Discovery and biological characterization of 1-(1H-indol-3-yl)-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole as an aryl hydrocarbon receptor activator generated by photoactivation of tryptophan by sunlight

Uremic toxins mediate kidney diseases: the role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) was originally identified as an environmental sensor that responds to pollutants. Subsequent research has revealed that AhR recognizes multiple exogenous and endogenous molecules, including uremic toxins retained in the body due to the decline in renal function. Therefore, AhR is also considered to be a uremic toxin receptor. As a ligand-activated transcriptional factor, the activation of AhR is involved in cell differentiation and senescence, lipid metabolism and fibrogenesis. The accumulation of uremic toxins in the body is hazardous to all tissues and organs. The identification of the endogenous uremic toxin receptor opens the door to investigating the precise role and molecular mechanism of tissue and organ damage induced by uremic toxins. This review focuses on summarizing recent findings on the role of AhR activation induced by uremic toxins in chronic kidney disease, diabetic nephropathy and acute kidney injury. Furthermore, potential clinical approaches to mitigate the effects of uremic toxins are explored herein, such as enhancing uremic toxin clearance through dialysis, reducing uremic toxin production through dietary interventions or microbial manipulation, and manipulating metabolic pathways induced by uremic toxins through controlling AhR signaling. This information may also shed light on the mechanism of uremic toxin-induced injury to other organs, and provide insights into clinical approaches to manipulate the accumulated uremic toxins.

The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor in the Pathogenesis of Environmentally-Induced Squamous Cell Carcinomas of the Skin

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is one of the most frequent malignancies in humans and academia as well as public authorities expect a further increase of its incidence in the next years. The major risk factor for the development of SCC of the general population is the repeated and unprotected exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Another important risk factor, in particular with regards to occupational settings, is the chronic exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) which are formed during incomplete combustion of organic material and thus can be found in coal tar, creosote, bitumen and related working materials. Importantly, both exposomal factors unleash their carcinogenic potential, at least to some extent, by activating the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). The AHR is a ligand-dependent transcription factor and key regulator in xenobiotic metabolism and immunity. The AHR is expressed in all cutaneous cell-types investigated so far and maintains skin integrity. We and others have reported that in response to a chronic exposure to environmental stressors, in particular UV radiation and PAHs, an activation of AHR and downstream signaling pathways critically contributes to the development of SCC. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about AHR's role in skin carcinogenesis and focus on its impact on defense mechanisms, such as DNA repair, apoptosis and anti-tumor immune responses. In addition, we discuss the possible consequences of a simultaneous exposure to different AHR-stimulating environmental factors for the development of cutaneous SCC.

Role of AHR Ligands in Skin Homeostasis and Cutaneous Inflammation

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is an important regulator of skin barrier function. It also controls immune-mediated skin responses. The AHR modulates various physiological functions by acting as a sensor that mediates environment–cell interactions, particularly during immune and inflammatory responses. Diverse experimental systems have been used to assess the AHR’s role in skin inflammation, including in vitro assays of keratinocyte stimulation and murine models of psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. Similar approaches have addressed the role of AHR ligands, e.g., TCDD, FICZ, and microbiota-derived metabolites, in skin homeostasis and pathology. Tapinarof is a novel AHR-modulating agent that inhibits skin inflammation and enhances skin barrier function. The topical application of tapinarof is being evaluated in clinical trials to treat psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. In the present review, we summarize the effects of natural and synthetic AHR ligands in keratinocytes and inflammatory cells, and their relevance in normal skin homeostasis and cutaneous inflammatory diseases.

Keratinocyte Growth Factor 2 Ameliorates UVB-Induced Skin Damage via Activating the AhR/Nrf2 Signaling Pathway

Objective: Exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) can cause skin damage through oxidative stress, DNA damage, and apoptosis. Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) has been shown to reduce the content of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) following UVB exposure, a role that is crucial for the efficient photoprotection of skin. The present study evaluated the photoprotective effect of KGF-2 on UVB-induced skin damage and explored its potential molecular mechanism.

Methods: To evaluate the effect of KGF-2 on UVB-induced damage ex vivo, a human epidermal full-thickness skin equivalent was pretreated without or with KGF-2 and then exposed to UVB and the levels of histopathological changes, DNA damage, inflammation, and apoptosis were then evaluated. The ability of KGF-2 to protect the cells against UVB-inflicted damage and its effect on ROS production, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction were determined in HaCaT cells.

Results: Pretreatment of the epidermis with KGF-2 ameliorated the extent of photodamage. At the cellular level, KGF-2 could attenuate ROS production, apoptosis, DNA damage, and mitochondrial dysfunction caused by UVB exposure. KGF-2 could also activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) to trigger the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Conclusion: Taken together, our findings suggested that KGF-2 could ameliorate UVB-induced skin damage through inhibiting apoptosis, reducing oxidative stress, and preventing DNA damage and mitochondrial dysfunction via regulating AhR/Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Host-microbiome interactions: the aryl hydrocarbon receptor as a critical node in tryptophan metabolites to brain signaling

Tryptophan (Trp) is not only a nutrient enhancer but also has systemic effects. Trp metabolites signaling through the well-known aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) constitute the interface of microbiome-gut-brain axis. However, the pathway through which Trp metabolites affect central nervous system (CNS) function have not been fully elucidated. AhR participates in a broad variety of physiological and pathological processes that also highly relevant to intestinal homeostasis and CNS diseases. Via the AhR-dependent mechanism, Trp metabolites connect bidirectional signaling between the gut microbiome and the brain, mediated via immune, metabolic, and neural (vagal) signaling mechanisms, with downstream effects on behavior and CNS function. These findings shed light on the complex Trp regulation of microbiome-gut-brain axis and add another facet to our understanding that dietary Trp is expected to be a promising noninvasive approach for alleviating systemic diseases.

Role of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor in Environmentally Induced Skin Aging and Skin Carcinogenesis

The skin is constantly exposed to a variety of environmental threats, including solar electromagnetic radiation, microbes, airborne particulate matter, and chemicals. Acute exposure to these environmental factors results in the activation of different signaling pathways that orchestrate adaptive stress responses to maintain cell and tissue homeostasis. Chronic exposure of skin to these factors, however, may lead to the accumulation of damaged macromolecules and loss of cell and tissue integrity, which, over time, may facilitate aging processes and the development of aging-related malignancies. One transcription factor that is expressed in all cutaneous cells and activated by various environmental stressors, including dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and ultraviolet radiation, is the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). By regulating keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation, epidermal barrier function, melanogenesis, and immunity, a certain degree of AHR activity is critical to maintain skin integrity and to adapt to acute stress situations. In contrast, a chronic activation of cutaneous AHR signaling critically contributes to premature aging and the development of neoplasms by affecting metabolism, extracellular matrix remodeling, inflammation, pigmentation, DNA repair, and apoptosis. This article provides an overview of the detrimental effects associated with sustained AHR activity in chronically stressed skin and pinpoints AHR as a promising target for chemoprevention.

Regulation of the Immune Response by the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that is activated by small molecules provided by the diet, microorganisms, metabolism, and pollutants. AhR is expressed by a number of immune cells, and thus AhR signaling provides a molecular pathway that integrates the effects of the environment and metabolism on the immune response. Studies have shown that AhR signaling plays important roles in the immune system in health and disease. As its activity is regulated by small molecules, AhR also constitutes a potential target for therapeutic immunomodulation. In this review we discuss the role of AhR in the regulation of the immune response in the context of autoimmunity, infection, and cancer, as well as the potential opportunities and challenges of developing AhR-targeted therapeutics.

Time-dependent transcriptomic and biochemical responses of 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ) and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) are explained by AHR activation time

6-Formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ) and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) are ligands of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and bind to the AHR with high affinity. Until recently, TCDD was considered to be the most potent AHR agonist, but several recent studies indicate that FICZ binds with greater affinity to the AHR than TCDD. To advance our understanding of the similarities and differences of the effects of FICZ and TCDD exposure in chicken embryo hepatocyte (CEH) cultures, we compared relative expression changes of 27 dioxin-responsive genes by the use of a chicken PCR array, porphyrin accumulation and ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity at different time points. In addition, an egg injection study was performed to assess the effects of FICZ on the developing chicken embryo. The results of the current study showed: (1) mean EROD-derived relative potency values for FICZ compared to TCDD changed as a function of time (i.e. 9, 0.004, 0.0008 and 0.00008 at 3, 8, 24, and 48h, respectively) in CEH cultures; (2) FICZ exposure did not result in porphyrin accumulation in CEH cultures; (3) concordance between gene expression profiles for FICZ and TCDD was time- and concentration-dependent, and (4) no mortality or morphological abnormalities were observed in chicken embryos injected with 0.87ng FICZ/g egg into the air cell. The results presented herein suggest that while FICZ and TCDD share similar molecular targets, transient versus sustained AHR activation by FICZ and TCDD result in differential transcriptomic responses. Moreover, rapid metabolism of FICZ in hepatocytes resulted in a significant decrease in the induction of EROD activity.

Evidence for New Light-Independent Pathways for Generation of the Endogenous Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Agonist FICZ

Activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a conserved transcription factor best known as a target for highly toxic halogenated substances such as dioxin, under normal xenobiotic-free conditions is of considerable scientific interest. We have demonstrated previously that a photoproduct of tryptophan, 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ), fulfills the criteria for an endogenous ligand for this receptor and proposed that this compound is the enigmatic mediator of the physiological functions of AhR. Here, we describe novel light-independent pathways by which FICZ can be formed. The oxidant H2O2 was shown to convert tryptophan to FICZ on its own in the absence of light. The enzymatic deamination of tryptamine yielded indole-3-acetaldehyde (I3A), which then rearranged to FICZ and its oxidation product, indolo[3,2-b]carbazole-6-carboxylic acid (CICZ). Indole-3-pyruvate (I3P) also produced I3A, FICZ, and CICZ. Malassezia yeast species, which constitute a part of the normal skin microbiota, produce a number of AhR activators from tryptophan. We identified both FICZ and CICZ among those products. Formation of FICZ from tryptophan or I3P produces a complex mixture of indole derivatives, some of which are CYP1A1 inhibitors. These can hinder the cellular clearance of FICZ and thereby increase its power as an AhR agonist. We present a general molecular mechanism involving dehydrogenations and oxidative coupling for the formation of FICZ in which I3A is the important precursor. In conclusion, our results suggest that FICZ is likely to be formed systemically.

Environment-induced lentigines: formation of solar lentigines beyond ultraviolet radiation

There is no doubt that ultraviolet radiation (UVR) contributes to the generation of acquired lentigines in human skin, as indicated by the term solar lentigo. A growing number of recent epidemiological and mechanistic studies, however, strongly suggest that in addition to UVR, other environmental factors contribute to lentigines' formation as well. We therefore here introduce the term 'environment-induced lentigo' (EIL) to refer to acquired pigment spots of human skin. In this view point, we (i) summarize the existing evidence to support a role of environmental toxicants other than UVR in the pathogenesis of EILs, (ii) we argue that activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signalling by UVR and environmental toxicants is critically involved in triggering and sustaining a crosstalk between melanocytes, keratinocytes and fibroblasts, which then causes the development and persistence of EILs in human skin, and (iii) we discuss clinical implications for the prevention and treatment of EILs resulting from this concept.

Sensitivity of avian species to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligand 6-formylindolo [3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ)

Avian species differ in sensitivity to the toxic effects of dioxin-like compounds (DLCs) and recent reports have provided insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying this variability. The sensitivity of avian species to DLCs is associated with the identity of amino acids at positions 324 and 380 within the ligand-binding domain (LBD) of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor 1 (AHR1). 6-formylindolo [3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ), a naturally produced photo-oxidation product of tryptophan, is a highly potent AHR ligand. Few studies have attempted to determine if there are species differences in AHR activation by FICZ in a systematic manner. Here we describe results from an in vitro assay that measures AHR1-mediated luciferase reporter gene activity to determine concentration-dependent effects of FICZ and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in COS-7 cells transfected with AHR1 constructs from chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) and common tern (Sterna hirundo), and three mutant AHR1 constructs. Data were used to (a) compare the potency of FICZ and TCDD for each AHR1 construct (relative potency; ReP) and (b) the sensitivity of each construct to AHR1 activation by FICZ and TCDD (relative sensitivity; ReS). The results show that (1) FICZ was considerably more potent than TCDD in cells transfected with chicken AHR1 (RePavg=41), ring-necked pheasant AHR1 (RePavg=93), Japanese quail AHR1 (RePavg=1392) and common tern AHR1 (RePavg=1534), (2) there were no significant differences in sensitivity to FICZ in cells expressing chicken, pheasant, quail and tern AHR1, but there were significant differences in sensitivity to TCDD, (3) alteration of amino acids at positions 324 and 380 had no effect on avian AHR1 activity in response to FICZ, (4) there was no time-dependent change in the relative potency of FICZ in COS-7 cells, and (5) neither FICZ nor TCDD induced ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD activity) in COS-7 cells. Our results suggest that FICZ and TCDD activate avian AHR1 by different modes of interaction with AHR1.

Functions of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the skin

Among other functions, the skin serves as the barrier against the environment and provides vital protection from physical or chemical harm and from infection. Skin cells express the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), a ligand-activated transcription factor and sensor of environmental chemicals; at the same time, AHR ligands are abundant in skin from exogenous or endogenous sources. For example, solar radiation, in particular ultraviolet (UV) B, generates AHR ligands from tryptophan in the skin. Recent evidence has shown that AHR is involved in the (patho)physiology of skin including the regulation of skin pigmentation, photocarcinogenesis, and skin inflammation. We here provide a state-of-the-art summary of work which relates to the role of the AHR in (1) adaptive responses against environmental challenges such as UVB or topical chemicals and (2) intrinsic developmental roles for homeostasis of skin cells and (3) skin immunity. We also discuss the existing evidence that AHR antagonists or AHR ligands may be used for the prevention and/or treatment of skin disease.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor control of adaptive immunity

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that belongs to the family of basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors. Although the AhR was initially recognized as the receptor mediating the pathologic effects of dioxins and other pollutants, the activation of AhR by endogenous and environmental factors has important physiologic effects, including the regulation of the immune response. Thus, the AhR provides a molecular pathway through which environmental factors modulate the immune response in health and disease. In this review, we discuss the role of AhR in the regulation of the immune response, the source and chemical nature of AhR ligands, factors controlling production and degradation of AhR ligands, and the potential to target the AhR for therapeutic immunomodulation.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation by dioxin targets phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) for ADP-ribosylation via 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-inducible poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (TiPARP)

Effects of the environmental toxin and carcinogen 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD, dioxin) include a wasting syndrome associated with decreased gluconeogenesis. TCDD is a potent activator of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), a ligand activated transcription factor. The relationship between gene activation by the AHR and TCDD toxicities is not well understood. We recently identified a pathway by which the AHR target gene TiPARP (TCDD-inducible poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase) contributes to TCDD suppression of transcription of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), a key regulator of gluconeogenesis, by consuming NAD(+) and decreasing Sirtuin 1 activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC1α), a transcriptional activator of PEPCK. We report here that TCDD-induced TiPARP also targets PEPCK for ADP-ribosylation. Both cytosolic and mitochondrial forms of PEPCK were found to undergo ADP-ribosylation. Unexpectedly, AHR suppression also enhanced ADP-ribosylation and did so by a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-independent mechanism. This report 1) identifies ADP-ribosylation as a new posttranslational modification for PEPCK, 2) describes a pathway by which transcriptional induction of TiPARP by the AHR can lead to a downstream posttranslational change in a TCDD target protein (PEPCK), and 3) reveals that the AHR exerts complex, previously unidentified modulatory effects on ADP-ribosylation.

Simultaneous alterations of brain and plasma serotonin concentrations and liver cytochrome P450 in rats fed on a tryptophan-free diet

Our previous study suggested involvement of the brain serotonergic system in the regulation of liver cytochrome P450 (CYP). The aim of the present study was to demonstrate simultaneous responsiveness of liver CYP and the peripheral and brain serotonergic systems to a tryptophan deficient diet during three days and one or three weeks of ingestion. The concentrations of serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine and their metabolites were measured in blood plasma, the hypothalamus and brain stem of male rats. The enzyme activity and protein levels in the liver were determined for isoforms CYP1A, CYP2A, CYP2B, CYP2C6, CYP2C11, CYP2D and CYP3A. A three-day tryptophan-free diet increased serotonin content in the hypothalamus (but not in the brain stem or plasma). After one week, the level of serotonin was not changed in the brain, but was markedly increased in the plasma. A three week tryptophan restriction significantly reduced the concentration of serotonin in the brain and plasma. Changes in CYP2C6 and CYP2C11 (an increase and a decrease, respectively) were maintained throughout the experiment, while those found in other CYP isoforms varied, which usually resulted in a gradual increase in the enzyme activity within three weeks. The observed alterations in liver CYPs suggest involvement of both central and peripheral serotonin in the regulation of liver CYP expression whose mechanism is discussed. In conclusion, a deficit in tryptophan in the diet may be responsible for very serious food-cytochrome P450 and food-drug metabolism interactions. Interactions of this type may also refer to drugs acting via serotonergic system.

FICZ, a tryptophan photoproduct, suppresses pulmonary eosinophilia and Th2-type cytokine production in a mouse model of ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma

Most studies about functions of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in the pathogenesis of asthma have been carried out with non-physiological industrial by-products such as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and benzo(a)pyrene. In the present study, effects of 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ), a tryptophan photoproduct postulated as a candidate physiological ligand of AhR, on the pathogenesis of asthma were examined and then underlying mechanisms of its immumodulatory effects were investigated. FICZ significantly reduced pulmonary eosinophilia and Th2 cytokine expression in the lungs. Flow cytometric analysis of mediastinal lymph nodes showed that IL-4 producing cells decreased in FICZ-treated mice compared with PBS control. Next, effects of FICZ on in vitro Th2 differentiation and expression of the Th2 transcription factor GATA-3 were examined. CD4+ T cells were isolated from the spleen and incubated under the Th2 differentiation conditions. FICZ inhibited both Th2 differentiation and the expression of GATA-3. Finally, activation of STAT6, which is necessary for Th2 differentiation, was inhibited by FICZ.