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Thümmler K, Wrzos C, Franz J, McElroy D, Cole JJ, Hayden L, Arseni D, Schwarz F, Junker A, Edgar JM, Kügler S, Neef A, Wolf F, Stadelmann C, Linington C. Fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9)-mediated neurodegeneration: Implications for progressive multiple sclerosis? Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2023; 49:e12935. [PMID: 37705188 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signalling is dysregulated in multiple sclerosis (MS) and other neurological and psychiatric conditions, but there is little or no consensus as to how individual FGF family members contribute to disease pathogenesis. Lesion development in MS is associated with increased expression of FGF1, FGF2 and FGF9, all of which modulate remyelination in a variety of experimental settings. However, FGF9 is also selectively upregulated in major depressive disorder (MDD), prompting us to speculate it may also have a direct effect on neuronal function and survival. METHODS Transcriptional profiling of myelinating cultures treated with FGF1, FGF2 or FGF9 was performed, and the effects of FGF9 on cortical neurons investigated using a combination of transcriptional, electrophysiological and immunofluorescence microscopic techniques. The in vivo effects of FGF9 were explored by stereotactic injection of adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors encoding either FGF9 or EGFP into the rat motor cortex. RESULTS Transcriptional profiling of myelinating cultures after FGF9 treatment revealed a distinct neuronal response with a pronounced downregulation of gene networks associated with axonal transport and synaptic function. In cortical neuronal cultures, FGF9 also rapidly downregulated expression of genes associated with synaptic function. This was associated with a complete block in the development of photo-inducible spiking activity, as demonstrated using multi-electrode recordings of channel rhodopsin-transfected rat cortical neurons in vitro and, ultimately, neuronal cell death. Overexpression of FGF9 in vivo resulted in rapid loss of neurons and subsequent development of chronic grey matter lesions with neuroaxonal reduction and ensuing myelin loss. CONCLUSIONS These observations identify overexpression of FGF9 as a mechanism by which neuroaxonal pathology could develop independently of immune-mediated demyelination in MS. We suggest targeting neuronal FGF9-dependent pathways may provide a novel strategy to slow if not halt neuroaxonal atrophy and loss in MS, MDD and potentially other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Thümmler
- School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Claudia Wrzos
- Institute for Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jonas Franz
- Institute for Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, Göttingen, Germany
- Göttingen Campus Institute for Dynamics of Biological Networks, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel McElroy
- School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - John J Cole
- School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Lorna Hayden
- School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Diana Arseni
- School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Friedrich Schwarz
- Institute for Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Junker
- Institute for Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Neuropathology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Julia M Edgar
- School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sebastian Kügler
- Institute for Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Center Nanoscale Microscopy and Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Neef
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, Göttingen, Germany
- Göttingen Campus Institute for Dynamics of Biological Networks, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Fred Wolf
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, Göttingen, Germany
- Göttingen Campus Institute for Dynamics of Biological Networks, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, Göttingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Multiscale Bioimaging: From Molecular Machines to Network of Excitable Cells (MBExC), University of Goettingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christine Stadelmann
- Institute for Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Multiscale Bioimaging: From Molecular Machines to Network of Excitable Cells (MBExC), University of Goettingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Ornitz DM, Itoh N. New developments in the biology of fibroblast growth factors. WIREs Mech Dis 2022; 14:e1549. [PMID: 35142107 PMCID: PMC10115509 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family is composed of 18 secreted signaling proteins consisting of canonical FGFs and endocrine FGFs that activate four receptor tyrosine kinases (FGFRs 1-4) and four intracellular proteins (intracellular FGFs or iFGFs) that primarily function to regulate the activity of voltage-gated sodium channels and other molecules. The canonical FGFs, endocrine FGFs, and iFGFs have been reviewed extensively by us and others. In this review, we briefly summarize past reviews and then focus on new developments in the FGF field since our last review in 2015. Some of the highlights in the past 6 years include the use of optogenetic tools, viral vectors, and inducible transgenes to experimentally modulate FGF signaling, the clinical use of small molecule FGFR inhibitors, an expanded understanding of endocrine FGF signaling, functions for FGF signaling in stem cell pluripotency and differentiation, roles for FGF signaling in tissue homeostasis and regeneration, a continuing elaboration of mechanisms of FGF signaling in development, and an expanding appreciation of roles for FGF signaling in neuropsychiatric diseases. This article is categorized under: Cardiovascular Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Neurological Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Congenital Diseases > Stem Cells and Development Cancer > Stem Cells and Development.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Nobuyuki Itoh
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
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Gupta R, Ambasta RK, Pravir Kumar. Autophagy and apoptosis cascade: which is more prominent in neuronal death? Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:8001-8047. [PMID: 34741624 PMCID: PMC11072037 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-04004-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy and apoptosis are two crucial self-destructive processes that maintain cellular homeostasis, which are characterized by their morphology and regulated through signal transduction mechanisms. These pathways determine the fate of cellular organelle and protein involved in human health and disease such as neurodegeneration, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Cell death pathways share common molecular mechanisms, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, calcium ion concentration, reactive oxygen species, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Some key signaling molecules such as p53 and VEGF mediated angiogenic pathway exhibit cellular and molecular responses resulting in the triggering of apoptotic and autophagic pathways. Herein, based on previous studies, we describe the intricate relation between cell death pathways through their common genes and the role of various stress-causing agents. Further, extensive research on autophagy and apoptotic machinery excavates the implementation of selective biomarkers, for instance, mTOR, Bcl-2, BH3 family members, caspases, AMPK, PI3K/Akt/GSK3β, and p38/JNK/MAPK, in the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. This molecular phenomenon will lead to the discovery of possible therapeutic biomolecules as a pharmacological intervention that are involved in the modulation of apoptosis and autophagy pathways. Moreover, we describe the potential role of micro-RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and biomolecules as therapeutic agents that regulate cell death machinery to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Mounting evidence demonstrated that under stress conditions, such as calcium efflux, endoplasmic reticulum stress, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and oxidative stress intermediate molecules, namely p53 and VEGF, activate and cause cell death. Further, activation of p53 and VEGF cause alteration in gene expression and dysregulated signaling pathways through the involvement of signaling molecules, namely mTOR, Bcl-2, BH3, AMPK, MAPK, JNK, and PI3K/Akt, and caspases. Alteration in gene expression and signaling cascades cause neurotoxicity and misfolded protein aggregates, which are characteristics features of neurodegenerative diseases. Excessive neurotoxicity and misfolded protein aggregates lead to neuronal cell death by activating death pathways like autophagy and apoptosis. However, autophagy has a dual role in the apoptosis pathways, i.e., activation and inhibition of the apoptosis signaling. Further, micro-RNAs and LncRNAs act as pharmacological regulators of autophagy and apoptosis cascade, whereas, natural compounds and chemical compounds act as pharmacological inhibitors that rescue neuronal cell death through inhibition of apoptosis and autophagic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan Gupta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Mechanical Engineering Building, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Room# FW4TF3, Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi, 110042, India
| | - Rashmi K Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Mechanical Engineering Building, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Room# FW4TF3, Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi, 110042, India
| | - Pravir Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Mechanical Engineering Building, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Room# FW4TF3, Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi, 110042, India.
- , Delhi, India.
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Lee TH, Christie BR, van Praag H, Lin K, Siu PMF, Xu A, So KF, Yau SY. AdipoRon Treatment Induces a Dose-Dependent Response in Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2068. [PMID: 33669795 PMCID: PMC7922380 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22042068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
AdipoRon, an adiponectin receptor agonist, elicits similar antidiabetic, anti-atherogenic, and anti-inflammatory effects on mouse models as adiponectin does. Since AdipoRon can cross the blood-brain barrier, its chronic effects on regulating hippocampal function are yet to be examined. This study investigated whether AdipoRon treatment promotes hippocampal neurogenesis and spatial recognition memory in a dose-dependent manner. Adolescent male C57BL/6J mice received continuous treatment of either 20 mg/kg (low dose) or 50 mg/kg (high dose) AdipoRon or vehicle intraperitoneally for 14 days, followed by the open field test to examine anxiety and locomotor activity, and the Y maze test to examine hippocampal-dependent spatial recognition memory. Immunopositive cell markers of neural progenitor cells, immature neurons, and newborn cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus were quantified. Immunosorbent assays were used to measure the serum levels of factors that can regulate hippocampal neurogenesis, including adiponectin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and corticosterone. Our results showed that 20 mg/kg AdipoRon treatment significantly promoted hippocampal cell proliferation and increased serum levels of adiponectin and BDNF, though there were no effects on spatial recognition memory and locomotor activity. On the contrary, 50 mg/kg AdipoRon treatment impaired spatial recognition memory, suppressed cell proliferation, neuronal differentiation, and cell survival associated with reduced serum levels of BDNF and adiponectin. The results suggest that a low-dose AdipoRon treatment promotes hippocampal cell proliferation, while a high-dose AdipoRon treatment is detrimental to the hippocampus function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas H. Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong;
| | - Brian R. Christie
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada;
| | - Henriette van Praag
- FAU Brain Institute and Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33431, USA;
| | - Kangguang Lin
- Department of Affective Disorder, Guangzhou Brain Hospital, The Brain Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510370, China;
| | - Parco Ming-Fai Siu
- Division of Kinesiology, School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong;
| | - Aimin Xu
- Department of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong;
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- The State Key Laboratory of Pharmacology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Kwok-Fai So
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China;
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Suk-yu Yau
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong;
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Wang XQ, Tang YH, Zeng GR, Wu LF, Zhou YJ, Cheng ZN, Jiang DJ. Carnosic acid alleviates depression-like behaviors on chronic mild stressed mice via PPAR-γ-dependent regulation of ADPN/FGF9 pathway. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:501-516. [PMID: 33161473 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05699-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The pathway of adiponectin (ADPN)/fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9) was recently thought as a key role in the development of depression. ADPN is crucially regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ). Natural material carnosic acid (CA) has been applied for therapeutics of mental disorders. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the antidepressive effect of CA in stress-treated mice and define whether its effects is involved in the regulation of ADPN/FGF9 pathway. METHODS In vivo study, the levels of ADPN and FGF9 in both serum and hippocampus tissues, the expressions of ADPN receptor 2 (AdipoR2) in hippocampus and PPAR-γ in abdominal adipose, as well as the pathological changes of hippocampus were determined in 28-day period of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced depression model of male ICR (Institute of Cancer Research) mice or adipo-/- mice. In vitro study, the level of ADPN and the mRNA expressions of both ADPN and PPAR-γ were determined in mouse 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. RESULTS In vivo study, treatment with CA (50 or 100 mg/kg per day) for 21 days markedly suppressed depressive-like behaviors, the elevating levels of FGF9 and decreasing levels of ADPN in both serum and hippocampus tissues, the downregulating protein and mRNA expressions of AdipoR2 in hippocampus and PPAR-γ in abdominal adipose, as well as the pathological injury of hippocampus induced by CUMS in male ICR mice. The antidepressive effects of CA were markedly attenuated in male CUMS-treated adipo-/- mice. In vitro study, incubation with CA (3-30 μmol/L) for 24 h could concentration-dependently upregulate the mRNA expressions of both PPAR-γ and ADPN as well as increase the level of ADPN. The experiments using PPAR-γ-specific inhibitor GW9662 and transient transfection with mutated PPAR-γ-binding site promotor constructs showed that the activation of PPAR-γ mediated CA-induced ADPN expression in adipocytes. CONCLUSIONS CA could significantly improve stress-induced depressive disorder, which may be related to regulating the dysfunction of ADPN-FGF9 pathway via activating PPAR-γ in adipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qing Wang
- XiangYa Pharmacy School, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China.,Hunan Center for Safety Evaluation and Research of Drugs & Hunan Key Laboratory for Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs, Changsha, 410013, China
| | - Ya-Hui Tang
- Hunan Center for Safety Evaluation and Research of Drugs & Hunan Key Laboratory for Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs, Changsha, 410013, China
| | - Gui-Rong Zeng
- Hunan Center for Safety Evaluation and Research of Drugs & Hunan Key Laboratory for Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs, Changsha, 410013, China
| | - Li-Feng Wu
- Hunan Center for Safety Evaluation and Research of Drugs & Hunan Key Laboratory for Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs, Changsha, 410013, China
| | - Ying-Jun Zhou
- XiangYa Pharmacy School, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Ze-Neng Cheng
- XiangYa Pharmacy School, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China.
| | - De-Jian Jiang
- Hunan Center for Safety Evaluation and Research of Drugs & Hunan Key Laboratory for Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs, Changsha, 410013, China.
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Expression of fibroblast growth factor 9 and its receptors in the dentate gyrus of hippocampus in poststroke depression rats. Neuroreport 2021; 32:321-325. [PMID: 33470768 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000001591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Studies have found that fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9) might have a negative effect in the psychiatric diseases, such as depression or anxiety, but its potential role in the pathophysiology of poststroke depression (PSD) remains uncertain. Here, we set out to investigate the expression changes of FGF9 and its receptors in PSD rats. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) combined with chronic unpredictable mild stress was used to establish the PSD rat model. Then, the rats were randomly divided into four groups: control (sham-operation), MCAO, PSD and treated (fluoxetine injection by intraperitoneal). Weight measurement, sucrose preference test, open-field test and forced swim test were performed to evaluate the behavioral changes, and then Western blot and real-time quantitative PCR were used to detect the expression level of FGF9, fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) and receptor 3 (FGFR3) in the dentate gyrus of rat hippocampus. We found that FGF9 protein and mRNA expression increased significantly in the MCAO and PSD groups; FGFR3 protein and mRNA expression decreased significantly in the MCAO and PSD groups; FGFR1 protein and mRNA expression decreased significantly in the PSD group, but increased in the treated group. Furthermore, the changes mentioned above were reversed obviously by fluoxetine. These results indicated that upregulated FGF9 expression and downregulated FGFR1 and FGFR3 expression may be involved in the pathogenesis of PSD, and the FGF9/FGFR signaling pathway may be considered as an attractive target for further study.
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Azhar M, Zeng G, Ahmed A, Dar Farooq A, Choudhary MI, De-Jiang J, Liu X. Carnosic acid ameliorates depressive-like symptoms along with the modulation of FGF9 in the hippocampus of middle carotid artery occlusion-induced Sprague Dawley rats. Phytother Res 2020; 35:384-391. [PMID: 32779789 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The increased survival rate of stroke patients has led to the higher incidences of post-stroke depression. Carnosic acid has the ability to cross blood brain barrier with good neuro-modulatory actions. Recently, inclined level of fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9) in the postmortem brain of the depressed patients was noted. Therefore, in the present study, the effect of carnosic acid on post-stroke depression-like behavior, and the expression of FGF9 were evaluated. After 3 weeks of middle carotid artery occlusion in Sprague Dawley rats, carnosic acid (20 and 40 mg/kg) was administered for 2 weeks. Sucrose preference test, forced swimming test, and open field test were performed and hippocampi were analyzed for FGF9 and FGFR-3. In comparison to post-stroke depressed rats, carnosic acid increased the sucrose preference, and reduced the immobility time of the rats by ~2×. The speed and distance-covered were also increased. At 40 mg/kg, FGF9 was reduced by ~3× while FGFR-3/Actin was increased by ~1.5×. Altogether results suggest anti-depressant-like activity of carnosic acid in post-stroke depressed rats with decreased expression of hippocampal FGF9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mudassar Azhar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, China.,Dr. Panjwani Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, International Center for Chemical and Biological Center, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Guirong Zeng
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, China.,Research Center for Pharmacology & Toxicology, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Ayaz Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, China.,Dr. Panjwani Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, International Center for Chemical and Biological Center, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Ahsana Dar Farooq
- Hamdard Al-Majeed College of Eastern Medicine, Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad I Choudhary
- Dr. Panjwani Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, International Center for Chemical and Biological Center, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jiang De-Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, China
| | - Xinmin Liu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamics and Safety Evaluation of New Drugs & Hunan Provincial Research Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, Changsha, China.,Research Center for Pharmacology & Toxicology, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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