results of studies in schizophrenia and may explain some of the cognitive and brain activation variation found in the disorder. More generally, NRG1 might be one of several genes that influence semantic language capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilo Kircher
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Philipps-University Marburg, Rudolf-Bultmann-Str. 8, 35039 Marburg, Germany.
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Kilpinen H, Ylisaukko-oja T, Rehnström K, Gaál E, Turunen JA, Kempas E, von Wendt L, Varilo T, Peltonen L. Linkage and linkage disequilibrium scan for autism loci in an extended pedigree from Finland. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:2912-21. [PMID: 19454485 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Population isolates, such as Finland, have proved beneficial in mapping rare causative genetic variants due to a limited number of founders resulting in reduced genetic heterogeneity and extensive linkage disequilibrium (LD). We have here used this special opportunity to identify rare alleles in autism by genealogically tracing 20 autism families into one extended pedigree with verified genealogical links reaching back to the 17th century. In this unique pedigree, we performed a dense microsatellite marker genome-wide scan of linkage and LD and followed initial findings with extensive fine-mapping. We identified a putative autism susceptibility locus at 19p13.3 and obtained further evidence for previously identified loci at 1q23 and 15q11-q13. Most promising candidate genes were TLE2 and TLE6 clustered at 19p13 and ATP1A2 at 1q23.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Kilpinen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Finland
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Chapter 11 Identification of Ligands Targeting RGS Proteins. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2009; 86:335-56. [DOI: 10.1016/s1877-1173(09)86011-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
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Small molecule protein-protein interaction inhibitors as CNS therapeutic agents: current progress and future hurdles. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009; 34:126-41. [PMID: 18800065 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2008.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions are a crucial element in cellular function. The wealth of information currently available on intracellular-signaling pathways has led many to appreciate the untapped pool of potential drug targets that reside downstream of the commonly targeted receptors. Over the last two decades, there has been significant interest in developing therapeutics and chemical probes that inhibit specific protein-protein interactions. Although it has been a challenge to develop small molecules that are capable of occluding the large, often relatively featureless protein-protein interaction interface, there are increasing numbers of examples of small molecules that function in this manner with reasonable potency. This article will highlight the current progress in the development of small molecule protein-protein interaction inhibitors that have applications in the treatment or study of central nervous system function and disease. In particular, we will focus upon recent work towards developing small molecule inhibitors of amyloid-beta and alpha-synuclein aggregation, inhibitors of critical components of G-protein-signaling pathways, and PDZ domain inhibitors.
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Matsuzaki S, Tohyama M. Regulation of pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP, ADCYAP1: adenylyl cyclase-activating polypeptide 1) in the treatment of schizophrenia. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2008; 12:1097-108. [PMID: 18694377 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.12.9.1097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Deficiency of pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and its specific receptor, PAC1, causes a schizophrenia-like phenotype in mice. In addition, the relation of the PACAP and PAC1 genes to schizophrenia has been shown by single-nucleotide polymorphism association studies. Furthermore, PACAP is reported to be involved in the function of disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1. OBJECTIVE To summarize briefly the recent evidence relating the PACAP system and schizophrenia and discuss the application of PACAP to the treatment of schizophrenia. RESULTS/CONCLUSION The regulation of PACAPergic signals is an interesting potential treatment for schizophrenia. Further studies of PACAP signals and the association of PACAP signals with schizophrenia should shed the light on the utility of this approach in the treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinsuke Matsuzaki
- Osaka University, The Osaka-Hamamatsu Joint Research Center for Child Mental Development, Graduate School of Medicine, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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Developmental disruptions in neural connectivity in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Dev Psychopathol 2008; 20:1297-327. [DOI: 10.1017/s095457940800062x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSchizophrenia has been thought of as a disorder of reduced functional and structural connectivity. Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, structural magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, and small animal imaging have advanced our ability to investigate this hypothesis. Moreover, the power of longitudinal designs possible with these noninvasive techniques enable the study of not just how connectivity is disrupted in schizophrenia, but when this disruption emerges during development. This article reviews genetic and neurodevelopmental influences on structural and functional connectivity in human populations with or at risk for schizophrenia and in animal models of the disorder. We conclude that the weight of evidence across these diverse lines of inquiry points to a developmental disruption of neural connectivity in schizophrenia and that this disrupted connectivity likely involves susceptibility genes that affect processes involved in establishing intra- and interregional connectivity.
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Stefanis NC, Trikalinos TA, Avramopoulos D, Smyrnis N, Evdokimidis I, Ntzani EE, Hatzimanolis A, Ioannidis JP, Stefanis CN. Association of RGS4 variants with schizotypy and cognitive endophenotypes at the population level. Behav Brain Funct 2008; 4:46. [PMID: 18834502 PMCID: PMC2572614 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-4-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2008] [Accepted: 10/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background While association studies on schizophrenia show conflicting results regarding the importance of the regulator of the G-protein signaling 4 (RGS4) gene, recent work suggests that RGS4 may impact on the structural and functional integrity of the prefrontal cortex. We aimed to study associations of common RGS4 variants with prefrontal dependent cognitive performance and schizotypy endophenotypes at the population level. Methods Four RGS4 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP1 [rs10917670], SNP4 [rs951436], SNP7 [rs951439], and SNP18 [rs2661319]) and their haplotypes were selected. Their associations with self-rated schizotypy (SPQ), vigilance, verbal, spatial working memory and antisaccade eye performance were tested with regressions in a representative population of 2,243 young male military conscripts. Results SNP4 was associated with negative schizotypy (higher SPQ negative factor for common T allele, p = 0.009; p = 0.031 for differences across genotypes) and a similar trend was seen also for common A allele of SNP18 (p = 0.039 for allele-load model; but p = 0.12 for genotype differences). Haplotype analyses showed a similar pattern with a dose-response for the most common haplotype (GGGG) on the negative schizotypy score with or without adjustment for age, IQ and their interaction (p = 0.011 and p = 0.024, respectively). There was no clear evidence for any association of the RGS4 variants with cognitive endophenotypes, except for an isolated effect of SNP18 on antisaccade error rate (p = 0.028 for allele-load model). Conclusion Common RGS4 variants were associated with negative schizotypal personality traits amongst a large cohort of young healthy individuals. In accordance with recent findings, this may suggest that RGS4 variants impact on the functional integrity of the prefrontal cortex, thus increasing susceptibility for psychotic spectrum disorders.
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Stuart Gibbons A, Scarr E, McOmish CE, Hannan AJ, Thomas EA, Dean B. Regulator of G-protein signalling 4 expression is not altered in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2008; 42:740-5. [PMID: 18622782 DOI: 10.1080/00048670802206338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Regulator of G-protein signalling 4 (RGS4) modulates signal transduction through several neurotransmitter receptor systems associated with the pathology of schizophrenia. A reported decrease in RGS4 expression in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia patients followed by supporting evidence from association studies implicated RGS4 as a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia. Subsequent efforts to extend these findings in post-mortem brain tissue have produced conflicting results. The aim of the present study was to reconcile these discrepancies by examining RGS4 expression in the dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortices from subjects with schizophrenia. METHODS RGS4 mRNA and protein levels were measured in post-mortem Brodmann area (BA)9 and BA40 tissue from 19 schizophrenia patients subjects and 19 pair-matched controls using in situ hybridization and western blotting. RESULTS Levels of RGS4 mRNA (F(1,73)=1.845; p >0.05) or protein (F(1,72)=3.336 x 10(-4), p >0.05) did not vary significantly with diagnosis in BA9 or BA40 from subjects with schizophrenia. CONCLUSIONS Altered RGS4 expression is not universally present throughout the cortex of people with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Stuart Gibbons
- Rebecca L. Cooper Research Laboratories, Mental Health Research Institute of Victoria, Parkville, Vic., Australia.
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Brennan AR, Arnsten AFT. Neuronal mechanisms underlying attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the influence of arousal on prefrontal cortical function. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1129:236-45. [PMID: 18591484 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1417.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Neuropsychological and imaging studies indicate that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with alterations in prefrontal cortex (PFC) and its connections to striatum and cerebellum. Research in animals, in combination with observations of patients with cortical lesions, has shown that the PFC is critical for the regulation of behavior, attention, and affect using representational knowledge. The PFC is important for sustaining attention over a delay, inhibiting distraction, and dividing attention, while more posterior cortical areas are essential for perception and the allocation of attentional resources. The PFC in the right hemisphere is especially important for behavioral inhibition. Lesions to the PFC produce a profile of distractibility, forgetfulness, impulsivity, poor planning, and locomotor hyperactivity. The PFC is very sensitive to its neurochemical environment, and either too little (drowsiness) or too much (stress) catecholamine release in PFC weakens cognitive control of behavior and attention. Recent electrophysiological studies in animals suggest that norepinephrine enhances "signals" through postsynaptic alpha2A adrenoceptors in PFC, while dopamine decreases "noise" through modest levels of D1 receptor stimulation. alpha2A-Adrenoceptor stimulation strengthens the functional connectivity of PFC networks, while blockade of alpha2 receptors in the monkey PFC recreates the symptoms of ADHD, resulting in impaired working memory, increased impulsivity, and locomotor hyperactivity. Genetic alterations in catecholamine pathways may contribute to dysregulation of PFC circuits in this disorder. Medications may have many of their therapeutic effects by optimizing stimulation of alpha2A adrenoceptors and D1 receptors in the PFC, thus strengthening PFC regulation of behavior and attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avis R Brennan
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
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Ivleva E, Thaker G, Tamminga CA. Comparing genes and phenomenology in the major psychoses: schizophrenia and bipolar 1 disorder. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34:734-42. [PMID: 18515820 PMCID: PMC2632452 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbn051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Ivleva
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, 5352 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75235
| | - Gunvant Thaker
- Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Carol A. Tamminga
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, 5352 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75235,To whom correspondence should be addressed; tel: 214-645-2789; fax: 214-645-2786, e-mail:
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Krug A, Markov V, Eggermann T, Krach S, Zerres K, Stöcker T, Shah NJ, Schneider F, Nöthen MM, Treutlein J, Rietschel M, Kircher T. Genetic variation in the schizophrenia-risk gene neuregulin1 correlates with differences in frontal brain activation in a working memory task in healthy individuals. Neuroimage 2008; 42:1569-76. [PMID: 18606232 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.05.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2008] [Revised: 05/24/2008] [Accepted: 05/29/2008] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Working memory dysfunctions are a prominent feature in schizophrenia. These impairments have been linked to alterations in prefrontal brain activation with studies reporting hypo- and hyperactivations. Since schizophrenia has a high heritability, it is of interest whether susceptibility genes modulate working memory and its neural correlates. The aim of the present study was to test the influence of the NRG1 schizophrenia susceptibility gene on working memory and its neural correlates in healthy subjects. 429 healthy individuals performed a verbal and a spatial working memory task. A subsample of 85 subjects performed a 2-back version of the Continuous Performance Test (CPT) in a functional MRI study. The NRG1 SNP8NRG221533 (rs35753505) carrier status was determined and correlated with working memory performance and brain activation. There were no effects of genetic status on behavioural performance in the working memory tasks in the 429 subjects and in the fMRI task (n=85). A linear effect of NRG1 SNP8NRG221533 carrier status on neuronal activation emerged in the fMRI experiment. Hyperactivation of the superior frontal gyrus (BA 10) was correlated with the number of risk alleles. The fMRI data suggest that performance measures between groups did not differ due to a compensational activation of BA 10 in risk-allele carriers. Our results are in line with functional imaging studies in patients with schizophrenia, which also showed a differential activation in lateral prefrontal areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Krug
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstr. 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
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Colantuoni C, Hyde TM, Mitkus S, Joseph A, Sartorius L, Aguirre C, Creswell J, Johnson E, Deep-Soboslay A, Herman MM, Lipska BK, Weinberger DR, Kleinman JE. Age-related changes in the expression of schizophrenia susceptibility genes in the human prefrontal cortex. Brain Struct Funct 2008; 213:255-71. [PMID: 18470533 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-008-0181-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2008] [Accepted: 04/06/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The molecular basis of complex neuropsychiatric disorders most likely involves many genes. In recent years, specific genetic variations influencing risk for schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric disorders have been reported. We have used custom DNA microarrays and qPCR to investigate the expression of putative schizophrenia susceptibility genes and related genes of interest in the normal human brain. Expression of 31 genes was measured in Brodmann's area 10 (BA10) in the prefrontal cortex of 72 postmortem brain samples spanning half a century of human aging (18-67 years), each without history of neuropsychiatric illness, neurological disease, or drug abuse. Examination of expression across age allowed the identification of genes whose expression patterns correlate with age, as well as genes that share common expression patterns and that possibly participate in common cellular mechanisms related to the emergence of schizophrenia in early adult life. The expression of GRM3 and RGS4 decreased across the entire age range surveyed, while that of PRODH and DARPP-32 was shown to increase with age. NRG1, ERBB3, and NGFR show expression changes during the years of greatest risk for the development of schizophrenia. Expression of FEZ1, GAD1, and RGS4 showed especially high correlation with one another, in addition to the strongest mean levels of absolute correlation with all other genes studied here. All microarray data are available at NCBI's Gene Expression Omnibus: GEO Series accession number GSE11546 (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo) [corrected]
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Colantuoni
- Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, Genes Cognition and Psychosis Program, IRP, NIMH, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Huuhka K, Kampman O, Anttila S, Huuhka M, Rontu R, Mattila KM, Hurme M, Lehtimäki T, Leinonen E. RGS4 polymorphism and response to electroconvulsive therapy in major depressive disorder. Neurosci Lett 2008; 437:25-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.03.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2007] [Revised: 03/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/25/2008] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Campbell DB, Lange LA, Skelly T, Lieberman J, Levitt P, Sullivan PF. Association of RGS2 and RGS5 variants with schizophrenia symptom severity. Schizophr Res 2008; 101:67-75. [PMID: 18262772 PMCID: PMC2486404 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2008.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2007] [Revised: 01/02/2008] [Accepted: 01/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several lines of evidence indicate that Regulator of G Protein Signaling 4 (RGS4) contributes to schizophrenia vulnerability. RGS4 is one of a family of molecules that modulate signaling via G-protein coupled receptors. Five genes encoding members of this family (RGS2, RGS4, RGS5, RGS8 and RGS16) map to chromosome 1q23.3-1q31. Due to overlapping cellular functions and chromosomal proximity, we hypothesized that multiple RGS genes may contribute to schizophrenia severity and treatment responsiveness. METHODS Subjects were 750 individuals with schizophrenia who participated in the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE). Inferred ancestries were: 221 (30%) 'Africa only', 422 (56%) 'Europe only' and 107 (14%) 'Other'. Fifty-nine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in or near the RGS5, RGS16, RGS8 and RGS2 genes were genotyped. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze association of markers with Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale (PANSS) total scores at baseline and throughout antipsychotic treatment. RESULTS RGS5 marker rs10799902 was associated with altered baseline PANSS total score in both the Africa only (P=0.0440) and Europe only (P=0.0143) strata, although neither association survived multiple comparisons correction. A common five-marker haplotype of the RGS2 gene was associated with more severe baseline PANSS total score in the Europe only strata (global P=0.0254; haplotype-specific P=0.0196). In contrast to RGS4, none of the markers showed association with antipsychotic treatment response. CONCLUSIONS RGS2 and RGS5 genotypes predicted severity of baseline symptoms in schizophrenia. Although these analyses are exploratory and replication is required, these data suggest a possible role for multiple RGS proteins in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Campbell
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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Abstract
It has recently been demonstrated that a large amount of structural variation exists in the human genome. Since 2004, when two landmark studies reported polymorphic levels of copy number variation in phenotypically normal individuals, our understanding of genome-wide levels of copy number variation has grown. This has inspired hypotheses about this class of variation's contribution to complex genetic phenotypes, including the specific hypothesis that structural variation is associated with psychiatric illness. The technology to accurately and efficiently detect polymorphic structural variants is still largely under development, but some examples of genomic imbalance contributing to schizophrenia and bipolar disorder already have been identified. Although much optimism surrounds this burgeoning field, the technical challenges in reliably identifying structural variation mean recent literature should be approached with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Gladys Mulle
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, GA 30317, USA.
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So HC, Chen RYL, Chen EYH, Cheung EFC, Li T, Sham PC. An association study of RGS4 polymorphisms with clinical phenotypes of schizophrenia in a Chinese population. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:77-85. [PMID: 17722013 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The regulator of G-protein signaling 4 (RGS4) has been suggested as a candidate gene for schizophrenia. However, following an initial positive report, subsequent association studies between RGS4 and schizophrenia have yielded inconclusive results. Also, few studies have investigated the association of RGS4 polymorphisms with the phenotypic subgroups of schizophrenia. To further clarify the role of RGS4 in this disease, we performed a case-control study (504 cases and 531 controls of Han Chinese descent) to examine the association of RGS4 with schizophrenia and with clinical and neurocognitive profiles. The four markers (SNPs 1, 4, 7, and 18) implicated in the original association study were genotyped. We detected significant association of four-marker haplotypes with schizophrenia (UNPHASED: global P = 0.037; PHASE: global P = 0.048). The haplotype G-G-G-G, which was implicated in at least three previous studies, was the major risk haplotype (UNPHASED: P = 0.019; PHASE: P = 0.010). Regarding the clinical phenotypes, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS) information subtest score was associated with SNP4 genotypes (P = 0.001). PANSS total and global psychopathology scores were also associated with SNP4, but may not reliably reflect the general severity of disease as the scores may be affected by confounders like medication response. Our study provides further support for a role of RGS4 in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. We identified G-G-G-G as the risk haplotype in our Chinese sample. The association with information subtest score suggests an effect of RGS4 on premorbid functioning, which may be related to neurodevelopmental processes. Further independent studies are required to verify our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hon-Cheong So
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Chowdari KV, Bamne M, Wood J, Talkowski ME, Mirnics K, Levitt P, Lewis DA, Nimgaonkar VL. Linkage disequilibrium patterns and functional analysis of RGS4 polymorphisms in relation to schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34:118-26. [PMID: 17515439 PMCID: PMC2632380 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbm042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The regulator of G-protein signaling 4 (RGS4, chromosome 1q23.3) plays a critical role in G-protein function. Four common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) localized between the 5' upstream sequence and the first intron, as well as 2 haplotypes derived from these SNPs may confer liability to schizophrenia (SZ). However, the pattern of associations varies among samples. To help clarify the putative associations, we report the following analyses: (1) a comprehensive catalog of common polymorphisms, (2) linkage disequilibrium (LD) and association analyses using these SNPs, and (3) functional analysis based on dual-luciferase promoter assays. We identified 62 SNPs from a 20-kb genomic region spanning RGS4, of which 26 are common polymorphisms with a minor allele frequency (MAF) of >5%. LD analysis suggested 5 clusters of SNPs (r(2) > .8). Association analyses using the novel SNPs were consistent with the prior reports, but further localization was constrained by significant LD across the region. The 2 haplotypes reported to confer liability to SZ had significant promoter activity compared with promoterless constructs, suggesting a functional role for both haplotypes. Further analyses of promoter sequences are warranted to understand transcriptional regulation at RGS4. This information will be useful for further analysis of samples in which genetic association of RGS4 polymorphisms with SZ has been reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kodavali V. Chowdari
- Department of Psychiatry, WPIC, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Mikhil Bamne
- Department of Psychiatry, WPIC, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Joel Wood
- Department of Psychiatry, WPIC, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Michael E. Talkowski
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Karoly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37203, USA
| | - Pat Levitt
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37203, USA
| | - David A. Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, WPIC, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Vishwajit L. Nimgaonkar
- Department of Psychiatry, WPIC, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- To whom correspondence should be addressed; Departments of Psychiatry and Human Genetics University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Public Health Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Room 441 3811 O'Hara St. Pittsburgh, PA 15213; tel: 412-246-6353, fax: 412-246-6350, e-mail:
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Campbell DB, Ebert PJ, Skelly T, Stroup TS, Lieberman J, Levitt P, Sullivan PF. Ethnic stratification of the association of RGS4 variants with antipsychotic treatment response in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 63:32-41. [PMID: 17588543 PMCID: PMC2194758 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2007] [Revised: 04/02/2007] [Accepted: 04/14/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genetic association studies, including a large meta-analysis, report association of regulator of G protein signaling 4 (RGS4) with schizophrenia in the context of heterogeneity. The central role of RGS4 in regulating signaling via Gi/o coupled neurotransmitter receptors led us to hypothesize that there may be RGS4 genotypes predictive of specific disease phenotypes and antipsychotic treatment responses. METHODS Subjects were 678 individuals with schizophrenia who participated in the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE). Among the 678 subjects, the inferred ancestries were 198 (29%) "Africa only," 397 (59%) "Europe only," and 83 (12%) "Other." Eight single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) spanning RGS4 were genotyped. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze association of RGS4 markers with Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale (PANSS) scores at baseline and throughout antipsychotic treatment. RESULTS Two consecutive markers within RGS4, rs2661319 and rs2842030, were associated with more severe baseline PANSS total score. Treatment with perphenazine was more effective than treatment with quetiapine (p = .010) or ziprasidone (p = .002) in individuals of inferred African ancestry and homozygous for the rs951439 C allele. CONCLUSIONS RGS4 genotypes predicted both the severity of baseline symptoms and relative responsiveness to antipsychotic treatment. Although these analyses are exploratory and replication is required, these data provide support for RGS4 in schizophrenia pathogenesis and suggest a functional role for RGS4 in differential antipsychotic treatment efficacy of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Campbell
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA.
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Lang UE, Puls I, Muller DJ, Strutz-Seebohm N, Gallinat J. Molecular mechanisms of schizophrenia. Cell Physiol Biochem 2007; 20:687-702. [PMID: 17982252 DOI: 10.1159/000110430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/11/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex disorder, where family, twin and adoption studies have been demonstrating a high heritability of the disease and that this disease is not simply defined by several major genes but rather evolves from addition or potentiation of a specific cluster of genes, which subsequently determines the genetic vulnerability of an individual. Linkage and association studies suggest that a genetic vulnerablility, is not forcefully leading to the disease since triggering factors and environmental influences, i.e. birth complications, drug abuse, urban background or time of birth have been identified. This has lead to the assumption that schizophrenia is not only a genetically defined static disorder but a dynamic process leading to dysregulation of multiple pathways. There are several different hypothesis based on several facets of the disease, some of them due to the relatively well-known mechanisms of therapeutic agents. The most widely considered neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia integrates environmental influences and causative genes. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia is based on the fact that all common treatments involve antidopaminergic mechanisms and genes such as DRD2, DRD3, DARPP-32, BDNF or COMT are closely related to dopaminergic system functioning. The glutamatergic hypothesis of schizophrenia lead recently to a first successful mGlu2/3 receptor agonistic drug and is underpinned by significant findings in genes regulating the glutamatergic system (SLC1A6, SLC1A2 GRIN1, GRIN2A, GRIA1, NRG1, ErbB4, DTNBP1, DAAO, G72/30, GRM3). Correspondingly, GABA has been proposed to modulate the pathophysiology of the disease which is represented by the involvement of genes like GABRA1, GABRP, GABRA6 and Reelin. Moreover, several genes implicating immune, signaling and networking deficits have been reported to be involved in the disease, i.e. DISC1, RGS4, PRODH, DGCR6, ZDHHC8, DGCR2, Akt, CREB, IL-1B, IL-1RN, IL-10, IL-1B. However, molecular findings suggest that a complex interplay between receptors, kinases, proteins and hormones is involved in schizophrenia. In a unifying hypothesis, different cascades merge into another that ultimately lead to the development of symptoms adherent to schizophrenic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Undine E Lang
- Department of Psychiatry, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Berlin (Germany).
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Ding L, Mychaleckyj JC, Hegde AN. Full length cloning and expression analysis of splice variants of regulator of G-protein signaling RGS4 in human and murine brain. Gene 2007; 401:46-60. [PMID: 17707117 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2007.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2006] [Revised: 05/25/2007] [Accepted: 07/02/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
RGS4 (regulator of G protein signaling 4) protein is a GTPase-activating protein specific for Gi/o and Gq alpha subunits. It is highly expressed in brain but the mechanisms by which RGS4 expression is regulated remain unknown. RGS4 is associated with schizophrenia either through heritable genetic polymorphisms or as a co-regulated mediator of the pathology, and may play a role in other brain diseases. As a necessary step towards understanding the transcriptional regulation of RGS4, we isolated full-length splice variants of the human RGS4 and mouse Rgs4 gene using bioinformatic predictions, followed by RACE, RT-PCR, and sequencing. In human brain, we found five different isoforms RGS4-1, RGS4-2, RGS4-3, RGS4-4 and RGS4-5 of which RGS4-2, RGS4-3, RGS4-4 and RGS4-5 are novel. RGS4-1 and 2 encode a 205-amino acid protein, while RGS4-3 encodes a 302 aa protein with an N-terminal extension. RGS4-4 and RGS4-5 encode truncated proteins of 93 aa and 187 aa respectively. Our results indicate that RGS4-1, RGS4-2, RGS4-3 and RGS4-4 are translated into proteins. In contrast, the mouse brain has 3 different splice variants, Rgs4-1, Rgs4-2 and Rgs4-3 which encode the same 205 aa protein but vary in their 3'UTRs. Among the mouse isoforms, Rgs4-1 and Rgs4-3 are novel. Human RGS4 has four different transcription start sites and three different stop sites. We found differential expression of the human isoforms in dorsolateral prefrontal and visual cortex. All five RGS4 splice variants are expressed at high levels in human cortical areas although RGS4 isoforms 1, 2, and 3 are not expressed in the cerebellum. RGS4-2 is tissue-specific whereas RGS4-4 and RGS4-5 appear to be ubiquitously expressed. Our results suggest the intriguing possibility that RGS4 gene expression in the human brain is spatially and temporally regulated through differential transcription of isoforms from alternative promoters. This may have implications for the physiological role of RGS4 and in pathologies of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Ding
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
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Straub RE, Lipska BK, Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Callicott JH, Mayhew MB, Vakkalanka RK, Kolachana BS, Kleinman JE, Weinberger DR. Allelic variation in GAD1 (GAD67) is associated with schizophrenia and influences cortical function and gene expression. Mol Psychiatry 2007; 12:854-69. [PMID: 17767149 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cortical GABAergic dysfunction has been implicated as a key component of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and decreased expression of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) synthetic enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD(67)), encoded by GAD1, is found in schizophrenic post-mortem brain. We report evidence of distorted transmission of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) alleles in two independent schizophrenia family-based samples. In both samples, allelic association was dependent on the gender of the affected offspring, and in the Clinical Brain Disorders Branch/National Institute of Mental Health (CBDB/NIMH) sample it was also dependent on catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met genotype. Quantitative transmission disequilibrium test analyses revealed that variation in GAD1 influenced multiple domains of cognition, including declarative memory, attention and working memory. A 5' flanking SNP affecting cognition in the families was also associated in unrelated healthy individuals with inefficient BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging activation of dorsal prefrontal cortex (PFC) during a working memory task, a physiologic phenotype associated with schizophrenia and altered cortical inhibition. In addition, a SNP in the 5' untranslated (and predicted promoter) region that also influenced cognition was associated with decreased expression of GAD1 mRNA in the PFC of schizophrenic brain. Finally, we observed evidence of statistical epistasis between two SNPs in COMT and SNPs in GAD1, suggesting a potential biological synergism leading to increased risk. These coincident results implicate GAD1 in the etiology of schizophrenia and suggest that the mechanism involves altered cortical GABA inhibitory activity, perhaps modulated by dopaminergic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Straub
- Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, Genes, Cognition, and Psychosis Program, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, US Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892-1379, USA.
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Abstract
The study of the profile of gene expression in a cell or tissue at a particular moment gives an insight into the plans of the cell for protein synthesis. Recent technological advances make it possible to analyze the expression of the entire genome in a single experiment. These "gene expression assays" complement or replace previous assays which measured the gene expression of only one gene, or a select group of genes. Within this chapter we outline the development of the gene expression assay and provide examples of the wide range of disciplines in which it is used. An overview of the current technologies is given, and includes an introduction to laser capture microdissection and linear amplification of RNA, both of which have extended the application of gene expression assays. Illustrative examples in the field of cancer and neuroscience highlight the scientific achievements. This technology has made in understanding the pathogenesis of diseases, including breast cancer, Huntington's disease, and schizophrenia. With recent advances including exon arrays to investigate alternative splicing, tiling arrays to investigate novel transcription start sites, and on-chip chromatin immunoprecipitation to investigate DNA-protein interactions, the future of gene expression assays is set to further our understanding of the complexities of gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Kirby
- Academic Neurology Unit, Section of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Genetic factors play a fundamental role in the genesis of many mental disorders. The identification of the underlying genetic variation will therefore transform parts of psychiatry toward a neuroscience-based discipline. With the sequence of the human genome now available, the majority of common variations identified, and new high-throughput technologies arriving in academic research laboratories, the identification of genes is expected to explain a large proportion of the risk of developing mental disorders. So far, a number of risk genes have been identified, but no major gene has emerged. The majority of these genes participate in the regulation of biogenic amines that play critical roles in affect modulation and reward systems. The identification of genetic variations associated with mental disorders should provide an approach to evaluate risk for mental disorders, adjust pharmacotherapy on the individual level, and even allow for preventive interactions. New targets for the development of treatment are anticipated to derive from results of genetic studies. In this review, we summarize the current state of psychiatric genetics, underscore current discussions, and predict where the field is expected to move in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Züchner
- Veterans Administration Mid-Atlantic Region Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Durham, North Carolina, USA.
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Greenbaum L, Strous RD, Kanyas K, Merbl Y, Horowitz A, Karni O, Katz E, Kotler M, Olender T, Deshpande SN, Lancet D, Ben-Asher E, Lerer B. Association of the RGS2 gene with extrapyramidal symptoms induced by treatment with antipsychotic medication. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2007; 17:519-28. [PMID: 17558307 DOI: 10.1097/fpc.0b013e32800ffbb4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the role of genes encoding regulators of G protein signaling in early therapeutic response to antipsychotic drugs and in susceptibility to drug-induced extrapyramidal symptoms. As regulators of G protein signaling and regulators of G protein signaling-like proteins play a pivotal role in dopamine receptor signaling, genetically based, functional variation could contribute to interindividual variability in therapeutic and adverse effects. METHODS Consecutively hospitalized, psychotic patients with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder-IV schizophrenia (n=121) were included in the study if they received treatment with typical antipsychotic medication (n=72) or typical antipsychotic drugs and risperidone (n=49) for at least 2 weeks. Clinical state and adverse effects were rated at baseline and after 2 weeks. Twenty-four single nucleotide polymorphisms were genotyped in five regulators of G protein signaling genes. RESULTS None of the single nucleotide polymorphisms were related to clinical response to antipsychotic treatment at 2 weeks. Five out of six single nucleotide polymorphisms within or flanking the RGS2 gene were nominally associated with development or worsening of parkinsonian symptoms (PARK+) as measured by the Simpson Angus Scale, one of them after correction for multiple testing (rs4606, P=0.002). A GCCTG haplotype encompassing tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms within and flanking RGS2 was significantly overrepresented among PARK+ compared with PARK--patients (0.23 vs. 0.08, P=0.003). A second, 'protective', GTGCA haplotype was significantly overrepresented in PARK--patients (0.13 vs. 0.30, P=0.009). Both haplotype associations survive correction for multiple testing. CONCLUSIONS Subject to replication, these findings suggest that genetic variation in the RGS2 gene is associated with susceptibility to extrapyramidal symptoms induced by antipsychotic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lior Greenbaum
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Ein Karem, Jerusalem, Israel
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Wood LS, Pickering EH, Dechairo BM. Significant support for DAO as a schizophrenia susceptibility locus: examination of five genes putatively associated with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 61:1195-9. [PMID: 17055463 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2006] [Revised: 07/12/2006] [Accepted: 07/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a complex psychiatric disorder with a strong genetic component. Past linkage studies have implicated several chromosomal regions in the etiology of schizophrenia. Within these regions, several genes have been identified via candidate gene association studies as strong schizophrenia susceptibility loci, including DAO, DAOA, DISC1, DTNBP1, and RGS4. METHODS The present study attempted to replicate these association findings by analyzing a total of 120 markers across these genes in 311 schizophrenia subjects, 140 schizoaffective subjects, and 291 control subjects. RESULTS Our study found no association for DAOA and DTNBP1 with schizophrenia. Although no association was seen with DAOA and DTNBP1, several other markers in the other genes resulted in significant association with schizophrenia (p < .05). However, after a conservative Bonferroni correction for multiple testing, only one marker, rs3918346, within DAO remained significant (odds ratio = 1.71, confidence interval = 1.32-2.22, p = 4 x 10(-5)). This significant association was concordant with previous DAO genetic findings. CONCLUSIONS Our results significantly support DAO as a susceptibility locus for schizophrenia and offer some support for the implication of both RGS4 and DISC1 in the etiology of schizophrenia. However, we see no evidence to support either DAOA or DTNBP1 as schizophrenia disease loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda S Wood
- Pharmacogenomics Molecular Profiling, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, USA.
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Arnsten AFT. Catecholamine and Second Messenger Influences on Prefrontal Cortical Networks of "Representational Knowledge": A Rational Bridge between Genetics and the Symptoms of Mental Illness. Cereb Cortex 2007; 17 Suppl 1:i6-15. [PMID: 17434919 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhm033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Both dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) have powerful, inverted U influences on prefrontal cortical (PFC) cognitive function. Optimal NE levels engage alpha2A-adrenoceptors and increase "signals" via inhibition of cAMP-HCN (cAMP-hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channel) signaling near preferred inputs, whereas optimal levels of DA D1 receptor stimulation decrease "noise" by increasing cAMP signaling near nonpreferred inputs. Excessive levels of catecholamine release during stress impair working memory 1) by very high levels of cAMP-HCN signaling diminishing preferred as well as nonpreferred inputs and 2) by high levels of NE engaging alpha1 stimulation of phosphotidyl inositol (PI) signaling that suppresses cell firing. Common mental illnesses are associated with extracellular changes in these pathways: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is linked to genetic changes that reduce catecholamine transmission to suboptimal levels and is treated with agents that increase catecholamine transmission, whereas Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is associated with amplified noradrenergic transmission that impairs PFC but strengthens amygdala function. PTSD is now treated with agents that block alpha1 or beta adrenoceptors. In contrast, the more severe mental illnesses, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, are associated with genetic changes in molecules regulating intracellular signaling pathways activated by stress. Specifically, DISC1 inhibits cAMP signaling whereas regulator of G-protein signaling 4 inhibits PI signaling. Loss of function in these genes may render patients vulnerable to profound stress-induced PFC dysfunction including symptoms of thought disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neurobiology, Kavli Institute of Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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Puri V, McQuillin A, Choudhury K, Datta S, Pimm J, Thirumalai S, Krasucki R, Lawrence J, Quested D, Bass N, Moorey H, Morgan J, Punukollu B, Kandasami G, Curtis D, Gurling H. Fine mapping by genetic association implicates the chromosome 1q23.3 gene UHMK1, encoding a serine/threonine protein kinase, as a novel schizophrenia susceptibility gene. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 61:873-9. [PMID: 16978587 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2006] [Revised: 06/06/2006] [Accepted: 06/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Linkage studies by us and others have confirmed that chromosome 1q23.3 is a susceptibility locus for schizophrenia. Based on this information, several research groups have published evidence that markers within both the RGS4 and CAPON genes, which are 700 kb apart, independently showed allelic association with schizophrenia. Tests of allelic association with both of these genes in our case control sample were negative. Therefore, we carried out further fine mapping between the RGS4 and CAPON genes. METHODS Twenty-nine SNP and microsatellite markers in the 1q23.3 region were genotyped in the United Kingdom based sample of 450 cases and 450 supernormal control subjects. RESULTS We detected positive allelic association after the eighth marker was genotyped and found that three microsatellite markers (p = .011, p = .014, p = .049) and two SNPs (p = .004, p = .043) localized in the 700 kb region between the RGS4 and CAPON genes, within the UHMK1 gene, were associated with schizophrenia. Tests of significance for marker rs10494370 remained significant following Bonferroni correction (alpha = .006) for multiple tests. Tests of haplotypic association were also significant for UHMK1 (p = .009) using empirical permutation tests, which make it unnecessary to further correct for both multiple alleles and multiple markers. CONCLUSIONS These results provide preliminary evidence that the UHMK1 gene increases susceptibility to schizophrenia. Further confirmation in adequately powered samples is needed. UHMK1 is a serine threonine kinase nuclear protein and is highly expressed in regions of the brain implicated in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinay Puri
- Molecular Psychiatry Laboratory, Department of Mental Health Sciences, University College London Medical School, London, UK
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Bakker SC, Hoogendoorn MLC, Hendriks J, Verzijlbergen K, Caron S, Verduijn W, Selten JP, Pearson PL, Kahn RS, Sinke RJ. ThePIP5K2AandRGS4genes are differentially associated with deficit and non-deficit schizophrenia. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2007; 6:113-9. [PMID: 17410640 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-183x.2006.00234.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Several putative schizophrenia susceptibility genes have recently been reported, but it is not clear whether these genes are associated with schizophrenia in general or with specific disease subtypes. In a previous study, we found an association of the neuregulin 1 (NRG1) gene with non-deficit schizophrenia only. We now report an association study of four schizophrenia candidate genes in patients with and without deficit schizophrenia, which is characterized by severe and enduring negative symptoms. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped in the DTNBP1 (dysbindin), G72/G30 and RGS4 genes, and the relatively unknown PIP5K2A gene, which is located in a region of linkage with both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The sample consisted of 273 Dutch schizophrenia patients, 146 of whom were diagnosed with deficit schizophrenia and 580 controls. The strongest evidence for association was found for the A-allele of SNP rs10828317 in the PIP5K2A gene, which was associated with both clinical subtypes (P = 0.0004 in the entire group; non-deficit P = 0.016, deficit P = 0.002). Interestingly, this SNP leads to a change in protein composition. In RGS4, the G-allele of the previously reported SNP RGS4-1 (single and as part of haplotypes with SNP RGS4-18) was associated with non-deficit schizophrenia (P = 0.03) but not with deficit schizophrenia (P = 0.79). SNPs in the DTNBP1 and G72/G30 genes were not significantly associated in any group. In conclusion, our data provide further evidence that specific genes may be involved in different schizophrenia subtypes and suggest that the PIP5K2A gene deserves further study as a general susceptibility gene for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Bakker
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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Transcriptome alterations in schizophrenia: disturbing the functional architecture of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2007; 158:141-52. [PMID: 17027695 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(06)58007-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
The availability of methods for quantifying tissue concentrations of messenger RNAs in the postmortem of the human brain has provided a number of new findings in schizophrenia. However, understanding how these findings actually relate to the disease process of schizophrenia requires knowledge both of the factors that might give rise to such changes in gene expression and of the impact of these changes on the function of the affected neural circuits. Consequently, this chapter provides a review of the potential causes and consequences of some of the schizophrenia-related transcriptome changes in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a brain region implicated in the pathophysiology of certain core cognitive deficits in this illness.
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