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Pundir A, Singh Thakur M, Prakash S, Kumari N, Sharma N, He Z, Nam S, Dhumal S, Sharma K, Saxena S, Kumar S, Deshmukh SV, Kumar M. Furfural as a low-volume, high-value asset from agricultural residues: A review on production, agricultural applications and environmental sustainability. Heliyon 2024; 10:e35077. [PMID: 39157344 PMCID: PMC11327586 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024] Open
Abstract
This comprehensive review explores furfural production from agricultural residues, focusing on its significance as a low-volume, high-value asset crucial for environmental sustainability. It covers diverse production technologies, recent advancements, and applications in agriculture, evaluating furfural's potential to enhance crop resilience and yield. Showing its role in a circular economy, the review discusses how furfural can replace conventional petrochemical processes, thereby reducing environmental impact. Case studies, such as successful implementations with cotton biomass byproducts, illustrate furfural's practical applications and environmental benefits. The study underscores the need for ongoing research, supportive policies, and furfural's growing role in sustainable agriculture and industry. It is focused on furfural's essential contribution to promoting environmental stewardship and sustainable practices. By examining furfural's role as a value-added product from agricultural residues, this review provides insights into its economic viability and potential challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Pundir
- School of Core Engineering, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
| | - Mohindra Singh Thakur
- School of Core Engineering, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
| | - Suraj Prakash
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
| | - Neeraj Kumari
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
| | - Niharika Sharma
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India
| | - Zhongqi He
- USDA-ARS, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, LA, 70124, USA
| | - Sunghyun Nam
- USDA-ARS, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, LA, 70124, USA
| | - Sangram Dhumal
- Division of Horticulture, RCSM College of Agriculture, Kolhapur, 416004, India
| | - Kanika Sharma
- Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Sujata Saxena
- Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Sunil Kumar
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram, 250110, India
| | - Sheetal Vishal Deshmukh
- Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be) University, Yashwantrao Mohite Institute of Management, Karad, India
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India
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Rizwan M, Murtaza G, Zulfiqar F, Moosa A, Iqbal R, Ahmed Z, Khan I, Siddique KHM, Leng L, Li H. Tuning active sites on biochars for remediation of mercury-contaminated soil: A comprehensive review. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 270:115916. [PMID: 38171108 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) contamination is acknowledged as a global issue and has generated concerns globally due to its toxicity and persistence. Tunable surface-active sites (SASs) are one of the key features of efficient BCs for Hg remediation, and detailed documentation of their interactions with metal ions in soil medium is essential to support the applications of functionalized BC for Hg remediation. Although a specific active site exhibits identical behavior during the adsorption process, a systematic documentation of their syntheses and interactions with various metal ions in soil medium is crucial to promote the applications of functionalized biochars in Hg remediation. Hence, we summarized the BC's impact on Hg mobility in soils and discussed the potential mechanisms and role of various SASs of BC for Hg remediation, including oxygen-, nitrogen-, sulfur-, and X (chlorine, bromine, iodine)- functional groups (FGs), surface area, pores and pH. The review also categorized synthesis routes to introduce oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur to BC surfaces to enhance their Hg adsorptive properties. Last but not the least, the direct mechanisms (e.g., Hg- BC binding) and indirect mechanisms (i.e., BC has a significant impact on the cycling of sulfur and thus the Hg-soil binding) that can be used to explain the adverse effects of BC on plants and microorganisms, as well as other related consequences and risk reduction strategies were highlighted. The future perspective will focus on functional BC for multiple heavy metal remediation and other potential applications; hence, future work should focus on designing intelligent/artificial BC for multiple purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Rizwan
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410083, China
| | - Ghulam Murtaza
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Faisal Zulfiqar
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur-63100, Pakistan
| | - Anam Moosa
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur-63100, Pakistan
| | - Rashid Iqbal
- Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur-63100, Pakistan
| | - Zeeshan Ahmed
- Xinjiang Institute of Ecology & Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China; Cele National Station of Observation and Research for Desert-Grassland Ecosystems, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 848300, China
| | - Imran Khan
- School of Physics and Electronics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410083, China
| | - Kadambot H M Siddique
- The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth WA 6001, Australia.
| | - Lijian Leng
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410083, China; Xiangjiang Laboratory, Changsha 410205, China.
| | - Hailong Li
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410083, China.
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Cousin E, Namhaed K, Pérès Y, Cognet P, Delmas M, Hermansyah H, Gozan M, Alaba PA, Aroua MK. Towards efficient and greener processes for furfural production from biomass: A review of the recent trends. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 847:157599. [PMID: 35901885 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
As mentioned in several recent reviews, biomass-based furfural is attracting increasing interest as a feasible alternative for the synthesis of a wide range of non-petroleum-derived compounds. However, the lack of environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and sustainable industrial procedures is still evident. This review describes the chemical and biological routes for furfural production. The mechanisms proposed for the chemical transformation of xylose to furfural are detailed, as are the current advances in the manufacture of furfural from biomass. The main goal is to overview the different ways of improving the furfural synthesis process. A pretreatment process, particularly chemical and physico-chemical, enhances the digestibility of biomass, leading to the production of >70 % of available sugars for the production of valuable products. The combination of heterogeneous (zeolite and polymeric solid) catalyst and biphasic solvent system (water/GVL and water/CPME) is regarded as an attractive approach, affording >75 % furfural yield for over 80 % of selectivity with the possibility of catalyst reuse. Microwave heating as an activation technique reduces reaction time at least tenfold, making the process more sustainable. The state of the art in industrial processes is also discussed. It shows that, when sulfuric acid is used, the furfural yields do not exceed 55 % for temperatures close to 180 °C. However, the MTC process recently achieved an 83 % yield by continuously removing furfural from the liquid phase. Finally, the CIMV process, using a formic acid/acetic acid mixture, has been developed. The economic aspects of furfural production are then addressed. Future research will be needed to investigate scaling-up and biological techniques that produce acceptable yields and productivities to become commercially viable and competitive in furfural production from biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Cousin
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Kritsana Namhaed
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Yolande Pérès
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Patrick Cognet
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Michel Delmas
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Heri Hermansyah
- Biorefinery Lab, Bioprocess Engineering Program, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia.
| | - Misri Gozan
- Biorefinery Lab, Bioprocess Engineering Program, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia.
| | - Peter Adeniyi Alaba
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Mohamed Kheireddine Aroua
- Centre for Carbon Dioxide Capture and Utilization (CCDCU), School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, No. 5, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Petaling Jaya, Malaysia; Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YW, United Kingdom; Sunway Materials Smart Science & Engineering Research Cluster (SMS2E), Sunway University, No. 5 Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
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One-pot synthesis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from cellobiose and sucrose using niobium-modified montmorillonite catalysts. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2022.112720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Zhang T, Li W, Xiao H, Jin Y, Wu S. Recent progress in direct production of furfural from lignocellulosic residues and hemicellulose. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 354:127126. [PMID: 35398210 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Furfural is a vital biomass-derived platform molecule, which can be used to synthesize a wide range of value-added chemicals. Furfural and its derivatives are promising alternatives to conventional petroleum chemicals. However, recent industrial production of furfural existed some thorny problems, including low efficiency, energy waste, and environmental pollution. Therefore, tremendous and continuous efforts have been made by researchers to develop novel furfural production processes with high economic viability, production efficiency, and sustainability. This review summarized the merits and shortcomings of disparate catalytic systems for the synthesis of furfural from biomass and biomass pretreatment hydrolysate on the basis of recently published literature. Furthermore, the suggestions for furfural production research were put forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingwei Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Wenzhi Li
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China
| | - Huining Xiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Yongcan Jin
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China.
| | - Shufang Wu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
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Gong L, Zha J, Pan L, Ma C, He YC. Highly efficient conversion of sunflower stalk-hydrolysate to furfural by sunflower stalk residue-derived carbonaceous solid acid in deep eutectic solvent/organic solvent system. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 351:126945. [PMID: 35247562 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.126945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sunflower stalk was utilized as a source of raw material and catalyst for furfural production, and efficient conversion of xylose-rich hydrolysate into furfural was developed in an aqueous deep eutectic solvent/organic solvent medium by carbonaceous solid acid catalyst SO42-/SnO2-SSXR. The structural characteristics of SO42-/SnO2-SSXR was characterized by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Pyridine Adsorption Fourier-transform Infrared (Py-IR) and Raman. Under the optimum catalytic conditions, furfural (110.1 mM) yield reached 82.6% in a ChCl-MAA/toluene medium at 180 °C in 15 min by 3.6 wt% SO42-/SnO2-SSXR. Additionally, quite importantly, SO42-/SnO2-SSXR, ChCl-MAA and toluene had good recyclability for furfural production. The potential catalytic path of xylose dehydration into furfural was proposed by co-catalysis with SO42-/SnO2-SSXR and ChCl-MAA. This study revealed high potential sustainable application of furfural production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gong
- School of Pharmacy, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Biomass Refining and High-Quality Utilization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, China
| | - Jingjian Zha
- School of Pharmacy, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Biomass Refining and High-Quality Utilization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, China
| | - Lei Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
| | - Cuiluan Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yu-Cai He
- School of Pharmacy, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Biomass Refining and High-Quality Utilization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, China; State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, China.
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7
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Ma L, Meng Q, Chen F, Gao W. SAFE and SBSE combined with GC-MS and GC-O for characterization of flavor compounds in Zhizhonghe Wujiapi medicinal liquor. J Food Sci 2022; 87:939-956. [PMID: 35122437 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.16031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Volatile compounds in Chinese Zhizhonghe Wujiapi (WJP) medicinal liquor were extracted by solvent-assisted flavor evaporation extraction (SAFE) and stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE), respectively, and identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results showed that a total of 123 volatile compounds (i.e., 108 by SAFE, 50 by SBSE, and 34 by both) including esters, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, ketones, heterocycles, terpenes and terpenoids, alkenes, phenols, and other compounds were identified, and 67 of them were confirmed as aroma-active compounds by the application of the aroma extract dilution analysis coupled with gas chromatography-olfactometry. After making a simulated reconstitute by mixing 41 characterized aroma-active compounds (odor activity values ≥1) based on their concentrations, the aroma profile of the reconstitute showed good similarity to that of the original WJP liquor. Omission test further corroborated 34 key aroma-active compounds in the WJP liquor. The study of WJP liquor is expected to provide some insights into the characterization of special volatile components in traditional Chinese medicine liquors for the purpose of quality improvement and aroma optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longhua Ma
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Fragrance Flavour and Cosmetics, School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Qingran Meng
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Fragrance Flavour and Cosmetics, School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Feng Chen
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Wenjie Gao
- Department of Ecological Technology and Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, P. R. China
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Xing X, Guan Y, Zhang L, Shi X, Wu H, Gao H, Xu S. Efficient formation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from glucose through H-β zeolite catalyst in the recyclable water-tetrahydrofuran biphasic system. Catal Today 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2022.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Zhang T, Wei H, Gao J, Chen S, Jin Y, Deng C, Wu S, Xiao H, Li W. Synthesis of sulfonated hierarchical carbons and theirs application on the production of furfural from wheat straw. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2021.112034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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10
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Gong L, Xiu Y, Dong J, Han R, Xu G, Ni Y. Sustainable one-pot chemo-enzymatic synthesis of chiral furan amino acid from biomass via magnetic solid acid and threonine aldolase. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 337:125344. [PMID: 34098500 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Sustainable synthesis of valuable noncanonical amino acids from renewable feedstocks is of great importance. Here, a feasible chemo-enzymatic procedure was developed for the synthesis of chiral β-(2-furyl)serine from biomass catalyzed by a solid acid catalyst and immobilized E. coli whole-cell harboring l-threonine aldolase. A novel magnetic solid acid catalyst Fe3O4@MCM-41/SO42- was successfully synthesized for conversion of corncob into furfural in an aqueous system. Under the optimum conditions, furfural yield of 63.6% was achieved in 40 min at 180 ℃ with 2.0% catalyst (w/w). Furthermore, biomass-derived furfural was converted into an aldol-addition product β-(2-furyl)serine with 73.6% yield, 99% ee and 20% de by immobilized cells in 6 h. The magnetic solid acid and biocatalyst can be readily recovered and efficiently reused for five consecutive cycles without significant loss on product yields. This chemo-enzymatic route can be attractive for producing noncanonical amino acids from biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gong
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China; Institute of Urban & Rural Mining, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center on High Efficient Biorefinery and High Quality Utilization of Biomass, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuansong Xiu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jinjun Dong
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China; Danyang Jindanyang Winery Industry Co., Ltd., Danyang 212300, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ruizhi Han
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guochao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ye Ni
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China.
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Ye L, Han Y, Wang X, Lu X, Qi X, Yu H. Recent progress in furfural production from hemicellulose and its derivatives: Conversion mechanism, catalytic system, solvent selection. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2021.111899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Arora S, Gupta N, Singh V. pH-Controlled Efficient Conversion of Hemicellulose to Furfural Using Choline-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents as Catalysts. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:3953-3958. [PMID: 34324272 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202101130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The valorization of hemicellulose isolated from lignocellulosic biomass (wheat straw, rice husk, and bagasse) to furfural was achieved by pH-controlled acid catalysis using choline-based Brønsted acidic (BA) and natural acidic (NA) deep eutectic solvents (DES) serving both as catalyst and solvent. The effect of pH variation on the catalytic activity of various BADES and NADES prepared in 1 : 1 molar ratio was observed, and choline chloride/p-toluene sulfonic acid (ChCl/p-TSA) was found to be the best with lower pH value of 1.0. The yield of furfural decreased from 85 to 51 % with increase in pH from 1.0 to 3.0. The molar ratio of hydrogen bond donor to acceptor components was varied from 1 : 1 to 1 : 9 to achieve the lowest possible pH values of the DESs and to increase the furfural yield. Further optimization of reaction conditions was also done in terms of DES loading, time of reaction, and temperature using the model DES to achieve higher furfural yield. The best results were obtained using 5 mmol DES at pH 1.0 in 1.5 h at 120 °C. ChCl/p-TSA and ChCl/oxalic acid among BADES and ChCl/levulinic acid among NADES investigated in this work yielding 85 % furfural were found to be most efficient. The reported methodology is advantageous in terms of using bio-based green solvents, mild reaction conditions, and efficient scale-up of the reaction. The DESs were found to be efficiently recyclable up to five consecutive runs for the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Arora
- Department of Applied Sciences, Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University) Sector-12, Chandigarh
| | - Neeraj Gupta
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala, H.P, India
| | - Vasundhara Singh
- Department of Applied Sciences, Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University) Sector-12, Chandigarh
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Arturi K, Rohrbach T, Vogel F, Bjelić S. High Yields of Aromatic Monomers from Acidolytic Oxidation of Kraft Lignin in a Biphasic System. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c01776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Arturi
- Energy and Environment Division, Laboratory for Bioenergy and Catalysis, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rohrbach
- Energy and Environment Division, Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Frédéric Vogel
- Energy and Environment Division, Laboratory for Bioenergy and Catalysis, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Institute of Bioenergy and Resource Efficiency, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland (FHNW), Klosterzelgstrasse 2, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland
| | - Saša Bjelić
- Energy and Environment Division, Laboratory for Bioenergy and Catalysis, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
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Synthesis of lignin-carbohydrate complex-based catalyst from Eragrostis tef straw and its catalytic performance in xylose dehydration to furfural. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 171:10-16. [PMID: 33412194 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.12.213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A new catalyst was successfully prepared by functionalization of the lignin-carbohydrate complex structure in the Eragrostis tef straw via simultaneous carbonization and sulfonation. The physical and chemical properties of the surface of the synthesized catalyst were checked by FTIR and XRD. The FTIR results indicate the prepared catalyst exhibited functional groups such as -SO3H, -COOH, and -OH. The synthesis conditions like the temperature and time of carbonization and sulfonation showed significant effect the amount of the strong acid doped into the carbonized lignin-carbohydrate matrix. The newly prepared catalyst was checked for dehydration of xylose to furfural and revealed of course that it has the potential. The maximum yield of furfural 62.4% was achieved and the catalyst showed excellent reusability for 5 runs without significant loss of catalystic activity. The use of catalysts prepared from Eragrostis tef straw is a green strategy for converting xylose to furfural, as these catalysts are solving the problems associated with the use of mineral acid catalysts.
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A Simultaneous Conversion and Extraction of Furfural from Pentose in Dilute Acid Hydrolysate of Quercus mongolica Using an Aqueous Biphasic System. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app11010163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This study optimizes furfural production from pentose released in the liquid hydrolysate of hardwood using an aqueous biphasic system. Dilute acid pretreatment with 4% sulfuric acid was conducted to extract pentose from liquid Quercus mongolica hydrolysate. To produce furfural from xylose, a xylose standard solution with the same acid concentration of the liquid hydrolysate and extracting solvent (tetrahydrofuran) were applied to the aqueous biphasic system. A response surface methodology was adopted to optimize furfural production in the aqueous biphasic system. A maximum furfural yield of 72.39% was achieved at optimal conditions as per the RSM; a reaction temperature of 170 °C, reaction time of 120 min, and a xylose concentration of 10 g/L. Tetrahydrofuran, toluene, and dimethyl sulfoxide were evaluated to understand the effects of the solvent on furfural production. Tetrahydrofuran generated the highest furfural yield, while DMSO gave the lowest yield. A furfural yield of 68.20% from pentose was achieved in the liquid hydrolysate of Quercus mongolica under optimal conditions using tetrahydrofuran as the extracting solvent. The aqueous and tetrahydrofuran fractions were separated from the aqueous biphasic solvent by salting out using sodium chloride, and 94.63% of the furfural produced was drawn out through two extractions using tetrahydrofuran.
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Rusanen A, Lahti R, Lappalainen K, Kärkkäinen J, Hu T, Romar H, Lassi U. Catalytic conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural over biomass-based activated carbon catalyst. Catal Today 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2019.02.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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17
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Abstract
In the pursuit of establishing a sustainable biobased economy, valorization of lignocellulosic biomass is increasing its value as a feedstock. Nevertheless, to achieve the integrated biorefinery paradigm, the selective fractionation of its complex matrix to its single constituents must be complete. This review presents and examines the novel catalytic pathways to form furfuryl alcohol (FuOH) from xylose in a one-pot system. This production concept takes on chemical, thermochemical and biochemical transformations or a combination of them. Still, the bulk of the research is targeted to develop heterogeneous catalytic systems to synthesize FuOH from furfural and xylose. The present review includes an overview of the economic aspects to produce this platform chemical in an industrial manner. In the last section of this review, an outlook and summary of catalytic processes to produce FuOH are highlighted.
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Liu Z, Liu Z. Comparison of hydrochar- and pyrochar-based solid acid catalysts from cornstalk: Physiochemical properties, catalytic activity and deactivation behavior. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 297:122477. [PMID: 31812594 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Biochar made from biowaste provides renewable carbon precursors for catalysts preparation. Here, solid acid catalysts were prepared through functionalizing biochars produced via hydrothermal and pyrolytic carbonization of cornstalk with -SO3H groups. Hydrochar-based catalysts (HAC) and pyrochar-based catalysts (PAC) exhibited significantly different physiochemical properties, catalytic activities and deactivation behaviors. The test of catalytic effects on cellulose degradation uncovered that HAC had a higher density of -SO3H but lower surface special area than PAC. Specifically, PAC prepared at 400 °C resulted in the maximum increase of cellulose conversion by 16.00-50.50%. In comparison, the highest yields of glucose (11.14%) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (29.54%) were achieved catalyzed via HAC prepared at 240 °C. The results of catalyst deactivation behavior further revealed that used catalysts had an obvious reduction of -SO3H density. Interestingly, used HAC-240 catalysts showed similar patterns of weight loss to fresh ones due to its high stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyun Liu
- Laboratory of Environment-Enhancing Energy (E2E), and Key Laboratory of Agricultural Engineering in Structure and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zhidan Liu
- Laboratory of Environment-Enhancing Energy (E2E), and Key Laboratory of Agricultural Engineering in Structure and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China.
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Sun X, Atiyeh HK, Li M, Chen Y. Biochar facilitated bioprocessing and biorefinery for productions of biofuel and chemicals: A review. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 295:122252. [PMID: 31669180 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Biochar is traditionally used to improve soil properties in arable land and as adsorbent or precursor of activated carbon in wastewater treatment. Recent advances have shown biochar potentials in enhancing productions of biofuels and chemicals such as bio-ethanol, butanol, methane, hydrogen, bio-diesel, hydrocarbons and carboxylic acids. The properties of biochar such as high levels of porosity, functional groups, cation exchange capacity, pH buffering capacity, electron conductivity, and macro-/micro- nutrients (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, S, Fe, etc.) provide appropriate conditions to relieve physicochemical stresses on microorganisms through pH buffering, detoxification, nutrients supply, serving as electron carrier and supportive microbial habitats. This paper critically reviewed biochar production and characteristics, biochar utilization in anaerobic digestion, composting, microbial fermentation, hydrolysate detoxification, catalysis in biomass refinery and biodiesel synthesis. This review provides novel vision of biochar application, which could guide future research towards cleaner and more economic production of renewable fuels and bio-based chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Sun
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul 55108, MN, USA.
| | - Hasan K Atiyeh
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater 74078, OK, USA
| | - Mengxing Li
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Nebraska, Lincoln 68583, NE, USA
| | - Yan Chen
- School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, Liaoning, China
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Abstract
As a by-product of lignocellulosic depolymerization for furfural production, furfural residue (FR) is composed of residual cellulose, lignin, humic acid, and other small amounts of materials, which have high reuse value. However, due to the limitation of furfural production scale and production technology, the treatment of FR has many problems such as high yield, concentrated stacking, strong acidity, and difficult degradation. This leads to the limited treatment methods and high treatment cost of furfural residue. At present, most of the furfural enterprises can only be piled up at will, buried in soil, or directly burned. The air, soil, and rivers are polluted and the ecological balance is destroyed. Therefore, how to deal with furfural residue reasonably needs to be solved. In this review, value-added products for furfural residue conversion are described in detail in the fields of soil culture, catalytic hydrolysis, thermal decomposition, and porous adsorption. The future studies reporting the FR to convert value-added products could find guidance from this review to achieve specific goals.
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Gong L, Xu ZY, Dong JJ, Li H, Han RZ, Xu GC, Ni Y. Composite coal fly ash solid acid catalyst in synergy with chloride for biphasic preparation of furfural from corn stover hydrolysate. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 293:122065. [PMID: 31479854 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/24/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A solid acid catalyst SO42-/SnO2-Al2O3-CFA was synthesized based on industrial waste coal fly ash (CFA) as carrier and applied in the conversion of oxalic acid pretreated corn stover hydrolysate to produce furfural. Physical properties of the solid acid catalyst were characterized by SEM, FTIR, XRD, BET, EDAX, and NH3-TPD. Highly wrinkled structure of SO42-/SnO2-Al2O3-CFA could provide more specific surface area for the covalent linkage between SiO2 and SnO2. Factors influencing the efficacy of SO42-/SnO2-Al2O3-CFA were systematically explored. The highest furfural yield of 84.7% was reached in NH4Cl-toluene biphasic system at 180 °C for 30 min. The recyclability of SO42-/SnO2-Al2O3-CFA and toluene could be achieved for five batches with stable performance in transformation of xylose-rich corn stover hydrolysate. This study provided a novel solid acid catalyst with promising potential in the synthesis of furfural from corn stover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gong
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zi-Yan Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jin-Jun Dong
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hao Li
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Rui-Zhi Han
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guo-Chao Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ye Ni
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China.
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Wang X, Li H, Lin Q, Li R, Li W, Wang X, Peng F, Ren J. Efficient catalytic conversion of dilute-oxalic acid pretreated bagasse hydrolysate to furfural using recyclable ironic phosphates catalysts. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 290:121764. [PMID: 31310865 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.121764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Efficient conversion of dilute-oxalic acid pretreated bagasse hydrolysate to furfural was developed using recyclable ironic phosphates (FePO4) catalysts in the modified heterogeneous system. The effects of reaction conditions on the furfural yields were investigated, and the stability and water solubility of catalysts were evaluated. Results showed that the maximum furfural yield of 88.7% was obtained in the modified biphasic system by FePO4 catalysts at 190 °C for 120 min. The catalyst could be recycled and reused in conversion of the xylose-rich hydrolysate into furfural due to the unique feature that the catalyst showed solid state at room temperature and could be gradually dissolved into the aqueous phase upon increasing the reaction temperature and time. The experiments of five-time recycles showed that the FePO4 catalyst exhibited excellent stability and catalytic performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Huiling Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Qixuan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Rui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Weiying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Xiaohui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Feng Peng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Junli Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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Jia Q, Teng X, Yu S, Si Z, Li G, Zhou M, Cai D, Qin P, Chen B. Production of furfural from xylose and hemicelluloses using tin-loaded sulfonated diatomite as solid acid catalyst in biphasic system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biteb.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Li X, Wang Y, Xie X, Huang C, Yang S. Dehydration of fructose, sucrose and inulin to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural over yeast-derived carbonaceous microspheres at low temperatures. RSC Adv 2019; 9:9041-9048. [PMID: 35517693 PMCID: PMC9062061 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra10465d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This work prepared carbonaceous microspheres by hydrothermal carbonization of yeast cells followed by sulfonation with concentrated sulphuric acid (98%) at room temperature. The obtained carbonaceous product (CM-SO3H) had a high acid density (1.80 mmol g−1). We evaluated CM-SO3H as a solid catalyst for the dehydration of fructose-based carbohydrates to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in the ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM][Cl]). The effects of the catalyst and substrate loadings as well as the reaction temperature and time on the yield of 5-HMF were investigated. Under the optimum conditions, a 5-HMF yield of up to 83.5% was obtained from fructose with a reaction temperature of 80 °C for 30 min. Furthermore, 44.8% and 59.2% 5-HMF yields were obtained from sucrose (80 °C for 30 min) and inulin (80 °C for 60 min), respectively. CM-SO3H and [BMIM][Cl] showed high stability and could be recycled between five and eight times without significant loss of catalytic activity. More importantly, the catalytic system could be applied to high substrate concentrations. CM-SO3H combined with [BMIM][Cl] is a promising system for transforming fructose-based carbohydrates into 5-HMF. This work prepared carbonaceous microspheres by hydrothermal carbonization of yeast cells followed by sulfonation with concentrated sulphuric acid (98%) at room temperature.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- P. R. China
| | - Yi Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- P. R. China
| | - Xiaomin Xie
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- P. R. China
| | - Changhong Huang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- P. R. China
| | - Sen Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences
- China Agricultural University
- Beijing 100193
- P. R. China
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Impact of activation on properties of carbon-based solid acid catalysts for the hydrothermal conversion of xylose and hemicelluloses. Catal Today 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2018.03.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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27
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Cheng B, Wang X, Lin Q, Zhang X, Meng L, Sun RC, Xin F, Ren J. New Understandings of the Relationship and Initial Formation Mechanism for Pseudo-lignin, Humins, and Acid-Induced Hydrothermal Carbon. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:11981-11989. [PMID: 30376319 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b04754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The generation of pseudo-lignin as byproduct during the lignocellulose acidic pretreatment has been proposed for many years. However, the detailed formation mechanism is still unclear. Moreover, there is a lack of understanding in the initial reaction during the formation of humins (byproducts in furfural production) and acid-induced hydrothermal carbon (carbon material). In this work, the initial formation of these three substances were investigated. We first found the common feature of their formation process was that carbohydrate-hydrolyzed compounds could form black polymers by condensing in acidic media, but the difference was dependent on the reaction degree. Furthermore, the results revealed that oxidation was an accelerator for condensations during producing black polymers because oxidized compounds could enhance the acidity of the reaction system. However, condensations of oxidized compounds were more difficult to proceed. Meanwhile, during the initial stage, the dominating pathway was that furfural condensed with itself and isomerized xylose via aldol-condensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banggui Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , China
| | - Xiaohui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , China
| | - Qixuan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , China
| | - Xiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , China
| | - Ling Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , China
| | - Run-Cang Sun
- Center for Lignocellulose Science and Engineering, and Liaoning Key Laboratory Pulp and Paper Engineering , Dalian Polytechnic University , Dalian 116034 , China
| | - Fengxue Xin
- Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering , Nanjing University of Technology , Nanjing 211800 , China
| | - Junli Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510640 , China
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Romo JE, Bollar NV, Zimmermann CJ, Wettstein SG. Conversion of Sugars and Biomass to Furans Using Heterogeneous Catalysts in Biphasic Solvent Systems. ChemCatChem 2018; 10:4805-4816. [PMID: 30555599 PMCID: PMC6283062 DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201800926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Within the last decade, interest in using biphasic systems for producing furans from biomass has grown significantly. Biphasic systems continuously extract furans into the organic phase, which prevents degradation reactions and potentially allows for easier separations of the products. Several heterogeneous catalyst types, including zeolites, ion exchange resins, niobium-based, and others, have been used with various organic solvents to increase furan yields from sugar dehydration reactions. In this minireview, we summarized the use of heterogeneous catalysts in biphasic systems for furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural production from the past five years, highlighting trends in chemical and physical properties that effect catalytic activity. Additionally, the selection of an organic solvent for a biphasic system is extremely important and we review and discuss properties of the most commonly used organic solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joelle E. Romo
- Department of Chemical and Biological EngineeringMontana State UniversityBozeman59717-2220 MTUSA
| | - Nathan V. Bollar
- Department of Chemical and Biological EngineeringMontana State UniversityBozeman59717-2220 MTUSA
| | - Coy J. Zimmermann
- Department of Chemical and Biological EngineeringMontana State UniversityBozeman59717-2220 MTUSA
| | - Stephanie G. Wettstein
- Department of Chemical and Biological EngineeringMontana State UniversityBozeman59717-2220 MTUSA
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Jiang CX, Di JH, Su C, Yang SY, Ma CL, He YC. One-pot co-catalysis of corncob with dilute hydrochloric acid and tin-based solid acid for the enhancement of furfural production. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 268:315-322. [PMID: 30092485 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.07.147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A newly synthesized solid acid catalyst SO42-/SnO2-diatomite was prepared for synthesizing furfural from corncob in the presence of homogeneous Brönsted acid. The relationship between pKa of Brönsted acid and turnover frequency (TOF) of co-catalysis with Brönsted acid plus SO42-/SnO2-diatomite was explored on the conversion of corncob to furfural. HCl (pKa = -7.0) (0.5 wt%) plus SO42-/SnO2-diatomite (3.6 wt%) gave the highest furfural yield (40.1%) with TOF value at 2.98 h-1 in the aqueous media. In the γ-valerolactone-water (6:4, v:v) biphasic media containing 15 g/L ZnCl2, one-pot conversion of corncob with co-catalysts gave a furfural yield of 68.9% at 170 °C for 30 min. Additionally, an efficient SO42-/SnO2-diatomite recycling was achieved with a productivity of 15.6 g furfural/(g solid acid·day) after 5 cycles of repeated use. Clearly, this one-pot co-catalysis process has high potential application for furfural production in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Xia Jiang
- Advanced Catalysis and Green Manufacturing Collaborative Innovation Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, PR China
| | - Jun-Hua Di
- Advanced Catalysis and Green Manufacturing Collaborative Innovation Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, PR China
| | - Chun Su
- Advanced Catalysis and Green Manufacturing Collaborative Innovation Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, PR China
| | - Si-Yu Yang
- Advanced Catalysis and Green Manufacturing Collaborative Innovation Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, PR China
| | - Cui-Luan Ma
- Advanced Catalysis and Green Manufacturing Collaborative Innovation Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, PR China; Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources, Hubei University, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Yu-Cai He
- Advanced Catalysis and Green Manufacturing Collaborative Innovation Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials and Technology, Changzhou University, Changzhou, PR China; Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources, Hubei University, Wuhan, PR China.
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30
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Xiong X, Yu IK, Chen SS, Tsang DC, Cao L, Song H, Kwon EE, Ok YS, Zhang S, Poon CS. Sulfonated biochar as acid catalyst for sugar hydrolysis and dehydration. Catal Today 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2018.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Abstract
Firstly, this paper reviews two main methods for biochar synthesis, namely conventional pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). The related processes are described, and the influences of biomass nature and reaction conditions, especially temperature, are discussed. Compared to pyrolysis, HTC has advantages for processing high-moisture biomass and producing spherical biochar particles. Secondly, typical features of biochar in comparison with other carbonaceous materials are summarized. They refer to the presence of inorganics, surface functional groups, and local crystalline structures made up of highly conjugated aromatic sheets. Thirdly, various strategies for biochar modification are illustrated. They include activation, surface functionalization, in situ heteroatom doping, and the formation of composites with other materials. An appropriate modification is necessary for biochar used as a catalyst. Fourthly, the applications of biochar-based catalysts in three important processes of biofuel production are reviewed. Sulfonated biochar shows good catalytic performance for biomass hydrolysis and biodiesel production. Biodiesel production can also be catalyzed by biochar-derived or -supported solid-alkali catalysts. Biochar alone and biochar-supported metals are potential catalysts for tar reduction during or after biomass gasification. Lastly, the merits of biochar-based catalysts are summarized. Biochar-based catalysts have great developmental prospects. Future work needs to focus on the study of mechanism and process design.
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Yin Y, Gao Y, Li A. Self-activation of biochar from furfural residues by recycled pyrolysis gas. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2018; 77:312-321. [PMID: 29678495 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2018.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Biochar samples with controllable specific surface area and mesopore ratio were self-activated from furfural residues by recycled pyrolysis gas. The objective of this study was to develop a new cyclic utilization method for the gas produced by pyrolysis. The influences of preparation parameters on the resulting biochar were studied by varying the pyrolysis-gas flow rate, activation time and temperature. Structural characterization of the produced biochar was performed by analysis of nitrogen adsorption isotherms at 77 K and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The pyrolysis gas compositions before and after activation were determined by a gas chromatograph. The results indicated that the surface area of the biochar was increased from 167 m2/g to 567 m2/g, the total pore volume increased from 0.121 cm3/g to 0.380 cm3/g, and the ratio of the mesopore pore volume to the total pore volume increased 17-39.7%. The CO volume fraction of the pyrolysis gas changed from 34.66 to 62.29% and the CO2 volume fraction decreased from 48.26% to 12.17% under different conditions of pyrolysis-gas flow rate, activation time and temperature. The calorific values of pyrolysis gas changed from 8.82 J/cm3 to 14.00 J/cm3, which were higher than those of conventional pyrolysis gases. The slower pyrolysis-gas flow rate and higher activation time increased the efficiency of the reaction between carbon and pyrolysis gas. These results demonstrated the feasibility of treatment of the furfural residues to produce microporous and mesoporous biochar. The pyrolysis gas that results from the activation process could be used as fuel. Overall, this new self-activation method meets the development requirements of cyclic economy and cleaner production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulei Yin
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science & Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science & Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Aimin Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, School of Environmental Science & Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China.
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Delbecq F, Wang Y, Muralidhara A, El Ouardi K, Marlair G, Len C. Hydrolysis of Hemicellulose and Derivatives-A Review of Recent Advances in the Production of Furfural. Front Chem 2018; 6:146. [PMID: 29868554 PMCID: PMC5964623 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biobased production of furfural has been known for decades. Nevertheless, bioeconomy and circular economy concepts is much more recent and has motivated a regain of interest of dedicated research to improve production modes and expand potential uses. Accordingly, this review paper aims essentially at outlining recent breakthroughs obtained in the field of furfural production from sugars and polysaccharides feedstocks. The review discusses advances obtained in major production pathways recently explored splitting in the following categories: (i) non-catalytic routes like use of critical solvents or hot water pretreatment, (ii) use of various homogeneous catalysts like mineral or organic acids, metal salts or ionic liquids, (iii) feedstock dehydration making use of various solid acid catalysts; (iv) feedstock dehydration making use of supported catalysts, (v) other heterogeneous catalytic routes. The paper also briefly overviews current understanding of furfural chemical synthesis and its underpinning mechanism as well as safety issues pertaining to the substance. Eventually, some remaining research topics are put in perspective for further optimization of biobased furfural production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederic Delbecq
- Ecole Superieure de Chimie Organique et Minerale, Compiègne, France
| | - Yantao Wang
- Sorbonne Universités, Universite de Technologie de Compiegne, Compiègne, France
| | - Anitha Muralidhara
- Sorbonne Universités, Universite de Technologie de Compiegne, Compiègne, France.,Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France.,Avantium Chemicals, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Karim El Ouardi
- Materials Science and Nano-Engineering Department, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir, Morocco
| | - Guy Marlair
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
| | - Christophe Len
- Sorbonne Universités, Universite de Technologie de Compiegne, Compiègne, France.,Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris, PSL University, Chimie ParisTech, Paris, France
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Li W, Zhu Y, Lu Y, Liu Q, Guan S, Chang HM, Jameel H, Ma L. Enhanced furfural production from raw corn stover employing a novel heterogeneous acid catalyst. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 245:258-265. [PMID: 28892699 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.08.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 08/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
With the aim to enhance the direct conversion of raw corn stover into furfural, a promising approach was proposed employing a novel heterogeneous strong acid catalyst (SC-CaCt-700) in different solvents. The novel catalyst was characterized by elemental analysis, N2 adsorption-desorption, FT-IR, XPS, TEM and SEM. The developed catalytic system demonstrated superior efficacy for furfural production from raw corn stover. The effects of reaction temperature, residence time, catalyst loading, substrate concentration and solvent were investigated and optimized. 93% furfural yield was obtained from 150mg corn stover at 200°C in 100min using 45mg catalyst in γ-valerolactone (GVL). In comparison, 51.5% furfural yield was achieved in aqueous media under the same conditions (200°C, 5h, and 45mg catalyst), which is of great industrial interest. Furfural was obtained from both hemicelluloses and cellulose in corn stover, which demonstrated a promising routine to make the full use of biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzhi Li
- Laboratory of Basic Research in Biomass Conversion and Utilization, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China
| | - Yuanshuai Zhu
- Laboratory of Basic Research in Biomass Conversion and Utilization, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China.
| | - Yijuan Lu
- Laboratory of Basic Research in Biomass Conversion and Utilization, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China
| | - Qiyu Liu
- Laboratory of Basic Research in Biomass Conversion and Utilization, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China
| | - Shennan Guan
- Laboratory of Basic Research in Biomass Conversion and Utilization, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China
| | - Hou-Min Chang
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8005, USA
| | - Hasan Jameel
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8005, USA
| | - Longlong Ma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, PR China.
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Xiong X, Yu IKM, Cao L, Tsang DCW, Zhang S, Ok YS. A review of biochar-based catalysts for chemical synthesis, biofuel production, and pollution control. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 246:254-270. [PMID: 28712780 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.06.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This review addresses the use of biochar as a green and versatile catalyst support for emerging high-end applications beyond soil remediation, including chemical synthesis and biodiesel production from biomass, and pollutant degradation in the environment. Their catalytic performances are comparable or even superior to the conventional resin-, silica-, or carbon-based catalysts, owing to the favourable intrinsic features of biochar (various functional groups, intricate network of structures, etc.). Yet, distinctive active sites are needed for different applications. It is highlighted that the active site accessibility for substrates critically determines the performance, which is associated with the biochar physicochemical characteristics (-SO3H site density, pore size distribution, surface area, etc.). They show varying significance depending on the catalytic sites on biochar, which may be controlled via novel pre-/post-synthesis modifications. This review elucidates the links among catalytic performances, physicochemical properties, and pyrolysis/modification-induced features, advising the tailored production of application-oriented biochar-based catalyst in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinni Xiong
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Iris K M Yu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Leichang Cao
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Daniel C W Tsang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Shicheng Zhang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yong Sik Ok
- O-Jeong Eco-Resilience Institute (OJERI), Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Cheng J, Qiu Y, Zhang J, Huang R, Yang W, Fan Z. Conversion of lipids from wet microalgae into biodiesel using sulfonated graphene oxide catalysts. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 244:569-574. [PMID: 28803107 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.07.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Revised: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Four solid acid catalysts including graphene oxide (GO), sulfonated graphene oxide (SGO), sulfonated graphene (SG), and sulfonated active carbon (SAC) were used to convert lipids in wet microalgae into biodiesel. The physiochemical properties of the catalysts were characterized with scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction, and thermogravimetric analysis. SGO provided the highest conversion efficiency (84.6% of sulfuric acid) of lipids to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Whereas SAC converted few lipids into FAME. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and elemental analysis revealed that much higher hydrophilic hydroxyl content in SGO catalyst resulted in a considerable higher conversion efficiency of lipids to FAME than that (48.6%) catalyzed by SG, although SO3H groups (0.44mmol/g) in SGO were less than those (1.69mmol/g) in SG. Given its higher SO3H group content than GO (0.38mmol/g), SGO had higher conversion efficiency than GO (73.1%), when they had similar hydrophilic hydroxyl contents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China.
| | - Yi Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Rui Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Weijuan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zhentao Fan
- Shandong Chuangxin Inspection & Testing Company, Jining 272119, China
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Wang Y, Delbecq F, Kwapinski W, Len C. Application of sulfonated carbon-based catalyst for the furfural production from d -xylose and xylan in a microwave-assisted biphasic reaction. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2017.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Tröger-Müller S, Brandt J, Antonietti M, Liedel C. Green Imidazolium Ionics-From Truly Sustainable Reagents to Highly Functional Ionic Liquids. Chemistry 2017; 23:11810-11817. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201701212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Tröger-Müller
- Department of Colloid Chemistry; Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces; Research Campus Golm 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Jessica Brandt
- Department of Colloid Chemistry; Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces; Research Campus Golm 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Markus Antonietti
- Department of Colloid Chemistry; Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces; Research Campus Golm 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Clemens Liedel
- Department of Colloid Chemistry; Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces; Research Campus Golm 14476 Potsdam Germany
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SO42−/Sn-MMT Solid Acid Catalyst for Xylose and Xylan Conversion into Furfural in the Biphasic System. Catalysts 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/catal7040118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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40
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Abstract
The application of biochars as versatile catalysts and/or catalyst supports for biomass upgrading is systematically overviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefei Cao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry
- Beijing Forestry University
- Beijing 100083
- China
| | - Shaoni Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry
- Beijing Forestry University
- Beijing 100083
- China
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering
| | - Runcang Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry
- Beijing Forestry University
- Beijing 100083
- China
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Zhang L, Xi G, Zhang J, Yu H, Wang X. Efficient catalytic system for the direct transformation of lignocellulosic biomass to furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 224:656-661. [PMID: 27913172 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.11.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A feasible approach was developed for the co-production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) and furfural from corncob via a new porous polytriphenylamine-SO3H (SPTPA) solid acid catalyst in lactone solvents. XRD, SEM, XPS, N2 adsorption-desorption, elemental analysis, TG-DTA, acid-base titration and FTIR spectroscopy techniques were used to characterize the catalyst. This study demonstrates and optimizes the catalytic performance of SPTPA and solvent selection. SPTPA was found to exhibit superior catalytic ability in γ-valerolactone (GVL). Under the optimum reaction conditions, simultaneously encouraging yields of furfural (73.9%) and 5-HMF (32.3%) were achieved at 448K. The main advantages of this process include reasonable yields of both 5-HMF and furfural in the same reaction system, practical simplicity for the raw biomass utilization, and the use of a safe and environmentally benign solvent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luxin Zhang
- College of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Shaanxi Province, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, PR China.
| | - Guoyun Xi
- College of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Shaanxi Province, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, PR China
| | - Jiaxin Zhang
- College of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Shaanxi Province, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, PR China
| | - Hongbing Yu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Xiaochang Wang
- College of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Shaanxi Province, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, PR China
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