Banana starch nanocomposite with cellulose nanofibers isolated from banana peel by enzymatic treatment: In vitro cytotoxicity assessment

Enhancing cannabidiol bioaccessibility using ionic liquid as emulsifier to produce nanosystems: Characterization of structures, cytotoxicity assessment, and in vitro digestion

The emulsifying potential of a biocompatible ionic liquid (IL) to produce lipid-based nanosystems developed to enhance the bioaccessibility of cannabidiol (CBD) was investigated. The IL (cholinium oleate) was evaluated at concentrations of 1 % and 2 % to produce nanoemulsions (NE-IL) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC-IL) loaded with CBD. The IL concentration of 1 % demonstrated to be sufficient to produce both NE-IL and NLC-IL with excellent stability properties, entrapment efficiency superior to 99 %, and CBD retention rate of 100 % during the storage period evaluated (i.e. 28 days at 25 °C). The in vitro digestion evaluation demonstrated that the NLC-IL provided a higher stability to the CBD, while the NE-IL improved the CBD bioaccessibility, which was mainly related to the composition of the lipid matrices used to obtain each nanosystem. Finally, it was observed that the CBD cytotoxicity was reduced when the compound was entrapped into both nanosystems.

Improving the Properties of Gelatin-Based Films by Incorporation of "Pitanga" Leaf Extract and Crystalline Nanocellulose

Biopolymer-based films can be activated by the incorporation of active compounds into their matrix. Plant extracts are rich in phenolic compounds, which have antimicrobial and/or antioxidant properties. The aim of this study was to produce gelatin-based active films and nanocomposite films incorporated with "pitanga" (Eugenia uniflora L.) leaf extract (PLE) and/or crystalline nanocellulose extracted from soybean straw (CN), and to study the physicochemical, functional, microstructural, thermal, UV/Vis light barrier, and antioxidant properties of these materials. PLE enhanced some film properties, such as tensile strength (from 30.2 MPa to 40.6 MPa), elastic modulus (from 9.3 MPa to 11.3 MPa), the UV/Vis light barrier, and antioxidant activity, in addition to affecting the microstructural, surface, and color properties. These improvements were even more significant in nanocomposites simultaneously containing PLE and CN (59.5 MPa for tensile strength and 15.1 MPa for elastic modulus), and these composites also had lower moisture content (12.2% compared to 13.5-14.4% for other treatments) and solubility in water (from 48.9% to 44.1%). These improvements may be the result of interactions that occur between PLE's polyphenols and gelatin, mainly in the presence of CN, probably due to the formation of a stable PLE-CN-gelatin complex. These results are relevant for the food packaging sector, as the activated nanocomposite films exhibited enhanced active, barrier, and mechanical properties due to the presence of PLE and CN, in addition to being entirely produced with sustainable components from natural and renewable sources.

Preparation, characterization, and evaluation of ketoconazole-loaded pineapple cellulose green nanofiber gel

The present study involves the isolation of cellulose nanofibers from pineapple crown waste by a combined alkali-acid treatment method. The extracted pineapple nanofibers were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering. The extracted pineapple nanofibers were then incorporated in Carbopol 934P containing ketoconazole to prepare a ketoconazole-loaded pineapple nanofibrous gel. The prepared gel formulation was evaluated for viscosity, spreadability, extrudibility, pH, drug content, and texture profile analysis. The anticipated gel formulation was further evaluated by in vitro drug release (98.57 ± 0.58 %), ex vivo drug permeation, cytotoxicity, and histopathological studies. The permeation of the drug through skin determined by the ex-vivo diffusion study was found to be 38.27 % with a flux rate of 4.06 ± 0.26 μg/cm2/h. Further, the cytotoxicity study of pineapple nanofiber and ketoconazole-loaded nanofiber gel displayed no cytotoxic on healthy vero cells in the concentration range from 10 to 80 μg/ml. The histopathological analysis exhibited no signs of distress and inflammation. In conclusion, ketoconazole-loaded pineapple nanofiber gel could be considered as a promising delivery system for topical applications.

Biotechnological innovations in nanocellulose production from waste biomass with a focus on pineapple waste

New materials' synthesis and utilization have shown many critical challenges in healthcare and other industrial sectors as most of these materials are directly or indirectly developed from fossil fuel resources. Environmental regulations and sustainability concepts have promoted the use of natural compounds with unique structures and properties that can be biodegradable, biocompatible, and eco-friendly. In this context, nanocellulose (NC) utility in different sectors and industries is reported due to their unique properties including biocompatibility and antimicrobial characteristics. The bacterial nanocellulose (BNC)-based materials have been synthesized by bacterial cells and extracted from plant waste materials including pineapple plant waste biomass. These materials have been utilized in the form of nanofibers and nanocrystals. These materials are found to have excellent surface properties, low density, and good transparency, and are rich in hydroxyl groups for their modifications to other useful products. These materials are well utilized in different sectors including biomedical or health care centres, nanocomposite materials, supercapacitors, and polymer matrix production. This review explores different approaches for NC production from pineapple waste residues using biotechnological interventions, approaches for their modification, and wider applications in different sectors. Recent technological developments in NC production by enzymatic treatment are critically discussed. The utilization of pineapple waste-derived NC from a bioeconomic perspective is summarized in the paper. The chemical composition and properties of nanocellulose extracted from pineapple waste may have unique characteristics compared to other sources. Pineapple waste for nanocellulose production aligns with the principles of sustainability, waste reduction, and innovation, making it a promising and novel approach in the field of nanocellulose materials.

Recent preparation, modification and application progress of starch nanocrystals: A review

Due to the advantages of wide sources, high biocompatibility and favorable biodegradability, starch nanocrystals (SNCs) have gradually attracted attention and have bright development prospects in food, agriculture, materials, medicine and other fields. However, the traditional preparation method of SNCs is time-consuming and inefficient, and the physicochemical properties cannot fully meet the needs of multiple applications. Fortunately, the unique onion-like structure of starch granules and the large number of hydroxyl groups present on the surface entitle SNCs to efficient preparation and modification. This paper comprehensively reviewed the improvement methods of SNCs preparation process in recent years, and the advantages and disadvantages of the two improvement strategies were compared. Besides, the importance of introducing different pretreatment methods into the SNCs preparation process was emphasized. It also focused on the different modification treatment and application progress of SNCs, especially in the starch-based surface coating of fruits and vegetables. The information will contribute to further improve the preparation efficiency and physicochemical properties of SNCs, and ultimately expand the application field.

Assessing the Genotoxicity of Cellulose Nanomaterials in a Co-Culture of Human Lung Epithelial Cells and Monocyte-Derived Macrophages

Cellulose micro/nanomaterials (CMNMs) are innovative materials with a wide spectrum of industrial and biomedical applications. Although cellulose has been recognized as a safe material, the unique properties of its nanosized forms have raised concerns about their safety for human health. Genotoxicity is an endpoint that must be assessed to ensure that no carcinogenic risks are associated with exposure to nanomaterials. In this study, we evaluated the genotoxicity of two types of cellulose micro/nanofibrils (CMF and CNF) and one sample of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), obtained from industrial bleached Eucalyptus globulus kraft pulp. For that, we exposed co-cultures of human alveolar epithelial A549 cells and THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages to a concentration range of each CMNM and used the micronucleus (MN) and comet assays. Our results showed that only the lowest concentrations of the CMF sample were able to induce DNA strand breaks (FPG-comet assay). However, none of the three CMNMs produced significant chromosomal alterations (MN assay). These findings, together with results from previous in vitro studies using monocultures of A549 cells, indicate that the tested CNF and CNC are not genotoxic under the conditions tested, while the CMF display a low genotoxic potential.

Unveiling the Potential of Marine Biopolymers: Sources, Classification, and Diverse Food Applications

Environmental concerns regarding the usage of nonrenewable materials are driving up the demand for biodegradable marine biopolymers. Marine biopolymers are gaining increasing attention as sustainable alternatives in various industries, including the food sector. This review article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of marine biopolymers and their applications in the food industry. Marine sources are given attention as innovative resources for the production of sea-originated biopolymers, such as agar, alginate, chitin/chitosan, and carrageenan, which are safe, biodegradable, and are widely employed in a broad spectrum of industrial uses. This article begins by discussing the diverse source materials of marine biopolymers, which encompass biopolymers derived from seaweed and marine animals. It explores the unique characteristics and properties of these biopolymers, highlighting their potential for food applications. Furthermore, this review presents a classification of marine biopolymers, categorizing them based on their chemical composition and structural properties. This classification provides a framework for understanding the versatility and functionality of different marine biopolymers in food systems. This article also delves into the various food applications of marine biopolymers across different sectors, including meat, milk products, fruits, and vegetables. Thus, the motive of this review article is to offer a brief outline of (a) the source materials of marine biopolymers, which incorporates marine biopolymers derived from seaweed and marine animals, (b) a marine biopolymer classification, and (c) the various food applications in different food systems such as meat, milk products, fruits, and vegetables.

Development and Characterization of Biosorbent Film from Eggshell/Orange Waste Enriched with Banana Starch

The conversion of waste into a valuable product is regarded as a promising alternative to relieving the burden of solid waste management and could be beneficial to the environment and humans. This study is focused on utilizing eggshell and orange peel enriched with banana starch to fabricate biofilm via the casting technique. The developed film is further characterized by field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The physical properties of films, including thickness, density, color, porosity, moisture content, water solubility, water absorption, and water vapor permeability, were also characterized. The removal efficiency of the metal ions onto film at different contact times, pH, biosorbent dosages, and initial concentration of Cd(II) were analyzed using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The film's surface was found to have a porous and rough structure with no cracks, which can enhance the target analytes interactions. EDX and XRD analyses confirmed that eggshell particles were made of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), and the appearance of the main peak at 2θ = 29.65° and 2θ = 29.49° proves the presence of calcite in eggshells. The FTIR indicated that the films contain various functional groups, such as alkane (C-H), hydroxyl (-OH), carbonyl (C=O), carbonate (CO₃^2-), and carboxylic acid (-COOH) that can act as biosorption materials. According to the findings, the developed film exhibits a notable enhancement in its water barrier properties, thereby leading to improved adsorption capacity. The batch experiments showed that the film obtained the maximum removal percentage at pH = 8 and 6 g of biosorbent dose. Notably, the developed film could reach sorption equilibrium within 120 min at the initial concentration of 80 mg/L and remove 99.95% of Cd(II) in the aqueous solutions. This outcome presents potential opportunities for the application of these films in the food industry as both biosorbents and packaging materials. Such utilization can significantly enhance the overall quality of food products.

Biopolymers as green-based food packaging materials: A focus on modified and unmodified starch-based films

The ideal food packaging materials are recyclable, biodegradable, and compostable. Starch from plant sources, such as tubers, legumes, cereals, and agro-industrial plant residues, is considered one of the most suitable biopolymers for producing biodegradable films due to its natural abundance and low cost. The chemical modification of starch makes it possible to produce films with better technological properties by changing the functional groups into starch. Using biopolymers extracted from agro-industrial waste can add value to a raw material that would otherwise be discarded. The recent COVID-19 pandemic has driven a rise in demand for single-use plastics, intensifying pressure on this already out-of-control issue. This review provides an overview of biopolymers, with a particular focus on starch, to develop sustainable materials for food packaging. This study summarizes the methods and provides a potential approach to starch modification for improving the mechanical and barrier properties of starch-based films. This review also updates some trends pointed out by the food packaging sector in the last years, considering the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Perspectives to achieve more sustainable food packaging toward a more circular economy are drawn.

Potential issues specific to cytotoxicity tests of cellulose nanofibrils

Cellulose nanofibrils (also called cellulose nanofibers or nanofibrillated cellulose [CNFs]) are novel polymers derived from biomass with excellent physicochemical properties and various potential applications. However, the introduction of such new materials into the market requires thorough safety studies to be conducted. Recently, toxicity testing using cultured cells has attracted attention as a safety assessment that does not rely on experimental animals. This article reviews recent information regarding the cytotoxicity testing of CNFs and highlights the issues relevant to evaluating tests. In the literature, we found that a variety of cell lines and CNF exposure concentrations was evaluated. Furthermore, the results of cytotoxicity results tests differed and were not necessarily consistent. Numerous reports that we examined had not evaluated endotoxin/microbial contamination or the interaction of CNFs with the culture medium used in the tests. The following potential specific issues involved in CNF in vitro testing, were discussed: (1) endotoxin contamination, (2) microbial contamination, (3) adsorption of culture medium components to CNFs, and (4) changes in aggregation/agglomeration and dispersion states of CNFs resulting from culture medium components. In this review, the available measurement methods and solutions for these issues are also discussed. Addressing these points will lead to a better understanding of the cellular effects of CNFs and the development of safer CNFs.

Novel pectin-based nanocomposite film for active food packaging applications

Novel pectin-based films reinforced with crystalline nanocellulose (CNC) and activated with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were prepared by solvent-casting method. Film ingredients enhanced UV-blocking, thermal, and antibacterial properties of active films against well-known foodborne pathogens. Optimal active films exhibited higher mechanical, water vapor barrier properties compared to pristine pectin films. SEM confirmed the even distribution of CNC and ZnO NPs in pectin matrix and their interactions were proven using FTIR. Wrapping hard cheese samples artificially contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica with the ternary nanocomposite film at 7 °C for 5 days significantly reduced the total population counts by at least 1.02 log CFU/g. Zn²⁺ migrating to wrapped cheese samples was below the specific limit (5 mg/kg), confirming their safety for food contact. Overall, ZnO/CNC/pectin nanocomposite films represent promising candidates for active food packaging as safe, eco-friendly alternatives for synthetic packaging materials.

Optimization of the Formulation of Sago Starch Edible Coatings Incorporated with Nano Cellulose Fiber (CNF)

This study aimed to produce new edible coatings based on the mixture of sago starch, cellulose nanofiber (CNF), glycerol, and tween-80.The effect of sago starch (5–10 g of starch/100 ml of distilled water), CNF (0.5–20% w/w), glycerol (10–30% w/w), and tween-80 (0.5–10% w/w) based on sago starch concentration on contact angle (CA), water vapor permeability (WVP), oxygen permeability (PO2) and tensile strength (TS) properties of the edible coatings were optimized using factorial experimental design (2k).The result showed that the linear model for all independent variables was significant (<i>P</i><0.05) on all responses (dependent variable).The sago starch concentration depicted a significant (p < 0.001) positive effect on contact angle; CNF showed a statistically significant effect on WVP, PO2, and TS; tween-80 showed a significant effect on all dependent variables, whereas glycerol only affected WVP. The optimum concentrations of sago starch, CNF, glycerol, and tween-80 were predicted to be 5 g/100 ml distilled water, 20% w/w, 10% w/w, and 0.5% w/w based on sago starch, respectively to obtain the minimum contact angle, WVP, PO2, and the maximum TS. The predicted data for the optimized coating formulation were in good agreement with the experimental value. This work revealed that the potential of sago starch/CNF based coating formulation could be effectively produced and successfully applied for coating of food.

Toxicological Assessment of Cellulose Nanomaterials: Oral Exposure

Cellulose nanomaterials (CNMs) have emerged recently as an important group of sustainable bio-based nanomaterials (NMs) with potential applications in multiple sectors, including the food, food packaging, and biomedical fields. The widening of these applications leads to increased human oral exposure to these NMs and, potentially, to adverse health outcomes. Presently, the potential hazards regarding oral exposure to CNMs are insufficiently characterised. There is a need to understand and manage the potential adverse effects that might result from the ingestion of CNMs before products using CNMs reach commercialisation. This work reviews the potential applications of CNMs in the food and biomedical sectors along with the existing toxicological in vitro and in vivo studies, while also identifying current knowledge gaps. Relevant considerations when performing toxicological studies following oral exposure to CNMs are highlighted. An increasing number of studies have been published in the last years, overall showing that ingested CNMs are not toxic to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), suggestive of the biocompatibility of the majority of the tested CNMs. However, in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity studies, as well as long-term carcinogenic or reproductive toxicity studies, are not yet available. These studies are needed to support a wider use of CNMs in applications that can lead to human oral ingestion, thereby promoting a safe and sustainable-by-design approach.

Use of carbohydrate-directed enzymes for the potential exploitation of sugarcane bagasse to obtain value-added biotechnological products

Microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria, are crucial players in the production of enzymatic cocktails for biomass hydrolysis or the bioconversion of plant biomass into products with industrial relevance. The biotechnology industry can exploit lignocellulosic biomass for the production of high-value chemicals. The generation of biotechnological products from lignocellulosic feedstock presents several bottlenecks, including low efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis, high cost of enzymes, and limitations on microbe metabolic performance. Genetic engineering offers a route for developing improved microbial strains for biotechnological applications in high-value product biosynthesis. Sugarcane bagasse, for example, is an agro-industrial waste that is abundantly produced in sugar and first-generation processing plants. Here, we review the potential conversion of its feedstock into relevant industrial products via microbial production and discuss the advances that have been made in improving strains for biotechnological applications.

Thermoplastic starch nanocomposites: sources, production and applications - a review

The development of materials based on thermoplastic starch (TPS) is an excellent alternative to replace or reduce the use of petroleum-derived polymers. The abundance, renewable origin, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low cost of starch are among the advantages related to the application of TPS compared to other thermoplastic biopolymers. However, through the literature review, it was possible to observe the need to improve some properties, to allow TPS to replace commonly used polyolefins. The studies reviewed achieved these modifications were achieved by using plasticizers, adjusting processing conditions, and incorporating fillers. In this sense, the addition of nanofillers proved to be the main modification strategy due to the large number of available nanofillers and the low charge concentration required for such improvement. The improvement can be seen in thermal, mechanical, electrical, optical, magnetic, antimicrobial, barrier, biocompatibility, cytotoxicity, solubility, and swelling properties. These modification strategies, the reviewed studies described the development of a wide range of materials. These are products with great potential for targeting different applications. Thus, this review addresses a wide range of essential aspects in developing of this type of nanocomposite. Covering from starch sources, processing routes, characterization methods, the properties of the obtained nanocomposites, to the various applications. Therefore, this review will provide an overview for everyone interested in working with TPS nanocomposites. Through a comprehensive review of the subject, which in most studies is done in a way directed to a specific area of study.

Active Composite Packaging Reinforced with Nisin-Loaded Nano-Vesicles for Extended Shelf Life of Chicken Breast Filets and Cheese Slices

To meet the demands for more effective and ecofriendly food packaging strategies, the potential of nisin-loaded rhamnolipid functionalized nanofillers (rhamnosomes) has been explored after embedding in hydroxypropyl-methylcellulose (HPMC) and κ-carrageenan (κ-CR)-based packaging films. It was observed that intrinsically active rhamnosomes based nanofillers greatly improved the mechanical and optical properties of nano-active packaging (NAP) films. Incorporation of rhamnosomes resulted in higher tensile strength (5.16 ± 0.06 MPa), Young’s modulus (2777 ± 0.77 MPa), and elongation (2.58 ± 0.03%) for NAP than active packaging containing free nisin (2.96 ± 0.03 MPa, 1107 ± 0.67 MPa, 1.48 ± 0.06%, respectively). NAP demonstrated a homogenous distribution of nanofillers in the biopolymer matrix as elucidated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) confirmed that NAP prepared with nisin-loaded rhamnosomes was thermally stable even above 200 °C. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses revealed that addition of nisin in nanofillers resulted in a slight increase in Tg (108.40 °C), indicating thermal stability of NAP. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed slight shift in all characteristic bands of nano-active packaging, which indicated the embedding of rhamnosomes inside the polymer network without any chemical interaction. Finally, when tested on chicken breast filets and cheese slices under refrigerated storage conditions, NAP demonstrated broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity (up to 4.5 log unit reduction) and inhibited the growth of Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. These results suggest that HPMC and κ-CR-based NAP containing functionalized nanofillers can serve as an innovative packaging material for the food industry to improve the safety, quality, and shelf-life of dairy and meat products.

Analysis of the In Vitro Toxicity of Nanocelluloses in Human Lung Cells as Compared to Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Cellulose micro/nanomaterials (CMNM), comprising cellulose microfibrils (CMF), nanofibrils (CNF), and nanocrystals (CNC), are being recognized as promising bio-nanomaterials due to their natural and renewable source, attractive properties, and potential for applications with industrial and economical value. Thus, it is crucial to investigate their potential toxicity before starting their production at a larger scale. The present study aimed at evaluating the cell internalization and in vitro cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of CMNM as compared to two multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), NM-401 and NM-402, in A549 cells. The exposure to all studied NM, with the exception of CNC, resulted in evident cellular uptake, as analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. However, none of the CMNM induced cytotoxic effects, in contrast to the cytotoxicity observed for the MWCNT. Furthermore, no genotoxicity was observed for CNF, CNC, and NM-402 (cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay), while CMF and NM-401 were able to significantly raise micronucleus frequency. Only NM-402 was able to induce ROS formation, although it did not induce micronuclei. Thus, it is unlikely that the observed CMF and NM-401 genotoxicity is mediated by oxidative DNA damage. More studies targeting other genotoxicity endpoints and cellular and molecular events are underway to allow for a more comprehensive safety assessment of these nanocelluloses.

Quality assessment of lemon (Citrus aurantifolia, swingle) coated with self-healed multilayer films based on chitosan/carboxymethyl cellulose under cold storage conditions

The polyelectrolyte multilayer self-healing coating film of chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose (PEM-SH) tended to maintain high sensory quality and control physiological and pathological decay of lemon fruits under cold storage. The PEM-SH film was characterized by ATR-IR, XRD, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, SEM analysis, swelling ratio, self-healing, and mechanical characteristics. The 3-layered film (3L) exhibited the optimum barrier properties; WVP: 3.32 ± 0.06 g. mm. k Pa^-1.h^-1.m^-2 and GTR: 0.256 ± 0.032 cc.M^-2.day^-1. The moisture sorption isotherm data were fitted with BET, GAB, and Peleg models and three models showed applicability. The coated fruits exhibit superior features of fruit quality such as reduced weight loss %, respiration rate, and decay symptoms appearance. The 3L-coated fruit showed the lower pectinase enzyme activity (0.689 Ug^-1 FW) up to 60 days. As well as, increased total soluble solids, keeping vitamin C of loss and decreasing percentage acidity of juice up to 60 days.

Bio-packaging based on cellulose acetate from banana pseudostem and containing Butia catarinensis extracts

Banana (Musa acuminata) pseudostem cellulose was extracted and acetylated (CA) to prepare membranes with potential use as bio-packages. The CA membrane was embedded by Butia seed (CA-BS) or Butia pulp (CA-BP) extracts obtained from Butia catarinenses (Butia). The produced CA, CA-BS, and CA-BP membranes were evaluated for their physical-chemical, mechanical, thermal, and antibacterial properties. The process for obtaining the cellulose yielded a material with about 92.17% cellulose (DS = 2.85). The purity, cellulose degree acetylation, and the incorporation of Butia extracts into the membranes were confirmed by FTIR. The CA-BS and CA-BP membranes showed a smaller contact angle and higher swelling ratio than the CA membrane. Furthermore, Butia seed or pulp extracts reduced the elastic modulus and deformation at break compared to the CA membrane. The DSC analysis suggested the compatibility between sections and the CA matrix, whereas the TGA analysis confirmed the thermal stability of the membranes. Moreover, less than 1% of the Butia seed and pulp extracts were put into a food simulant media from the membrane. Finally, the CA-BS and CA-BP membranes could inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli on their surface, confirming the potential use of these membranes as bio-packaging for food preservation.

Advanced Functional Materials Based on Nanocellulose for Pharmaceutical/Medical Applications

Nanocelluloses (NCs), with their remarkable characteristics, have proven to be one of the most promising "green" materials of our times and have received special attention from researchers in nanomaterials. A diversity of new functional materials with a wide range of biomedical applications has been designed based on the most desirable properties of NCs, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and their special physicochemical properties. In this context and under the pressure of rapid development of this field, it is imperative to synthesize the successes and the new requirements in a comprehensive review. The first part of this work provides a brief review of the characteristics of the NCs (cellulose nanocrystals-CNC, cellulose nanofibrils-CNF, and bacterial nanocellulose-BNC), as well as of the main functional materials based on NCs (hydrogels, nanogels, and nanocomposites). The second part presents an extensive review of research over the past five years on promising pharmaceutical and medical applications of nanocellulose-based materials, which have been discussed in three important areas: drug-delivery systems, materials for wound-healing applications, as well as tissue engineering. Finally, an in-depth assessment of the in vitro and in vivo cytotoxicity of NCs-based materials, as well as the challenges related to their biodegradability, is performed.

Production of Microfibrillated Cellulose from Fast-Growing Poplar and Olive Tree Pruning by Physical Pretreatment

Motivated by the negative impact of fossil fuel consumption on the environment, the need arises to produce materials and energy from renewable sources. Cellulose, the main biopolymer on Earth, plays a key role in this context, serving as a platform for the development of biofuels, chemicals and novel materials. Among the latter, micro- and nanocellulose have been receiving increasing attention in the last few years. Their many attractive properties, i.e., thermal stability, high mechanical resistance, barrier properties, lightweight, optical transparency and ease of chemical modification, allow their use in a wide range of applications, such as paper or polymer reinforcement, packaging, construction, membranes, bioplastics, bioengineering, optics and electronics. In view of the increasing demand for traditional wood pulp (e.g., obtained from eucalypt, birch, pine, spruce) for micro/nanocellulose production, dedicated crops and agricultural residues can be interesting as raw materials for this purpose. This work aims at achieving microfibrillated cellulose production from fast-growing poplar and olive tree pruning using physical pretreatment (PFI refining) before the microfibrillation stage. Both raw materials yielded microfibrillated cellulose with similar properties to that obtained from a commercial industrial eucalypt pulp, producing films with high mechanical properties and low wettability. According to these properties, different applications for cellulose microfibers suspensions and films are discussed.

Cancer Preventive and Therapeutic Potential of Banana and Its Bioactive Constituents: A Systematic, Comprehensive, and Mechanistic Review

Background

The banana (Musa spp.) plant produces elongated and edible fruit. The two main parthenocarpic species of banana are Musa accuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla. There are several health-promoting and disease-preventing effects of Musa accuminata Colla, which are attributed to its important bioactive compounds, including phenolics, carotenoids, biogenic amines, phytosterols, and volatile oils, found in the stem, fruit, pseudostem, leaf, flower, sap, inner trunk, root, and inner core. Banana possesses numerous pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antiulcerogenic, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, leishmanicidal, anthelmintic, and anticancer properties. Various individual studies have reported anticancer effects of different components of the banana plant. However, according to our understanding, an up-to-date, systematic, and critical analysis of existing scientific results has not yet been carried out.

Objectives

This review aims to include a thorough assessment of banana and its phytochemicals for cancer prevention and therapy with a focus on cellular and molecular mechanisms of action.

Methods

The available research studies on anticancer activities of banana extracts, fractions and pure compounds were collected using various scholarly databases, such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Scopus, based on predetermined selection criteria.

Results

Various banana extracts, fractions, and phytoconstituents, including ferulic acid, protocatechualdehyde, 2-pentanone, 4-epicyclomusalenone, cycloeucalenol acetate, and chlorogenic acid, have been shown to exhibit cancer preventative and anticancer activities in breast, cervical, colorectal, esophageal, hepatic, oral, prostate, and skin cancers. Bioactive components present in bananas have exhibited antiproliferative, cell cycle arrest-inducing, apoptotic, anti-adhesive, anti-invasive, and antiangiogenic effects through modulation of diverse, dysregulated oncogenic signaling pathways.

Conclusion

Based on the critical analysis of available literature, banana products and phytoconstituents show enormous potential for future development of drugs for cancer prevention and therapy. However, more mechanistic studies and well-designed clinical trials should be performed to establish its efficacy.

Nanocellulose Production Using Ionic Liquids with Enzymatic Pretreatment

Nanocellulose has gained increasing attention during the past decade, which is related to its unique properties and wide application. In this paper, nanocellulose samples were produced via hydrolysis with ionic liquids (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole acetate (EmimOAc) and 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (AmimCl)) from microcrystalline celluloses (Avicel and Whatman) subjected to enzymatic pretreatment. The obtained material was characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TG). The results showed that the nanocellulose had a regular and spherical structure with diameters of 30-40 nm and exhibited lower crystallinity and thermal stability than the material obtained after hydrolysis with Trichoderma reesei enzymes. However, the enzyme-pretreated Avicel had a particle size of about 200 nm and a cellulose II structure. A two-step process involving enzyme pretreatment and hydrolysis with ionic liquids resulted in the production of nanocellulose. Moreover, the particle size of nanocellulose and its structure depend on the ionic liquid used.

Recent Progress on the Characterization of Cellulose Nanomaterials by Nanoscale Infrared Spectroscopy

Researches of cellulose nanomaterials have seen nearly exponential growth over the past several decades for versatile applications. The characterization of nanostructural arrangement and local chemical distribution is critical to understand their role when developing cellulose materials. However, with the development of current characterization methods, the simultaneous morphological and chemical characterization of cellulose materials at nanoscale resolution is still challenging. Two fundamentally different nanoscale infrared spectroscopic techniques, namely atomic force microscope based infrared spectroscopy (AFM-IR) and infrared scattering scanning near field optical microscopy (IR s-SNOM), have been established by the integration of AFM with IR spectroscopy to realize nanoscale spatially resolved imaging for both morphological and chemical information. This review aims to summarize and highlight the recent developments in the applications of current state-of-the-art nanoscale IR spectroscopy and imaging to cellulose materials. It briefly outlines the basic principles of AFM-IR and IR s-SNOM, as well as their advantages and limitations to characterize cellulose materials. The uses of AFM-IR and IR s-SNOM for the understanding and development of cellulose materials, including cellulose nanomaterials, cellulose nanocomposites, and plant cell walls, are extensively summarized and discussed. The prospects of future developments in cellulose materials characterization are provided in the final part.

Properties of Banana (Cavendish spp.) Starch Film Incorporated with Banana Peel Extract and Its Application

The objective of this study was to develop an active banana starch film (BSF) incorporated with banana peel extract. We compared the film’s properties with commercial wrap film (polyvinyl chloride; PVC). Moreover, a comparison of the quality of minced pork wrapped during refrigerated storage (7 days at ±4 °C) was also performed. The BSF with different concentrations of banana peel extract (0, 1, 3, and 5 (%, w/v)) showed low mechanical properties (tensile strength (TS): 4.43–31.20 MPa and elongation at break (EAB): 9.66–15.63%) and water vapor permeability (3.74–11.0 × 10⁻¹⁰ g mm/sm² Pa). The BSF showed low film solubility (26–41%), but excellent barrier properties to UV light. The BSF had a thickness range of 0.030–0.047 mm, and color attributes were: L* = 49.6–51.1, a* = 0.21–0.43, b* = 1.26–1.49. The BSF incorporated with banana peel extracts 5 (%, w/v) showed the highest radical scavenging activity (97.9%) and inhibitory activity of E. coli O157: H7. The BSF showed some properties comparable to the commercial PVC wrap film. Changes in qualities of minced pork were determined for 7 days during storage at ±4 °C. It was found that thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) of the sample wrapped with the BSF decreased compared to that wrapped with the PVC. The successful inhibition of lipid oxidation in the minced pork was possible with the BSF. The BSF incorporated with banana peel extract could maintain the quality of minced pork in terms of oxidation retardation.

Advancements in applications of nanotechnology in global food industry

Nanotechnology has several applications in food industry and it significantly helps in characterization, fabrication, and manipulation of nanostructures. The nanostructures improve the solubility of food ingredients in vivo, along with enhancement in their bioavailability and controlled release at the target site. These nanostructures also serve as anticaking agents, nano-additives, delivery systems for nutraceuticals, etc. Present study highlights different forms of nanoengineered structures applied in food nanotechnology to tune the characteristics of conventional food ingredients and their applications. Literature survey highlighted the application of various types of nanostructures in the food industry. The study focusses on recent advancements in preparation methods of nanostructures as food additives and packaging stuffs along with pros and cons of their application in food industry. The shortcomings associated to nanotechnology in food science have illustrated along with its tentative future perespective. The impact of eco-toxicity due to application of nanostructures has also been discussed based on recent observations. This can suppressed by the application of bioedible polymers instead of synthetic polymers.

Development of an active packaging system containing zinc oxide nanoparticles for the extension of chicken fillet shelf life

The casting method was employed to prepare gelatin-based nanocomposite films containing different concentrations of cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as a reinforcement filler (2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% w/w of gelatin) as well as zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) as an antimicrobial agent (1%, 3%, 5%, and 7% w/w of gelatin). The results showed that the incorporation of 5% CNFs (optimum concentration) significantly boosted the films' stiffness (YM; by 47%) and strength (TS; by 72%) but decreased its flexibility (EAB; by 28%), water vapor permeability, and moisture absorption. The best G/CNF film antibacterial activity was provided by the 5% concentration of ZnO NPs according to the disk diffusion assay; Gram-positive bacteria were inhibited significantly more than Gram-negative bacteria. The antimicrobial efficacy of the G/CNF/ZnO NPs film as a food packaging material was assessed via counts of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas fluorescens inoculated on chicken fillets (as a food model) in the treatment (G/5% CNF/5% ZnO) and control groups (plastic bag). The antibacterial film led to a significant reduction in the bacterial load of the chicken fillets (p < .05), especially against the Gram-positive strain. This study illustrated that G/CNF/ZnO NPs films can be utilized as active packaging to prolong the shelf life of different perishable foods such as meat.

Facile synthesis and application of cellulosic coagulant from banana peels in cadmium-spiked water

Cellulosic coagulant with low crystallinity and surface charge of -19.2 mV were extracted from wet banana peels (WBE) using kitchen-blending method. Functionalization with ferric chloride and aluminium chloride yielded higher surface charge of -23.8 mV (mWBE). Both WBE and mWBE coagulants were used to target cadmium ions from aqueous solution. Coagulants and the floccules (WBEA and mWBEA) were characterized by XRD, FT-IR, zeta sizer nano series, and SEM/EDs. The amount of cadmium ion coagulated was determined using ICP-OES. The FTIR analysis revealed the functional groups involved in the coordination and subsequent removal of the metals ions around 1634 cm-1, ascribed to the C = O vibrational band of carbonyl group. Microscopic analysis revealed that the mWBE is porous and exhibited microfibers with rod-like morphology. The effects of parameters such as the initial concentration, coagulant dosage and solution pH were investigated. Coagulation results showed that 10 mg of WBE and mWBE could remove about 80% and 90% of the Cd2+ ions respectively. However; the difference in the performance of both materials does not justify the essence of surface modification. Therefore, WBE is considered more efficient and environmentally friendly. Notwithstanding, the performance of these coagulants in real environmental samples will confirm their robustness.

Nanocellulose Production: Exploring the Enzymatic Route and Residues of Pulp and Paper Industry

Increasing environmental and sustainability concerns, caused by current population growth, has promoted a raising utilization of renewable bio-resources for the production of materials and energy. Recently, nanocellulose (NC) has been receiving great attention due to its many attractive features such as non-toxic nature, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, associated with its mechanical properties and those related to its nanoscale, emerging as a promising material in many sectors, namely packaging, regenerative medicine, and electronics, among others. Nanofibers and nanocrystals, derived from cellulose sources, have been mainly produced by mechanical and chemical treatments; however, the use of cellulases to obtain NC attracted much attention due to their environmentally friendly character. This review presents an overview of general concepts in NC production. Especial emphasis is given to enzymatic hydrolysis processes using cellulases and the utilization of pulp and paper industry residues. Integrated process for the production of NC and other high-value products through enzymatic hydrolysis is also approached. Major challenges found in this context are discussed along with its properties, potential application, and future perspectives of the use of enzymatic hydrolysis as a pretreatment in the scale-up of NC production.

Development and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose based probiotic nanocomposite film containing cellulose nanofiber and inulin for chicken fillet shelf life extension

Bioactive packaging is an alternative new technology for preserving the quality and safety of food products with providing health benefits. In this way, the Lactobacillus plantarum, cellulose nanofiber (CNF) and inulin incorporated carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) based probiotic nanocomposite film was prepared. The fabricated film samples were characterized by FTIR, FE-SEM, XRD and DSC analyses, that the obtained results indicated the good compatibility between CMC, CNF, and inulin. As a result, the CMC-based probiotic films containing CNF and inulin exhibited satisfactory water barrier and mechanical properties. Additionally, the viability of probiotic bacteria in the CMC-based films was significantly (p < 0.05) increased (36%) by addition of inulin as a prebiotic ingredient during storage time. Probiotic film sample showed antibacterial activity against nine pathogens and also extended the chicken fillet shelf life when wrapped on the meat. In conclusion, the application of CNF and inulin incorporated CMC-based probiotic nanocomposite film as a bioactive food packaging system opens up a new horizon for improving the shelf life of food products and providing the health benefits for consumers.

Development and characterization of blends formulated with banana peel and banana pulp for the production of blends powders rich in antioxidant properties

The food product industry is increasingly looking for foods with nutritional properties that can provide health benefits. Additionally, a challenge for the food industry is the use of all raw materials. For these reasons, banana peel that is a raw material from Banana (Musa spp.) fruit emerges as potential for new food product development. Here, we developed powder blends using a lyophilization process for the preparation of flour to potential use in cookies, bread, and pasta products. Three formulations were designed; the main difference in the formulations was the use of banana peel concentration. Our results showed that blends produced with banana peel presented physical-chemical properties considered suitable for use in food industry. Moreover, the evaluated morphological parameters reveal the properties of the powders. The blends formulated with banana peel have more antioxidant properties, showing that the banana peel may be an attractive option to generate powders with high antioxidant properties.

Cellulose nanofibers from lignocellulosic biomass of lemongrass using enzymatic hydrolysis: characterization and cytotoxicity assessment

BACKGROUND

The lemongrass (LG) leaves could be a useful source of cellulose after its oil extraction, which is still either dumped or burned, not considered as a cost-effective approach. The synthesis of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) from LG waste has emerged as a beneficial alternative in the value-added applications. The non-toxicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility of CNF have raised the interest in its manufacturing.

METHOD

In the present study, we have isolated and characterized CNFs using enzymatic hydrolysis. We also explored the cytotoxic properties of the final material. The obtained products were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), x-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric/differential thermal gravimetric analysis (TG/DTG). The cytotoxicity of CNF was assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay against three different cancer cell lines NCIH460, PA1, and L132 cells.

RESULTS

The FT-IR results showed that the resulting sample was of cellulose species, and CNF was found free from the non-cellulosic components like lignin and hemicellulose. The SEM micrographs of the cellulose showed a bundle like structure. The TEM micrographs of CNF showed diverse long fibers structure with 105.7 nm particle size analysed using DLS. The TGA analysis revealed that the thermal stability was slightly lower, compared to cellulose. Additionally, CNF did not show the cytotoxic effect at the tested concentrations (~10-1000 μg/ml) in any of the cell lines.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the results concluded that LG waste-derived CNF is a potential sustainable material and could be employed as a favourable reinforcing agent or nanocarriers in diverse areas, mainly in food and drug delivery sectors. Graphical abstract Systematic representation of the synthesis of the cellulose nanofibers: The lignocellulosic waste of lemongrass (after oil extraction) was pretreated for the isolation of raw cellulose, followed by enzyme hydrolysis for the synthesis of pure cellulose nanofibers.

Fermentation of Musa paradisiaca Peels to Produce Citric Acid

Among organic acids, citric acid (CA) features the highest production volume and the greatest economic potential. The steadily increasing demand for CA necessitates the improvement and diversification of the corresponding production techniques via the incorporation of more environmentally friendly and less costly processes such as the bioconversion of agroindustrial by-products. Musa paradisiaca, known as plantain, is a food product of global importance; however, the related by-products are scarcely utilized. Herein, we investigate CA production from M. paradisiaca peels via fermentation with Aspergillus niger. Compositional analysis shows that the above peels contain 623 g·kg−1 total carbohydrates, 374 g·kg−1 starch, and 91 g·kg−1 protein and therefore are rather rich in carbon, with other elements contained in substantial amounts corresponding to K (28 g·kg−1), N (10 g·kg−1), Fe (39 mg·kg−1), Na (71 mg·kg−1), Zn (16 mg·kg−1), and Cu (18 mg·kg−1). Evaluation of solid-substrate fermentation conditions (pH and inoculum loading) reveals that CA production is maximized (29 g·kg−1) at 10% consistency, 30°C, pH 1.4, and inoculum loading = 20 mg, demonstrating that pH is the most important parameter determining fermentation efficiency. As a result, M. paradisiaca peels are concluded to be a suitable substrate for CA biosynthesis via fermentation with A. niger under optimal nutritional conditions.

Chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol nanocomposites with cellulose nanofibers from ginger rhizomes and its antimicrobial activities

The agro-industrial waste obtained after the isolation of bio-constituents from ginger is available in abundance. In the present study, the effective isolation of ginger nanofibers (GNF) was carried out by acid hydrolysis and high pressure homogenization to get cellulose nanofibers with 100 to 200 nm width. Bionanocomposites were also prepared by reinforcing different ratios of (1% to 7%) GNF with chitosan (CS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) matrices by solvent cast method and the 5% GNF with CS and PVA resulted a high mechanical strength composites than others. The surface morphology and structural analysis of the composites were identified by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. The inhibitory effect of 5% GNF bionanocomposites against Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhimurium indicated good antibacterial activity of the nanocomposites due to the addition of GNF in the biopolymer matrices. The use of GNF will help to increase the economic values of agricultural waste and the characteristic properties of GNF derived bionanocomposites could be possibly used in medical and packaging areas.