Dietary exposure to non-dioxin-like PCBs of different population groups in Austria

Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Milk and Dairy Products in Croatia: A Health Risk Assessment

The aim of this study was to evaluate contamination levels and the frequency of detection of organochlorine (OCPs) and organophosphate pesticides (OPPs), pyrethroids, carbamates and polychlorinated biphenyls (seven PCB congeners) in a total of 534 samples of cow's, sheep's and goat's milk and dairy products from Croatia. Concentrations above the limit of quantification (LOQ) were measured for fourteen OCPs, nine OPPs, six pyrethroids, one carbamate and PCBs with a total of 172 results, and no concentrations exceeded the maximal residue levels defined by the European Union. The mean concentrations of pesticides and the sum of seven PCBs were determined in the ranges 0.92-17.4 μg/kg and 1.38-2.74 μg/kg. Pesticides were quantified in 27% of samples, and seven PCBs were quantified in 5.23% of samples. Among the three pesticide groups, the highest numbers of quantified results were found for OCPs (12.1-20.8%). The highest frequencies of detection were found for the sum of 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its isomers (DDTs), hexachlorobenzene and seven PCBs. The sum of seven PCBs was quantified within the range of 3.3-6.67% of samples per milk type and dairy products. Among the OPPs, the highest frequency of detection was found for chlorpyrifos in cow's milk. Based on the estimated daily intakes, chronic risk characterisation showed no risk for adults or ten-year-old children for the consumption of cow's milk and dairy products.

Update of Indicator PCB Levels in Food in Southern Italy: Assessment of the Dietary Exposure for Adult and Elderly Population

The levels of non-dioxin-like PCB indicators (iPCBs 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, and 180) were determined in food samples (seafood, meat and processed meat, milk and dairy products, hen eggs, olive oil, and other fats) to evaluate the exposure of adult and elderly population. iPCB levels in samples were in the following order: fishery products > meat and processed meat > milk and dairy products > olive oil and other fats. None of the samples had concentrations above the maximum permissible limits for human consumption established by the European Union legislation, except for salami samples. The dietary intake for the total population was 12.33 ng·kg−1 bw·d−1, while depending on the sex/age groups, exposure was estimated between 9.60 and 12.11 ng·kg−1 bw·d−1, with seafood being the major contributor. The exposure scenario indicates that further efforts must still be carried out to protect the consumer from these harmful chemicals.

Pilot study on the concentrations of organochlorine compounds and potentially toxic elements in pregnant women and local food items from the Finnish Lapland

In the Arctic, main sources of persistent organic pollutants and potentially toxic elements are industry and agriculture in the lower latitudes. However, there are also local sources of pollution. Our study was focused on possible pollution in the Finnish Lapland, transferred from the Pechenganikel industrial complex located in the borders of Russia, Finland and Norway. Local food items and blood samples of pregnant women from the Inari municipality were collected and organochlorine compounds (OCs) and metal(oid)s analyzed. Most of the examined food samples showed detectable levels of these compounds. The mean concentrations of DDTs and polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) were higher in fish (0.18-0.32 ng/g and 0.34-0.64 ng/g, respectively), than in the other food groups (0.027-0.047 ng/g and 0.11-0.20 ng/g, respectively). PCBs were found at the highest concentrations in blood samples of the pregnant women, and congeners 153 and 118 were dominant. The mean concentration of PCB153, 0.29 μg/kg serum lipid, was lower than those described in many other studies. Concerning DDTs, the 4,4'-DDT/4,4'-DDE ratio, 0.092, in the blood samples was lower than that observed in the food items, 0.25-0.71, reflecting old uses of the DDT pesticide. None of the observed levels of selected potentially toxic elements in blood samples and in food items exceeded the known safe limits. Higher concentrations of PCB52 and γ-HCH were observed in the serum of pregnant women who consumed greater amounts of meat, and berries and mushrooms, respectively. The OC concentrations from the pregnant women currently studied were lower than those observed fourteen years ago with pregnant women from the same municipality. Compounds whose occurrence is likely related to a long-distance transport showed clear decreases, e.g., 63% for PCBs, and for those from pesticides, decreases were 93% and 97% for 4,4'-DDE and β-HCH, respectively. No obvious influence from the Pechenganikel complex is observed from the results.

In vitro effects of polychlorinated biphenyls and their hydroxylated metabolites on the synthesis and metabolism of iodothyronines in the chicken (Gallus domesticus) thyroid gland

To assess the effect of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and their hydroxylated metabolites (OH-PCBs) on thyroid hormone [TH: thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃)] secretion, the concentrations of iodothyronine deiodinases (DIO1, DIO2, DIO3), and mRNA expression of genes involved in TH synthesis (TSHR, NIS, TPO, TG), metabolism (DIO1, DIO2, DIO3), and transport (OATP1C1, MCT8, MCT10, LAT1), chicken thyroid explants were incubated in medium supplemented with TSH (250 mU/ml), PCB118, PCB153, 4-OH-PCB107, and 3-OH-PCB153 (0.5 × 10^-8 M), and TSH together with each PCB and OH-PCB. The results of the in vitro experiment revealed that, except for 4-OH-PCB107, all applied PCBs and OH-PCBs inhibited basal and TSH-stimulated T₄ secretion. Moreover, they increased basal and reduced TSH-stimulated T₃ secretion. PCBs and OH-PCBs decreased the TSH-stimulated TSHR expression. Following PCB and OH-PCB exposure, significant changes in mRNA expression of NIS, TPO, and TG were observed. PCBs and OH-PCBs affected DIO1 and DIO3 transcript levels and protein abundances of each DIO. Furthermore, PCB-dependent effects on OATP1C1, MCT8, and MCT10 mRNA expression were found. In conclusion, both PCB118 and PCB153 and their OH-PCBs affect TH synthesis and deiodination processes in the chicken thyroid gland and influence TH transport across the thyrocyte membrane. In addition, the effects of PCBs and OH-PCBs depended mainly on the type of PCB congener and the exposure time. These results indicate that not only parental PCBs but also OH-PCBs are hazardous for the thyroid gland and may disrupt its endocrine function. Further studies are necessary to explain a mechanism of PCB and OH-PCB action in the avian thyroid gland.

Brominated and chlorinated contaminants in food (PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PBDD/Fs PBDEs): Simultaneous determination and occurrence in Italian produce

Validated methodology for the simultaneous determination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in foods of animal origin is presented. Method performance indicators were equivalent or better than those required for the control of EU regulated (EU, 2017/644) PCDD/F and PCB congeners in these foods, and for risk assessment through dietary intake. The method uses a high (>90%) proportion of ¹³Carbon-labelled surrogates for internal standardisation combined with high resolution mass spectrometry that allow accurate quantitation, and this was confirmed by multiple successful participations in proficiency testing for PCDD/Fs, PCBs and PBDEs in food. The same validation and method performance requirements as used for PCDD/Fs were followed for PBDD/Fs. The analysis of a range of food samples (eggs, milk, fish, shellfish, pork, beef and poultry), showed the occurrence of all four classes of contaminants at varying concentration ranges. In general, PCBs were the most prominent contaminant, both, in terms of dioxin-like toxicity, as well as in the occurrence of non-dioxin-like congeners, an observation that concurs with those made in other studies on Italian foods. The levels of PCDD/F and PCB occurrence are consistent with a gradual decline in contamination as reported by some other similar studies. Although all the determined contaminants were detected in the sampled foods, there was poor correlation between the occurrences of the brominated and chlorinated contaminants, and between PBDEs and PBDD/Fs, but better associations were observed between the occurrences of the chlorinated contaminants.

Fish consumption is an indicator of exposure to non-dioxin like polychlorinated biphenyls in cumulative risk assessments based on a probabilistic and sensitive approach

The health effects of non-dioxin like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs) include liver, immune, neurodevelopmental, and neurobehavioral effects in addition to hormone alteration. Among 209 PCB congeners, six indicator PCBs (ICES-6) account for about half of NDL-PCBs present in feed and food. The objectives of the current study were first to examine the levels of total PCBs, NDL-PCBs, and ICES-6 PCBs in 200 foods commonly consumed in Taiwan and, second, to estimate the cumulative health risks of NDL-PCB consumption. We suggest a risk management strategy that identifies foodstuffs with particularly high NDL-PCB content. In 200 food samples, which were grouped into 12 categories and 64 food types, 51 PCB congeners were detected. The concentrations of ICES-6 PCBs in all samples were lower than the maximum levels for NDL-PCBs in foodstuffs set by the European Union. PCB-153, PCB-138, and PCB-180 were the major congeners in all food, indicating that the food was contaminated in the past. ICES-6 PCBs contributed 42.2%-52.9% of total NDL-PCBs in all tested foodstuffs. The average estimated daily intake (EDI) of PCBs ranged from 1.22 ng/kg bw/day to 2.89 ng/kg bw/day in different age groups (95th quantile [P95]: 4.12-10.28 ng/kg bw/day). The P95 EDI in 3-6-year-olds was higher than 10 ng/kg/day. A qualitative sensitivity analysis in ICES-6 PCBs exposure showed that for the 3- to 6-year-old group, the highest sensitivity was how much fish they ate (37.6%) and its concentration (32.5%). The consumption of pork, eggs, fish, and other seafood accounts for over 90% of ICES-6 PCBs intake, and these foods should be highlighted in guidelines regarding NDL-PCB intake.

Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs in Traditionally and Industrially Smoked Pork Meat Products from Bosnia and Herzegovina

The aim of this study was to determine the concentration of 19 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs): (hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH, β-HCH, δ-HCH), lindane, aldrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, trans-chlordane, cis-chlordane, endosulfane I, endosulfane II, endosulfane sulfate, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), dieldrin, endrin, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD), methoxychlor and endrin ketone and 6 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (PCB 28, PCB 52, PCB 101, PCB 153, PCB 138 and PCB 180). The samples were taken from pancetta, dry pork neck (budiola), pork tenderloin and sausages produced in Rakitno (Bosnia and Herzegovina), smoked in both a traditional smokehouse and in an industrial chamber. Instrumental analysis was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The reliability of the results, i.e., quality control is ensured by standard laboratory practice, which involves participation in proficiency test, the use of blank samples, reference materials and implementation of recommendations given by the relevant international organizations. The concentrations of α-HCH, lindane, PCB 28, PCB 52 and PCB 153 were detected and quantified. The concentrations of OCPs and PCBs did not significantly vary depending on product type and the conditions of production. All the examined samples were for human consumption.

Indicator PCBs in farmed and wild fish in Greece - Risk assessment for the Greek population

Health benefits of fish consumption could be counterbalanced by the intake of contaminants after long term fish consumption, burdened even in trace levels. The presence of the indicator PCBs (NDL-PCBs and PCB 118) in farmed and wild seabream and seabass was evaluated. For the determination of PCB, a GC-MS method was developed and evaluated. The association of PCB accumulation in fish with seasonality, locality, production mode and species was also investigated. A new approach for the risk characterisation after exposure to NDL-PCB through fish consumption in Greece was developed, based on the real exposure and the permitted maximum levels of both aggregated dietary exposure and exposure through fish consumption. PCB levels determined in fish were below established permitted limits (6.24 ng/g 95th percentile), while PCB levels and congener distribution varied significantly between farmed and wild fish (p = 0.001). Seasonality was highlighted as an important factor affecting NDL-PCBs accumulation, with high levels coinciding with the reproduction period of each species. Differences were also depicted for sampling sites, with PCB 118 presenting significantly higher values in open seas while NDL-PCB congeners in closed seas. Risk assessment of NDL-PCB intake through fish consumption corrected for the aggregated exposure revealed no risk for the consumers.

Dietary exposure to PCBs by seafood cooking method: A Korean study

The levels of 82 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners in 86 different types of seafood (n = 237) were analyzed and the PCBs changes in seafood by seven cooking methods were verified from 51 different species of seafood (total 127 pairs) to confirm the effect of cooking on dietary PCB levels in the human body. Total PCB levels in raw seafood ranged from 0.01 to 20.6 ng/g ww, while those for DL PCBs ranged from 0.001 to 1.67 pg TEQ/g ww. There was no statistically significant difference between PCB levels in raw and each different cooked seafood. However, Raw seafood samples with PCB concentrations under 1 ng/g showed a markedly increase in PCBs after cooking. When comparing mean and median value for total PCBs, the high-fat fish group exhibited a slightly decreasing PCB concentrations trend after cooking. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of cooked seafood was 1.07 ng/kg BW/day, while the EDI for raw seafood was 1.26 ng/kg BW/day.

Drivers of the accumulation of mercury and organochlorine pollutants in Mediterranean lean fish and dietary significance

An integrated assessment of lean fish of commercial value as Hg and organochlorine compound source into the population of the Balearic Islands were reported. Dependences between pollutant concentrations, trophic level, fish species, specimen weight and physical-chemical properties were evaluated. Hg and total DDTs showed highest variability between fish species whereas PCBs and HCB displayed more constant median values. The organochlorine compounds found in highest concentrations were those with highest hydrophobicity, consistently with their higher bioaccumulation potential. These pollutant concentrations were higher in Mediterranean than Atlantic fish. Higher median total DDT and PCBs concentrations were also observed in the third than the second trophic level species. The observed concentrations were below the threshold recommended by the EU for human consumption (75ng/g wet weight). The Hg concentrations were higher in Mediterranean than Atlantic fish, with average values of 1.5μg/g ww and 0.43μg/g ww, respectively. Forty-one percent of the specimens from the Mediterranean and 25% of dusky grouper specimens from the Atlantic Ocean showed Hg concentrations above the EU recommended limits for human consumption, either 0.5μg/g ww or 1μg/g ww. In the third trophic level, a significant dependence between median Hg concentrations and weight of each studied species was observed, which remained significant in specimen weight correlations. Independent species correlations of Hg concentrations vs individual weight generally showed higher concentrations at higher weight. Weight/size of the individuals was therefore an important factor for Hg accumulation but the trend was modulated by a species effect. Extrapolation of the observed Hg concentrations in Mediterranean fish to Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intakes (PTWIs) showed higher intakes than the thresholds recommended by EFSA for adults and children, 110% and 140%, respectively. The estimated PTWIs for MeHg corresponded to 310% and 400% of the recommended threshold values. The PTWI values for organochlorine compounds were lower than those recommended.

Integrated assessment of infant exposure to persistent organic pollutants and mercury via dietary intake in a central western Mediterranean site (Menorca Island)

In this research the levels of organochlorine compounds (OCs) and mercury (Hg) in several food items from Menorca Island were presented. The dietary exposure assessment was performed in children population from the island. Finally, body burden of OCs and Hg in these infants were associated with their dietary intakes of the selected food items. The dietary exposure to persistent pollutants by children population from Menorca Island was assessed. The concentrations of 11 organochlorine pesticides, 6 polychlorinated biphenils (PCBs) and 1 inorganic toxic element, Hg, were determined in 46 food samples that included fish, shellfish, meat, fruit, vegetables, cheese and eggs, which were acquired in local markets and department stores in the Menorca Island. The most contaminated food items were fish and shellfish, followed by meat and cheese products. OC levels were similar or lower than in other previous studies. However, 66% of the analysed fish and shellfish species for Hg exceeded the human consumption safety limits according to the European Union Legislation. Pollutant data from food was combined with the pattern of consumption of these foodstuffs in order to calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of these contaminants. According to our results, fish and fruit were the main sources of OCs to the EDIs (contributing to 37% and 29%, respectively) while fish and shellfish were the main sources of Hg (76% and 17%). The estimated EDIs of OCs were well below to the reported FAO/WHO Tolerable Intakes. However, estimated weekly intake of Hg would exceed the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake indicated by EFSA in the case that the only fish and seafood source would be from the central western Mediterranean. Direct associations between fish/shellfish consumption and hair concentrations of Hg and fish and meat consumption and 4,4'-DDT concentrations in venous serum in the Menorcan children were observed.

Concentrations of environmental organic contaminants in meat and meat products and human dietary exposure: A review

Meat and meat products is one of the most relevant food groups in an important number of human diets. Recently, the IARC, based on results of a number of epidemiological studies, classified the consumptions of red meat and processed meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans" and as "carcinogenic to humans", respectively. It was suggested that the substances responsible of the potential carcinogenicity would be mainly generated during meat processing, such as curing and smoking, or when meat is heated at high temperatures. However, the exposure to environmental pollutants through meat consumption was not discussed. The purpose of the present paper was to review recent studies reporting the concentrations of PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs and PAHs in meat and meat products, as well as the human exposure to these pollutants through the diet. It is concluded that the health risks derived from exposure to carcinogenic environmental contaminants must be considered in the context of each specific diet, which besides meat and meat products, includes other foodstuffs containing also chemical pollutants, some of them with carcinogenic potential. Anyhow, meat and meat products are not the main food group responsible of the dietary exposure to carcinogenic (or probably carcinogenic) environmental organic pollutants.

Indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in seafood from Xiamen (China): levels, distributions, and risk assessment

Indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in 289 seafood samples including fishes, crustaceans, and shellfish collected from six administrative regions in Xiamen of China. The residual levels of PCBs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) ranged <LOD-64 (median 1.8) ng g^-1 wet weight (ww), 0.03-88 (median 1.4) ng g^-1 ww, and <LOD-5.5 (median <LOD) ng g^-1 ww, respectively. The most abundant compounds were PCB101, p,p'-DDT, and β-HCH. Significant differences in the amounts of PCBs and DDTs were recorded among the species, whereas no significant differences were observed among the species with regard to HCH concentrations. Within the regions investigated, the concentrations of PCBs were much lower in Haicang than in other regions and HCHs were detected with highest concentration in Siming, while no significant differences were observed in DDT concentrations. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that PCB and OCP pollutions came from similar sources in Xiamen. But the pollution sources of Xiangan were diverse. The predominance of PCBs might be attributed to the past usage of domestically produced commercial PCB mixtures, and the profiles of OCPs might indicate their current use in agriculture. Results of carcinogenic risk assessment based on the 50th or 95th percentile exposure levels exceeded the threshold, suggesting that the PCBs should be of concern. On the other hand, the hazard quotients (HQs) of noncancer risks were all far below than 1.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Zhejiang foods (2006-2015): Market basket and polluted areas

In this study, we measured the levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in 620 foods collected during 2006-2015 from Zhejiang market, a municipal waste incinerator (MWI) and E-waste disassembling areas. For market retail foods, the levels of PCDD/F TEQs, PCDD/F plus dioxin-like PCB (DL-PCB) TEQs, and the concentrations of six indicator PCBs were generally below the EU ML. The average TEQ values for the 13 food groups were 42% of EU ML for PCDD/Fs and 32% for PCDD/Fs+DL-PCBs. Some foods of animal origin were close to the corresponding EU ML: pork (PCDD/F TEQ, 79% of ML; PCDD/F+DL-PCB TEQ, 84% of ML); infant formula (90% of PCDD/F ML) and beef (96% of PCDD/F ML; PCDD/F+DL-PCB TEQ, 78% of ML). The estimated dietary intake for the general population was 22.0pgTEQ(kgbody weight (bw))^-1month^-1, which was below the standard of 70pgTEQ(kgbw)^-1month^-1 set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). For the MWI and E-waste disassembling sites, high concentrations of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were measured in all foods tested. The corresponding TEQ in (1) freshwater fish, (2) chicken egg, (3) chicken meat and (4) chicken liver was (1) 1.4-fold (MWI, PCDD/F TEQ), (2) 11.2-fold (MWI,) and 1.6-fold (E-waste disassembling sites), (3) 20.7-fold and (4) 3.3-fold greater than EU ML, respectively. Considering the worst situation (highly polluted foods were consumed), the estimated dietary intake for local residents were 244 (MWI) and 240pgTEQ(kgbw)^-1month^-1 (E-waste disassembling sites), approximately 3.5-fold greater compared to the standard 70pgTEQ(kgbw)^-1month^-1 set by JECFA, indicating high risk could have been imposed on the health of local residents.

Non-dioxin-like PCBs: a survey on fishery and aquaculture from the Mediterranean area

A sampling campaign from 21 sites in Italy was conducted: 15 species from fishery and three species from aquaculture, for a total of 40 determinations, were considered. A careful sample preparation preceded the instrumental analysis that was carried out by means of GC-ECD and GC-MS. Good laboratory practice was achieved by the participation in proficiency tests, by the use of certified reference materials and by applying other directives recommended by international organisations. Concentrations measured in this work were compared with a TDI proposed by some international bodies: for a person weighing 70 kg one-third of the samples from fishery, when consumed, lead to exceed this TDI if the average fish daily consumption per capita is considered. Based on the data obtained here some hypotheses on environmental spreading and influence of PCBs on human health are made. Some suggestions about the preparation of fish for consumption are also given.

PAHs and PCBs accumulated by SPMD-based virtual organisms and feral fish in Three Gorges Reservoir, China

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) accumulated by semipermeable membrane device (SPMD)-based virtual organisms (VOs) and local feral fish were studied in Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR), China. VOs were deployed at seven sites in TGR for two periods in 2009 and 5 species of fish with different living habitats and feeding habits collected in the same periods from two counties in TGR. The concentration and profile of PAHs and PCBs in fish were quite different from those in VOs. Most high-molecular-weight-PAHs were detected in VOs, while they were undetected in fish. Most PCBs were undetected in VOs, while most of them were detected in fish. Low-molecular-weight-PAHs were predominant contaminants of PAHs and non-dioxin-like-PCBs were the main PCBs in fish. The levels of PAHs and PCBs in the few fish samples were low and were not of concern based on chemical contaminant limits of non-carcinogenic effect.

Assessment of the Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Occurrence in Copper Sulfates and the Influential Role of PCB Levels on Grapes

Copper sulfates (CuSO₄) are widely used as the primary component of fungicides in the grape industry. The agricultural-grade CuSO₄ that we collected from Chinese nationwide markets were found to be contaminated by polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans and high levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (Σ₁₉PCBs: 0.32~9.51 ng/g). In the following research, we studied the impact of CuSO₄ application on PCB levels in grape products through a field experiment, and conducted a national survey to speculate the role that CuSO₄ played on the occurrence of PCB in grapes. In the field experiment, an obvious increase of PCBs in grape leaves (from 174 to 250 pg/g fw) was observed after Bordeaux mixture (the main component of which is CuSO₄) application. As to the main PCB congener in CuSO₄, the most toxic CB 126 (toxic equivalency factor = 0.1) also increased in grape peels (from 1.66 to 2.93 pg/g fw) after pesticide spray. Both the correlation study and the principal component analysis indicated that environmental factors were dominant PCB contributors to grapes, and grapes from e-waste dismantling area containing the highest PCBs also proved the notion. It is worth noting that this report describes the first research examining PCBs in CuSO₄ and its influence on agricultural products to date.