ECSIT links TLR and BMP signaling in FOP connective tissue progenitor cells

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva emerges from obscurity

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), a disorder of congenital skeletal malformations and progressive extraskeletal ossification, is the most severe form of heterotopic ossification (HO) in humans. Gain-of-function pathogenic variants in activin A receptor type I (ACVR1), a bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type 1 receptor, cause FOP by dramatically altering the normal physiologic functions of ACVR1, impacting BMP signaling and other interacting pathways. These alterations affect various systems, including inflammation, innate immunity, hypoxia sensing, wound healing, aging, temperature and mechanical thresholds, pain sensitivity, skeletal growth, diarthrodial joint patterning, joint function and fate, and HO. This article examines the emergent properties of FOP's diverse phenotypes, proposes a schema for targeting these phenotypes, and highlights outstanding questions and knowledge gaps.

ECSIT-X4 is Required for Preventing Pressure Overload-Induced Cardiac Hypertrophy via Regulating Mitochondrial STAT3

Mitochondrial dysfunction is a key factor in exacerbating pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy and is linked to increased morbidity and mortality. ECSIT, a crucial adaptor for inflammation and mitochondrial function, has been reported to express multiple transcripts in various species and tissues, leading to distinct protein isoforms with diverse subcellular localizations and functions. However, whether an unknown ECSIT isoform exists in cardiac cells and its potential role in regulating mitochondrial function and pathological cardiac hypertrophy has remained unclear. This study identified a 42-kDa ECSIT isoform encoded by the transcript variant Ecsit-X4, which is highly expressed in the mitochondria of adult cardiomyocytes but down-regulated in hypertrophic human heart samples and TAC-treated mouse hearts. AAV9-mediated Ecsit-X4 gene therapy, administered either before or after TAC surgery, significantly attenuated cardiac hypertrophy. Cardiomyocyte-specific Ecsit deficiency worsened TAC-induced cardiac hypertrophy, while Ecsit-X4 compensation independently rescued hypertrophic phenotypes in EcsitcKO mice. Mechanistically, ECSIT-X4 localized to the mitochondria and interacted with STAT3, leading to increased STAT3 levels and enhanced serine 727 phosphorylation in cardiomyocyte mitochondria, thereby promoting strong mitochondrial bioenergetics. This study identified a novel transcript variant of ECSIT localized in the mitochondria of adult cardiomyocytes and highlights its potential as a therapeutic target for heart failure.

ECSIT: Biological function and involvement in diseases

Evolutionary conserved signaling intermediate in Toll pathways (ECSIT), a multi-functional protein, was first identified as a cytosolic adaptor protein in Toll-like receptors (TLRs) signaling-mediated innate immune responses. In the past two decades, studies have expanded the understanding of ECSIT. Nevertheless, there are still large knowledge gaps due to the inadequate number of studies regarding ECSIT, especially an overall review of ECSIT is lacking. Here, we first comprehensively summarize the biological functions of ECSIT with particular focus on innate immune responses and mitochondrial homeostasis. Cumulative studies have reinforced that ECSIT is involved in the regulation of innate immune responses through activating NF-κB signaling and potentiating the Retinoic acid-induced gene Ⅰ (RIG-Ⅰ)/ mitochondrial antiviral- signaling protein (MAVS) pathway-mediated innate antiviral immunity. In addition, ECSIT determines the mitochondrial morphology and function including mitochondrial complex Ⅰ (CⅠ) assembly, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) production, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) maintenance and mitochondrial quality control. Owing to these distinct functions, ECSIT is involved in the etiology and pathology of human diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD), cardiac hypertrophy, musculoskeletal disintegration, cancer, extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma (ENKTL) and ischemic stroke. Collectively, the roles and mechanisms of ECSIT under physiological and pathological conditions are critically discussed to provide a clearer view of the therapeutic potential of ECSIT.

Primary cilia mediate skeletogenic BMP and Hedgehog signaling in heterotopic ossification

Heterotopic ossification (HO), defined as the formation of extraskeletal bone in muscle and soft tissues, is a diverse pathological process caused by either genetic mutations or inciting trauma. Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a genetic form of HO caused by mutations in the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type I receptor gene activin A receptor type 1 (ACVR1). These mutations make ACVR1 hypersensitive to BMP and responsive to activin A. Hedgehog (Hh) signaling also contributes to HO development. However, the exact pathophysiology of how skeletogenic cells contribute to endochondral ossification in FOP remains unknown. Here, we showed that the wild-type or FOP-mutant ACVR1 localized in the cilia of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth with key FOP signaling components, including activin A receptor type 2A/2B, SMAD family member 1/5, and FK506-binding protein 12kD. Cilia suppression by deletion of intraflagellar transport 88 or ADP ribosylation factor like GTPase 3 effectively inhibited pathological BMP and Hh signaling, subdued aberrant chondro-osteogenic differentiation in primary mouse or human FOP cells, and diminished in vivo extraskeletal ossification in Acvr1Q207D, Sox2-Cre; Acvr1R206H/+ FOP mice and in burn tenotomy-treated wild-type mice. Our results provide a rationale for early and localized suppression of cilia in affected tissues after injury as a therapeutic strategy against either genetic or acquired HO.

Cell Senescence in Heterotopic Ossification

The formation of bone outside the normal skeleton, or heterotopic ossification (HO), occurs through genetic and acquired mechanisms. Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), the most devastating genetic condition of HO, is due to mutations in the ACVR1/ALK2 gene and is relentlessly progressive. Acquired HO is mostly precipitated by injury or orthopedic surgical procedures but can also be associated with certain conditions related to aging. Cellular senescence is a hallmark of aging and thought to be a tumor-suppressive mechanism with characteristic features such as irreversible growth arrest, apoptosis resistance, and an inflammatory senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Here, we review possible roles for cellular senescence in HO and how targeting senescent cells may provide new therapeutic approaches to both FOP and acquired forms of HO.

The HIF-1α and mTOR Pathways Amplify Heterotopic Ossification

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP; MIM# 135100) is an ultra-rare congenital disorder caused by gain-of-function point mutations in the Activin receptor A type I (ACVR1, also known as ALK2) gene. FOP is characterized by episodic heterotopic ossification (HO) in skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments, or other soft tissues that progressively causes irreversible loss of mobility. FOP mutations cause mild ligand-independent constitutive activation as well as ligand-dependent bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathway hypersensitivity of mutant ACVR1. BMP signaling is also a key pathway for mediating acquired HO. However, HO is a highly complex biological process involving multiple interacting signaling pathways. Among them, the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathways are intimately involved in both genetic and acquired HO formation. HIF-1α inhibition or mTOR inhibition reduces HO formation in mouse models of FOP or acquired HO in part by de-amplifying the BMP pathway signaling. Here, we review the recent progress on the mechanisms of the HIF-1α and mTOR pathways in the amplification of HO lesions and discuss the future directions and strategies to translate the targeting of HIF-1α and the mTOR pathways into clinical interventions for FOP and other forms of HO.

An Atypical Presentation of Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva and the Imperative for Multidisciplinary Care: A Case Report

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the gradual heterotopic ossification of soft tissues, leading to abnormal bone growth within muscles, tendons, and ligaments, due to a mutation in the ACVR1 gene. This specific case report highlights an unusual occurrence of FOP, emphasizing the diagnostic challenges and the importance of quick identification and appropriate intervention to mitigate its debilitating effects. The report also underscores the need for comprehensive genetic counseling and a multidisciplinary treatment approach, involving experts, such as orthopedic specialists, geneticists, and physical therapists, to improve the prognosis and overall well-being of those affected by FOP.

Gene Therapy for Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva: Feasibility and Obstacles

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare and devastating genetic disease, in which soft connective tissue is converted into heterotopic bone through an endochondral ossification process. Patients succumb early as they gradually become trapped in a second skeleton of heterotopic bone. Although the underlying genetic defect is long known, the inherent complexity of the disease has hindered the discovery of effective preventions and treatments. New developments in the gene therapy field have motivated its consideration as an attractive therapeutic option for FOP. However, the immune system's role in FOP activation and the as-yet unknown primary causative cell, are crucial issues which must be taken into account in the therapy design. While gene therapy offers a potential therapeutic solution, more knowledge about FOP is needed to enable its optimal and safe application.

Plasma-Soluble Biomarkers for Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP) Reflect Acute and Chronic Inflammatory States

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a progressive, debilitating genetic disease in which skeletal muscle and connective tissue is episodically replaced by heterotopic bone. Discovery of surrogate biomarkers of disease (genotype)-related and flare-up-associated activity of FOP in a readily accessible matrix, such as plasma, would facilitate an understanding of the complex pathophysiology of FOP, aid patient care, and provide a valuable tool for the development and monitoring of potential therapeutics. In a case-control study, using a carefully collected and curated set of plasma samples from 40 FOP patients with the classic ACVR1^R206H mutation and 40 age- and sex-matched controls, we report the identification of disease-related and flare-up-associated biomarkers of FOP using a multiplex analysis of 113 plasma-soluble analytes. Adiponectin (implicated in hypoxia, inflammation, and heterotopic ossification) as well as tenascin-C (an endogenous activator of innate immune signaling through the TLR4 pathway and a substrate for kallikrein-7) were highly correlated with FOP genotype, while kallikrein-7 was highly correlated with acute flare-up status. Plasma-soluble biomarkers for FOP support a flare-up-related acute inflammatory phase of disease activity superimposed on a genotypic background of chronic inflammation. © 2021 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Clearance of Senescent Cells From Injured Muscle Abrogates Heterotopic Ossification in Mouse Models of Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare genetic disease caused by mutations in activin A receptor type I/activin-like kinase 2 (ACVR1/ALK2), a bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type I receptor, resulting in the formation of extraskeletal or heterotopic ossification (HO) and other features consistent with premature aging. During the first decade of life, episodic bouts of inflammatory swellings (flare-ups) occur, which are typically triggered by soft tissue trauma. Through an endochondral process, these exacerbations ultimately result in skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments, fascia, and aponeuroses transforming into ectopic bone, rendering movement impossible. We have previously shown that soft tissue injury causes early FOP lesions characterized by cellular hypoxia, cellular damage, and local inflammation. Here we show that muscle injury in FOP also results in senescent cell accumulation, and that senescence promotes tissue reprogramming toward a chondrogenic fate in FOP muscle but not wild-type (WT) muscle. Using a combination of senolytic drugs we show that senescent cell clearance and reduction in the senescence associated secretory phenotype (SASP) ameliorate HO in mouse models of FOP. We conclude that injury-induced senescent cell burden and the SASP contribute to FOP lesion formation and that tissue reprogramming in FOP is mediated by cellular senescence, altering myogenic cell fate toward a chondrogenic cell fate. Furthermore, pharmacological removal of senescent cells abrogates tissue reprogramming and HO formation. Here we provide proof-of-principle evidence for senolytic drugs as a future therapeutic strategy in FOP. © 2021 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Prevalence of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) in the United States: estimate from three treatment centers and a patient organization

BACKGROUND

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), an ultra-rare, progressive, and permanently disabling disorder of extraskeletal ossification, is characterized by episodic and painful flare-ups and irreversible heterotopic ossification in muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Prevalence estimates have been hindered by the rarity of FOP and the heterogeneity of disease presentation. This study aimed to provide a baseline prevalence of FOP in the United States, based on contact with one of 3 leading treatment centers for FOP (University of Pennsylvania, Mayo Clinic, or University of California San Francisco), the International Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva Association (IFOPA) membership list, or the IFOPA FOP Registry through July 22, 2020.

RESULTS

Patient records were reviewed, collected, and deduplicated using first and last name initials, sex, state, and year of birth. A Kaplan-Meier survival curve was applied to each individual patient to estimate the probability that he or she was still alive, and a probability-weighted net prevalence estimate was calculated. After deduplication, 373 unique patients were identified in the United States, 294 of whom who were not listed as deceased in any list. The average time since last contact for 284 patients was 1.5 years. Based on the application of the survival probability, it is estimated that 279 of these patients were alive on the prevalence date (22 July 2020). An adjusted prevalence of 0.88 per million US residents was calculated using either an average survival rate estimate of 98.4% or a conservative survival rate estimate of 92.3% (based on the Kaplan-Meier survival curve from a previous study) and the US Census 2020 estimate of 329,992,681 on prevalence day.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the prevalence of FOP is higher than the often-cited value of 0.5 per million. Even so, because inclusion in this study was contingent upon treatment by the authors, IFOPA membership with confirmed clinical diagnosis, and the FOP Registry, the prevalence of FOP in the US may be higher than that identified here. Thus, it is imperative that efforts be made to identify and provide expert care for patients with this ultra-rare, significantly debilitating disease.

MyD88 Is Not Required for Muscle Injury-Induced Endochondral Heterotopic Ossification in a Mouse Model of Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva

Excess inflammation and canonical BMP receptor (BMPR) signaling are coinciding hallmarks of the early stages of injury-induced endochondral heterotopic ossification (EHO), especially in the rare genetic disease fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP). Multiple inflammatory signaling pathways can synergistically enhance BMP-induced Smad1/5/8 activity in multiple cell types, suggesting the importance of pathway crosstalk in EHO and FOP. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and IL-1 receptors mediate many of the earliest injury-induced inflammatory signals largely via MyD88-dependent pathways. Thus, the hypothesis that MyD88-dependent signaling is required for EHO was tested in vitro and in vivo using global or Pdgfrα-conditional deletion of MyD88 in FOP mice. As expected, IL-1β or LPS synergistically increased Activin A (ActA)-induced phosphorylation of Smad 1/5 in fibroadipoprogenitors (FAPs) expressing Alk2^R206H. However, conditional deletion of MyD88 in Pdgfrα-positive cells of FOP mice did not significantly alter the amount of muscle injury-induced EHO. Even more surprisingly, injury-induced EHO was not significantly affected by global deletion of MyD88. These studies demonstrate that MyD88-dependent signaling is dispensable for injury-induced EHO in FOP mice.

Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva: What Have We Achieved and Where Are We Now? Follow-up to the 2015 Lorentz Workshop

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is an ultra-rare progressive genetic disease effecting one in a million individuals. During their life, patients with FOP progressively develop bone in the soft tissues resulting in increasing immobility and early death. A mutation in the ACVR1 gene was identified as the causative mutation of FOP in 2006. After this, the pathophysiology of FOP has been further elucidated through the efforts of research groups worldwide. In 2015, a workshop was held to gather these groups and discuss the new challenges in FOP research. Here we present an overview and update on these topics.

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP): A disorder of osteochondrogenesis

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is an ultra-rare genetic disorder of extraskeletal bone formation, but could appropriately be viewed as a seminal disorder of osteochondrogenesis. Many, if not most, of the musculoskeletal features of FOP are related to dysregulated chondrogenesis including abnormal articular cartilage formation, abnormal diarthrodial joint specification, growth plate dysplasia, osteochondroma formation, heterotopic endochondral ossification (HEO), and precocious arthropathy. In FOP, causative activating mutations of Activin receptor A type I (ACVR1), a bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type I receptor, are responsible for the osteochondrodysplasia that impacts developmental phenotypes as well as postnatal features of this illustrative disorder. Here, we highlight the myriad developmental and postnatal effects on osteochondrogenesis that emanate directly from mutant ACVR1 and dysregulated bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling in FOP.

Mechanism of traumatic heterotopic ossification: In search of injury-induced osteogenic factors

Heterotopic ossification (HO) is a pathological condition of abnormal bone formation in soft tissue. Three factors have been proposed as required to induce HO: (a) osteogenic precursor cells, (b) osteoinductive agents and (c) an osteoconductive environment. Since Urist's landmark discovery of bone induction in skeletal muscle tissue by demineralized bone matrix, it is generally believed that skeletal muscle itself is a conductive environment for osteogenesis and that resident progenitor cells in skeletal muscle are capable of differentiating into osteoblast to form bone. However, little is known about the naturally occurring osteoinductive agents that triggered this osteogenic response in the first place. This article provides a review of the emerging findings regarding distinct types of HO to summarize the current understanding of HO mechanisms, with special attention to the osteogenic factors that are induced following injury. Specifically, we hypothesize that muscle injury‐induced up‐regulation of local bone morphogenetic protein‐7 (BMP‐7) level, combined with glucocorticoid excess‐induced down‐regulation of circulating transforming growth factor‐β1 (TGF‐β1) level, could be an important causative mechanism of traumatic HO formation.

The Survey of Cells Responsible for Heterotopic Ossification Development in Skeletal Muscles-Human and Mouse Models

Heterotopic ossification (HO) manifests as bone development in the skeletal muscles and surrounding soft tissues. It can be caused by injury, surgery, or may have a genetic background. In each case, its development might differ, and depending on the age, sex, and patient's conditions, it could lead to a more or a less severe outcome. In the case of the injury or surgery provoked ossification development, it could be, to some extent, prevented by treatments. As far as genetic disorders are concerned, such prevention approaches are highly limited. Many lines of evidence point to the inflammatory process and abnormalities in the bone morphogenetic factor signaling pathway as the molecular and cellular backgrounds for HO development. However, the clear targets allowing the design of treatments preventing or lowering HO have not been identified yet. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on HO types, its symptoms, and possible ways of prevention and treatment. We also describe the molecules and cells in which abnormal function could lead to HO development. We emphasize the studies involving animal models of HO as being of great importance for understanding and future designing of the tools to counteract this pathology.

Heterotopic Ossification: A Comprehensive Review

Heterotopic ossification (HO) is a diverse pathologic process, defined as the formation of extraskeletal bone in muscle and soft tissues. HO can be conceptualized as a tissue repair process gone awry and is a common complication of trauma and surgery. This comprehensive review seeks to synthesize the clinical, pathoetiologic, and basic biologic features of HO, including nongenetic and genetic forms. First, the clinical features, radiographic appearance, histopathologic diagnosis, and current methods of treatment are discussed. Next, current concepts regarding the mechanistic bases for HO are discussed, including the putative cell types responsible for HO formation, the inflammatory milieu and other prerequisite “niche” factors for HO initiation and propagation, and currently available animal models for the study of HO of this common and potentially devastating condition. © 2019 The Authors. JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP): A Segmental Progeroid Syndrome

Segmental progeroid syndromes are commonly represented by genetic conditions which recapitulate aspects of physiological aging by similar, disparate, or unknown mechanisms. Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare genetic disease caused by mutations in the gene for ACVR1/ALK2 encoding Activin A receptor type I/Activin-like kinase 2, a bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type I receptor, and results in the formation of extra-skeletal ossification and a constellation of others features, many of which resemble accelerated aging. The median estimated lifespan of individuals with FOP is approximately 56 years of age. Characteristics of precocious aging in FOP include both those that are related to dysregulated BMP signaling as well as those secondary to early immobilization. Progeroid features that may primarily be associated with mutations in ACVR1 include osteoarthritis, hearing loss, alopecia, subcutaneous lipodystrophy, myelination defects, heightened inflammation, menstrual abnormalities, and perhaps nephrolithiasis. Progeroid features that may secondarily be related to immobilization from progressive heterotopic ossification include decreased vital capacity, osteoporosis, fractures, sarcopenia, and predisposition to respiratory infections. Some manifestations of precocious aging may be attributed to both primary and secondary effects of FOP. At the level of lesion formation in FOP, soft tissue injury resulting in hypoxia, cell damage, and inflammation may lead to the accumulation of senescent cells as in aged tissue. Production of Activin A, platelet-derived growth factor, metalloproteinases, interleukin 6, and other inflammatory cytokines as part of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype could conceivably mediate the initial signaling cascade that results in the intense fibroproliferative response as well as the tissue-resident stem cell reprogramming leading up to ectopic endochondral bone formation. Consideration of FOP as a segmental progeroid syndrome offers a unique perspective into potential mechanisms of normal aging and may also provide insight for identification of new targets for therapeutic interventions in FOP.

NF-κB/MAPK activation underlies ACVR1-mediated inflammation in human heterotopic ossification

BACKGROUND

Inflammation helps regulate normal growth and tissue repair. Although bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and inflammation are known contributors to abnormal bone formation, how these pathways interact in ossification remains unclear.

METHODS

We examined this potential link in patients with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), a genetic condition of progressive heterotopic ossification caused by activating mutations in the Activin A type I receptor (ACVR1/ALK2). FOP patients show exquisite sensitivity to trauma, suggesting that BMP pathway activation may alter immune responses. We studied primary blood, monocyte, and macrophage samples from control and FOP subjects using multiplex cytokine, gene expression, and protein analyses; examined CD14+ primary monocyte and macrophage responses to TLR ligands; and assayed BMP, TGF-β activated kinase 1 (TAK1), and NF-κB pathways.

RESULTS

FOP subjects at baseline without clinically evident heterotopic ossification showed increased serum IL-3, IL-7, IL-8, and IL-10. CD14+ primary monocytes treated with the TLR4 activator LPS showed increased CCL5, CCR7, and CXCL10; abnormal cytokine/chemokine secretion; and prolonged activation of the NF-κB pathway. FOP macrophages derived from primary monocytes also showed abnormal cytokine/chemokine secretion, increased TGF-β production, and p38MAPK activation. Surprisingly, SMAD phosphorylation was not significantly changed in the FOP monocytes/macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormal ACVR1 activity causes a proinflammatory state via increased NF-κB and p38MAPK activity. Similar changes may contribute to other types of heterotopic ossification, such as in scleroderma and dermatomyositis; after trauma; or with recombinant BMP-induced bone fusion. Our findings suggest that chronic antiinflammatory treatment may be useful for heterotopic ossification.

The Horizon of a Therapy for Rare Genetic Diseases: A "Druggable" Future for Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare genetic condition characterized by progressive extra-skeletal ossification leading to cumulative and severe disability. FOP has an extremely variable and episodic course and can be induced by trauma, infections, iatrogenic harms, immunization or can occur in an unpredictable way, without any recognizable trigger. The causative gene is ACVR1, encoding the Alk-2 type I receptor for bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). The signaling is initiated by BMP binding to a receptor complex consisting of type I and II molecules and can proceed into the cell through two main pathways, a canonical, SMAD-dependent signaling and a p38-mediated cascade. Most FOP patients carry the recurrent R206H substitution in the receptor Glycine-Serine rich (GS) domain, whereas a few other mutations are responsible for a limited number of cases. Mutations cause a dysregulation of the downstream BMP-dependent pathway and make mutated ACVR1 responsive to a non-canonical ligand, Activin A. There is no etiologic treatment for FOP. However, many efforts are currently ongoing to find specific therapies targeting the receptor activity and the downstream aberrant pathway at different levels or targeting cellular components and/or processes that are important in modifying the local environment leading to bone neo-formation.