Biodegradation competence of Streptomyces toxytricini D2 isolated from leaves surface of the hybrid cotton crop against β cypermethrin

Degradation Kinetics and Mechanism of β-Cypermethrin and 3-Phenoxybenzoic Acid by Lysinibacillus pakistanensis VF-2 in Soil Remediation

Pyrethroid pesticide residues have detrimental effects on soil ecology and crop growth during insecticidal operations in agriculture. In this study, a novel strain Lysinibacillus pakistanensis VF-2 was isolated from long-term pesticide-treated cropland and had a maximum degradation efficiency of 81.66% for synthetic pyrethroid β-cypermethrin (β-CY) under optimized conditions. The analysis of intermediate products revealed that the degradation pathway of β-CY mainly involves ester bond hydrolysis, diphenyl ether decomposition, and phthalate ester degradation. Whole-genome sequencing and RT-qPCR analysis revealed the involvement of carboxylesterases, dioxygenases, and aromatic compound degrading enzymes in the degradation of β-CY. In the soil bioaugmentation experiment, the strain VF-2 can synergistically interact with indigenous microorganisms, significantly enhancing the degradation efficiency of β-CY and its metabolite 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) from 17.08% and 7.62% to 73.46% and 62.29%, respectively. This study suggests that strain VF-2 is a promising candidate for in situ coremediation of pyrethroid and intermediate metabolite residues in soil.

Microbial degradation mechanisms, degradation pathways, and genetic engineering for pyrethroids: current knowledge and future perspectives

Pyrethroids are synthetic products derived from natural pyrethroids present in flowers and are extensively used as pesticides for agriculture, animal husbandry, and household pest control. However, excessive and prolonged usage of pyrethroid insecticides can result in adverse effects on both non-target and target species. Therefore, effective technologies need to be developed to remove pyrethroid contamination and ensure environmental safety. Microbial remediation of various pesticide contaminants is highly practicable, low cost, and eco-friendly compared to physical and chemical methods. Different microbiota are screened to eliminate or degrade the contaminants. Microbial remediation technology utilizes the natural ability of microbiota to treat contaminated areas. Previous studies have mostly focused on the isolation and screening of microorganisms for pyrethroid biodegradation, as well as on the kinetics and pathways of pyrethroid biodegradation. In order to develop effective bioremediation strategies, further research based on molecular biology and bioengineering is required for a comprehensive exploration of pyrethroid-degrading microorganisms. To date, the microbial degradation of pyrethroid pesticides and the underlying mechanisms have been rarely reviewed. Therefore, this critical review encompasses the latest knowledge on synthetic pyrethroids from structural properties, bio-toxicity, and characterization of microbial degradation strains to degradation characteristics, intrinsic mechanisms, and microbial degradation pathways. The future of microbial remediation depends on combining advanced gene technology with traditional bioremediation methods to sustainably degrade pesticide contaminants. It also summarizes the factors affecting degradation efficiency and concludes with prospects, along with current challenges and limitations.

Synergistic insights into pesticide persistence and microbial dynamics for bioremediation

Rampant use of fertilizers and pesticides for boosting agricultural crop productivity has proven detrimental impact on land, water, and air quality globally. Although fertilizers and pesticides ensure greater food security, their unscientific management negatively impacts soil fertility, structure of soil microbiome and ultimately human health and hygiene. Pesticides exert varying impacts on soil properties and microbial community functions, contingent on factors such as their chemical structure, mode of action, toxicity, and dose-response characteristics. The diversity of bacterial responses to different pesticides presents a valuable opportunity for pesticide remediation. In this context, OMICS technologies are currently under development, and notable advancements in gene editing, including CRISPR technologies, have facilitated bacterial engineering, opening promising avenues for reducing toxicity and enhancing biological remediation. This paper provides a holistic overview of pesticide dynamics, with a specific focus on organophosphate, organochlorine, and pyrethroids. It covers their occurrence, activity, and potential mitigation strategies, with an emphasis on the microbial degradation route. Subsequently, the pesticide degradation pathways, associated genes and regulatory mechanisms, associated OMICS approaches in soil microbes with a special emphasis on CRISPR/Cas9 are also being discussed. Here, we analyze key environmental factors that significantly impact pesticide degradation mechanisms and underscore the urgency of developing alternative strategies to diminish our reliance on synthetic chemicals.

Mycotransformation of Commercial Grade Cypermethrin Dispersion by Aspergillus terreus PDB-B Strain Isolated from Lake Sediments of Kulamangalam, Madurai

A fungal isolate Aspergillus terreus PDB-B (accession number: MT774567.1), which could tolerate up to 500 mg/L of cypermethrin, was isolated from the lake sediments of Kulamangalam tropical lake, Madurai, and identified by internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis. The biotransformation potential of the strain was compared with five other strains (A, J, UN2, M1 and SM108) as a consortium, which were tentatively identified as Aspergillus glaucus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus, and Aspergillus flavus, respectively. Batch culture and soil microcosm studies were conducted to explore biotransformation using plate-based enzymatic screening and GC-MS. A mycotransformation pathway was predicted based on a comparative analysis of the transformation products (TPs) obtained. The cytotoxicity assay revealed that the presence of (3-methylphenyl) methanol and isopropyl ether could be relevant to the high rate of lethality.

Investigating the effect of pH on the interaction of cypermethrin with human serum albumin: Insights from spectroscopic and molecular dynamics simulation studies

To efficiently combat the negative consequences of the utilization of pesticides and hazardous substances with biomolecules, it is crucial to comprehend the features of the corresponding compounds. In this study, interactions between cypermethrin (CYP) and HSA at neutral and acidic pH were investigated using a set of spectroscopic and computational tools, such as UV/VIS's absorption spectroscopy, fluorescence, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics. Furthermore, the effect of CYP on the HSA thermal stability was investigated. The increase in the CYP concentration at acidic and neutral pH resulted in static HSA fluorescence quenching. In the interaction between HSA and CYP at both pH, increasing the temperature led to a decrease in the Stern-Volmer quenching constant and the binding constant. We also revealed that with increasing CYP concentration, the melting temperature of HSA increases at both pH values.

Bio/phyremediation potential of Leptospirillum ferrooxidans and Ricinus communis on metal contaminated mine sludge

The heavy metal pollution is a serious environmental pollution around the globe and threatens the ecosystem. The physicochemical traits (pH, Electrical conductivity, hardness, NPK, Al, Fe, Cd, Cr, Pb, Mg, and Mn) of soil sample collected from the polluted site were analyzed and found that the most of the metal contents were beyond the acceptable limits of national standards. The metals such as Mn (1859.37 ± 11.25 mg kg-1), Cd (24.86 ± 1.85 mg kg-1), Zn (795.64 ± 9.24 mg kg-1), Pb (318.62 ± 5.85 mg kg-1), Cr (186.84 ± 6.84 mg kg-1), and Al (105.84 ± 5.42 mg kg-1) were crossing the permissible limits. The pre-isolated L. ferrooxidans showed considerable metal tolerance to metals such as Al, Cd, Cr, Pb, Mg, and Mn at up to the concentration of 750 μg mL-1 and also have remediation potential on polluted soil in a short duration of treatment. The greenhouse study demonstrated that the bio/phytoremediation potential of metal tolerant L. ferrooxidans and R. communis under various remediation (A, B, and C) groups. Surprisingly, remediation group C demonstrated greater phytoextraction potential than the other remediation groups (A and B). These results strongly suggest that coexistence of L. ferrooxidans and R. communis had a significant positive effect on phytoextraction on metal-contaminated soil.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis as a potential hyperaccumulator in metal contaminated magnesite mine tailings

Mining is one of the major contributors for land degradation and severe heavy metals based soil pollution. In this study, the physicochemical properties of magnesite mine soil was investigated and assess the optimistic and eco-friendly remediation approach with Hibiscus rosa-sinensis with the effect of pre-isolated Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. The physicochemical properties analysis results revealed that most the parameter were either too less or beyond the permissible limits. The pre-isolated A. thiooxidans showed remarkable multi-metal tolerance up to 800 μg mL-1 concentration of Cr, Cd, Pb, and Mn. Heavy metal content in polluted soil was reduced to avoid more metal toxicity by diluting with fertile control soil as 80:20 and 60:40. The standard greenhouse experiment was performed to evaluate the phytoextraction potential of H. rosa-sinensis under the influence of A. thiooxidans in various treatment groups (G-I to G-V). The outcome of this investigation was declared that the multi-metal tolerant A. thiooxidans from G-III and G-II showed remarkable effect on growth and phytoextraction ability of H. rosa-sinensis on metal polluted magnesite mine soil in 180 d greenhouse study. These results suggested that the combination of H. rosa-sinensis and A. thiooxidans could be used as an excellent hyper-accumulator to extract metal pollution from polluted soil.

In Vitro Biofilm-Mediated Biodegradation of Pesticides and Dye-Contaminated Effluents Using Bacterial Biofilms

Overuse of pesticides in agricultural soil and dye-polluted effluents severely contaminates the environment and is toxic to animals and humans making their removal from the environment essential. The present study aimed to assess the biodegradation of pesticides (cypermethrin (CYP) and imidacloprid (IMI)), and dyes (malachite green (MG) and Congo red (CR)) using biofilms of bacteria isolated from pesticide-contaminated soil and dye effluents. Biofilms of indigenous bacteria, i.e., Bacillus thuringiensis 2A (OP554568), Enterobacter hormaechei 4A (OP723332), Bacillus sp. 5A (OP586601), and Bacillus cereus 6B (OP586602) individually and in mixed culture were tested against CYP and IMI. Biofilms of indigenous bacteria i.e., Lysinibacillus sphaericus AF1 (OP589134), Bacillus sp. CF3 (OP589135) and Bacillus sp. DF4 (OP589136) individually and in mixed culture were tested for their ability to degrade dyes. The biofilm of a mixed culture of B. thuringiensis + Bacillus sp. (P7) showed 46.2% degradation of CYP compared to the biofilm of a mixed culture of B. thuringiensis + E. hormaechei + Bacillus sp. + B. cereus (P11), which showed significantly high degradation (70.0%) of IMI. Regarding dye biodegradation, a mixed culture biofilm of Bacillus sp. + Bacillus sp. (D6) showed 86.76% degradation of MG, which was significantly high compared to a mixed culture biofilm of L. sphaericus + Bacillus sp. (D4) that degraded only 30.78% of CR. UV-VIS spectroscopy revealed major peaks at 224 nm, 263 nm, 581 nm and 436 nm for CYP, IMI, MG and CR, respectively, which completely disappeared after treatment with bacterial biofilms. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis showed the appearance of new peaks in degraded metabolites and disappearance of a peak in the control spectrum after biofilm treatment. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis also confirmed the degradation of CYP, IMI, MG and CR into several metabolites compared to the control. The present study demonstrates the biodegradation potential of biofilm-forming bacteria isolated from pesticide-polluted soil and dye effluents against pesticides and dyes. This is the first report demonstrating biofilm-mediated bio-degradation of CYP, IMI, MG and CR utilizing soil and effluent bacterial flora from Multan and Sheikhupura, Punjab, Pakistan.

Phytoremediation efficiency of Vigna mungo with the amalgamation of indigenous metal tolerant bacterial strain on metal polluted agriculture soil

This research was performed to evaluate physico-chemical properties of farmland soil nearby the magnesite mine site. Unexpectedly, few physico-chemical properties were crossing the acceptable limits. Particularly, the quantities of Cd (112.34 ± 3.25), Pb (386.42 ± 11.71), Zn (854.28 ± 3.53), and Mn (2538 ± 41.11) were crossing the permissible limits. Among 11 bacterial cultures isolated from the metal contaminated soil, 2 isolates names as SS1 and SS3 showed significant multi-metal tolerance up to the concentration of 750 mg L^-1. Furthermore, these strains also showed considerable metal mobilization as well as absorption ability on metal contaminated soil under in-vitro conditions. In a short duration of treatment, these isolates effectively mobilize and absorb the metals from the polluted soil. The results obtained from the greenhouse investigation with Vigna mungo revealed that the among various treatment (T1 to T5) groups, the T3 (V.mungo + SS1+SS3) showed remarkable phytoremediation potential (Pb: 50.88, Mn: 152, Cd: 14.54, and Zn: 67.99 mg kg^-1) on metal contaminated soil. Furthermore, these isolates influence the growth as well as biomass of V.mungo under greenhouse conditions on metal contaminated soil. These findings suggest that combining multi-metal tolerant bacterial isolates can improve the phytoextraction efficiency of V.mungo on metal-contaminated soil.

Mixed pollutants adsorption potential of Eichhornia crassipes biochar on Manihot esculenta processing industry effluents

The starch is one of the most essential food stuff and serves as a raw material for number of food products for the welfare of human. During the production process enormous volume of effluents are being released into the environment. In this regard, this study was performed to evaluate the physicochemical traits of Manihot esculenta processing effluent and possible sustainable approach to treat this issue using Eichhornia crassipes based biochar. The standard physicochemical properties analysis revealed that the most the parameters (EC was recorded as 4143.17 ± 67.12 mhom^-1, TDS: 5825.62 ± 72.14 mg L^-1, TS: 7489.21 ± 165.24 mg L^-1, DO: 2.12 ± 0.21 mg L^-1, BOD 2673.74 ± 153.53 mg L^-1, COD: 6672.66 ± 131.21 mg L^-1, and so on) were beyond the permissible limits and which can facilitate eutrophication. Notably, the DO level was considerably poor and thus can support the eutrophication. The trouble causing E. crassipes biomass was used as raw material for biochar preparation through pyrolysis process. The temperature ranging from 250 to 350 °C with residence time of 20-60 min were found as suitable temperature to provide high yield (56-33%). Furthermore, 10 g L^-1 concentration of biochar showed maximum pollutant adsorption than other concentrations (5 g L^-1 and 15 g L^-1) from 1 L of effluent. The suitable temperature required to remediate the pollutants from the effluent by biochar was found as 45 °C and 35 °C at 10 g L^-1 concentration. These results conclude that at such optimized condition, the E. crassipes effectively adsorbed most of the pollutants from the M. esculenta processing effluent. Furthermore, such pollutants adsorption pattern on biochar was confirmed by SEM analysis.

Study on Rapid Detection of Pesticide Residues in Shanghaiqing Based on Analyzing Near-Infrared Microscopic Images

Aiming at guiding agricultural producers to harvest crops at an appropriate time and ensuring the pesticide residue does not exceed the maximum limit, the present work proposed a method of detecting pesticide residue rapidly by analyzing near-infrared microscopic images of the leaves of Shanghaiqing (Brassica rapa), a type of Chinese cabbage with computer vision technology. After image pre-processing and feature extraction, the pattern recognition methods of K nearest neighbors (KNN), naïve Bayes, support vector machine (SVM), and back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) were applied to assess whether Shanghaiqing is sprayed with pesticides. The SVM method with linear or RBF kernel provides the highest recognition accuracy of 96.96% for the samples sprayed with trichlorfon at a concentration of 1 g/L. The SVM method with RBF kernel has the highest recognition accuracy of 79.16~84.37% for the samples sprayed with cypermethrin at a concentration of 0.1 g/L. The investigation on the SVM classification models built on the samples sprayed with cypermethrin at different concentrations shows that the accuracy of the models increases with the pesticide concentrations. In addition, the relationship between the concentration of the cypermethrin sprayed and the image features was established by multiple regression to estimate the initial pesticide concentration on the Shanghaiqing leaves. A pesticide degradation equation was established on the basis of the first-order kinetic equation. The time for pesticides concentration to decrease to an acceptable level can be calculated on the basis of the degradation equation and the initial pesticide concentration. The present work provides a feasible way to rapidly detect pesticide residue on Shanghaiqing by means of NIR microscopic image technique. The methodology laid out in this research can be used as a reference for the pesticide detection of other types of vegetables.

Biodegradation of the pyrethroid cypermethrin by bacterial consortia collected from orange crops

Pyrethroids, such as cypermethrin (CYP), are widely employed in agriculture, promoting environmental pollution and the need for efficient decontamination methods. In this study, bacteria from orange crops were explored for CYP biodegradation. Among 40 tested bacterial strains, 20 grew in the presence of CYP and 19 performed statistically significant CYP biodegradation in 5 days (20.5%-97.8%). In addition, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, the main metabolite from CYP, was quantified ranging from 1.1 mg.L^-1 to 32.1 mg.L^-1. The five most efficient strains, and consortia composed of 5, 10 and 20 bacteria biodegraded the CYP formulation as sole carbon source in phosphate buffer and in minimum mineral medium. Under optimized conditions determined employing Response Surface Methodology, Bacillus sp. CSA-1 and the consortium composed of 10 strains biodegraded 71.0% and 71.6% CYP in 24 h, respectively. Moreover, metabolite identification enabled the proposal of an extended biodegradation pathway with 29 identified compounds, including different new amide and amine derivatives that expanded the knowledge about the fate of this compound in the environment. Experiments of bioaugmentation in soil using Bacillus sp. CSA-1 and the consortium of 10 bacterial strains resulted in faster CYP biodegradation than natural attenuation, showing that the selection of efficient strains for composing a consortium is an interesting approach for bioremediation of pyrethroids.

Valorization of agriculture waste biomass as biochar: As first-rate biosorbent for remediation of contaminated soil

Each year, Asia produces an estimated 350 million tonnes of agricultural residues. According to Ministry of Power projections, numerous tonnes of such waste are discarded each year, in addition to being used as green manure. The methodology used to convert agricultural waste into the most valuable biochar, as well as its critical physical and chemical properties, were described in this review. This review also investigates the beneficial effects of bio and phytoremediation on metal(lloid)-contaminated soil. Agriculture biomass-based biochar is an intriguing organic residue material with the potential to be used as a responsible solution for metal(lloid) polluted soil remediation and soil improvement. Plants with faster growth and higher biomass can meet massive remediation demands. Recent research shows significant progress in agricultural biomass-based biomass conversion as biochar, as well as understanding the frameworks of metal(lloid) accumulation and mobility in plants used for metal(lloid) polluted soil remediation. Biochar made from various agricultural biomass can promote native plant growth and improve phytoremediation efficiency in polluted soil with metal(lloid)s. This carbon-enriched biochar promotes native microbial activity by neutralising pH and providing adequate nutrition. Thus, this review critically examines the feasibility of converting agricultural waste biomass into biochar, as well as the impact on plant and microbe remediation potential in metal(lloid)s polluted soil.

Bioremediation competence of Aspergillus flavus DDN on pond water contaminated by mining activities

This research was performed to evaluate the possibilities of reducing the physicochemical properties of polluted pond water situated around the magnesite mine tailing through indigenous metal tolerant fungi. The physicochemical analysis results revealed that most of the physicochemical properties of pond water sample were crossing the permissible limits. From the muddy pond soil sample, Aspergillus flavus DDN was identified (through molecular characterization) as predominant metal tolerant fungal strain and it showed resistance to Cr(VI), Pb(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), and Mg(IV) up to 1000 μg mL^-1 concentrations. This strain also effectively reduced (through biosorption) these metals in a short duration of the bioremediation process. In a lab-scale bioremediation study, the A. flavus DDN significantly reduced most of the physicochemical parameters crossing the permissible limit in polluted pond water in the presence of FM1 minimal media in 10 days of incubation. The dissolved oxygen level was significantly increased up to 74.91% from 5.86 ± 0.39 to 10.25 ± 0.95 in 10 days of treatment. The metal reduction and other physicochemical properties reduction were directly related to the biomass of A. flavus DDN. These findings suggest that A. flavus DDN can remove pollutants from magnesite mine tailing polluted pond water because elevated fungal biomass resulted in the highest percentage of pollutant reduction from the sample.

Sustainable bioremediation approach to treat the sago industry effluents and evaluate the possibility of yielded biomass as a single cell protein (SCP) using cyanide tolerant Streptomyces tritici D5

This sustainable approach was performed to evaluate the bioremediation potential of cyanide resistant bacterial species on sago industry effluents and assess the possibility of using the yielded biomass as single cell protein (SCP). The predominant cyanide tolerant bacterium enumerated from muddy soil was identified as Streptomyces tritici D5 through 16S rRNA sequencing. The identified S. tritici D5 strains showed excellent resistant and degradation potential at 100 mM concentration of potassium cyanide. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties analysis of sago industry effluents results revealed that the most of the parameters were crossing the permissible limits of Pollution control board of India. The bioremediation process was performed at various temperatures at 25 °C, 35 °C, and 45 °C for a period of 30 days of continuous bioremediation process with the aid of an aerator. Surprisingly, the best organic pollutant reduction was found at 35 °C and 45 °C, with 25 °C following close behind. Remarkably, the dissolved oxygen (DO) level was gradually increased from 2.24 to 12.04 mg L^-1 at 35 °C in 30 days of the remediation process. The pH and ammonia were also significantly increased during the bioremediation process in 30 days of treatment. Similarly, at 35 °C of bioremediation process the S. tritici D5 yielded maximum dried biomass (6.9 g L^-1) with the total crude protein (SCP) as 4.8 g L^-1 (69.56%) in 30 days of growth. These findings stated that S. tritici D5 can treat sago industry effluents and that the biomass produced may be considered SCP after some in-vitro and in-vivo analyses.

Fabrication, characterization, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized from Azadirachta indica kernel aqueous extract

The Azadirachta indica is an excellent and pharmaceutically valuable phytochemicals enriched traditional medicinal plant. The purpose of the research was to assess the ability of A. indica aqueous kernel extract to synthesize silver nanoparticles as well as their anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic activity in vitro. The obtained results state that the aqueous kernel extract of A. indica can fabricate the silver nanoparticles and be confirmed by standard analytical techniques. Under UV-visible spectrophotometer analysis, the absorbance peak was found at 430 nm was related to the surface plasmon resonance of silver nanoparticles. The FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) analysis revealed that numbers of functional groups belong to the pharmaceutically valuable phytochemicals, which act as reducing, capping, and stabilizing agent on silver nanoparticles synthesis. The size and shape of the silver nanoparticles were examined as 19.27-22.15 nm and spherical in shape. Interestingly, this kernel fabricated silver nanoparticles possess a reasonable anti-inflammatory (69.77%) and anti-diabetic (73.5%) activity at 100 μg mL-1 and these were partially comparable with standards (anti-inflammatory: 81.15%; anti-diabetic: 87.9%). Thus, the aqueous kernel extract fabricated silver nanoparticles can be considered for further in-vivo study to assess the practical possibility to promote as a pharmaceutical agent.

Fungi fabrication, characterization, and anticancer activity of silver nanoparticles using metals resistant Aspergillus niger

The purpose of this study was to assess the bio-fabrication possibilities of pre-isolated (from bauxite mine tailings) metal-tolerant Aspergillus niger biomass filtrate and the anticancer potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) tested with a Human Cervical cancer cell line (HeLa cells: Henrietta Lacks cells). The nitrate reduction test demonstrated that A. niger has the ability to reduce nitrate, and filtrate derived from A. niger biomass efficiently fabricated AgNPs from AgNO₃, as demonstrated by a visible color change from pale greenish to brownish. The UV-visible spectroscopy analysis revealed an absorbance peak at 435 nm, which corresponded to the AgNPs. These AgNPs have been capped and stabilized with several functional groups related to various bioactive molecules such as aldehyde, benzene rings, aldehydic, amines, alcohols, and carbonyl stretch protein molecules. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis confirmed the capping and stabilizing chemical bonding pattern. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) revealed that the synthesized AgNPs were spherical, with an average size of 21.38 nm. This bio-fabricated AgNPs has in-vitro anticancer potential when tested against the HeLa cell line due to its potential size and shape. At 100 g mL^-1 concentrations of this bio-fabricated AgNPs, the anticancer activity percentage was found to be 70.2%, and the IC₅₀ value was found to be 66.32 g m^-1. These findings demonstrated that the metal-tolerant A. niger cell filtrate could produce AgNPs with anticancer potential.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) fabricating potential of aqueous shoot extract of Aristolochia bracteolata and assessed their antioxidant efficiency

This research was performed to evaluate the silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) fabricating potential of aqueous shoot extract of Aristolochia bracteolata and also assess the free radicals scavenging potential of synthesized AgNPs. The results obtained from this study showed that the aqueous shoot extract of A. bracteolata has the potential to synthesize the AgNPs and it was initially confirmed by color change in the reaction blend as yellow to dark brownish. Subsequently, a clear absorbance peak was found at 425 nm in UV-visible spectrum analysis. The functional groups involved in the capping and stabilization of AgNPs were confirmed by Fourier Transform-Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis and recorded about 10 sharp peaks 3688, 3401, 2980, 2370, 1948, 1642, 1480, 1280, 782, and 628 cm^-1. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) observations revealed that the predominant shape of the AgNPs was spherical and size ranged from 41.43 to 60.51 nm. Interestingly, the green fabricated AgNPs showed significant free radicals scavenging activity and were confirmed with ferric reducing assay, 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH), H₂O₂ radicals, and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radicals scavenging activity. Thus, after a few in-vivo antioxidant studies, Aristolochia bracteolata-mediated AgNPs can be considered as an antioxidant agent.

Microbial adaptation and impact into the pesticide's degradation

The imprudent use of agrochemicals to control agriculture and household pests is unsafe for the environment. Hence, to protect the environment and diversity of living organisms, the degradation of pesticides has received widespread attention. There are different physical, chemical, and biological methods used to remediate pesticides in contaminated sites. Compared to other methods, biological approaches and their associated techniques are more effective, less expensive and eco-friendly. Microbes secrete several enzymes that can attach pesticides, break down organic compounds, and then convert toxic substances into carbon and water. Thus, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the functional genes and genomic potential of microbial species for the removal of emerging pollutants. Here we address the knowledge gaps by highlighting systematic biology and their role in adaptation of microbial species from agricultural soils with a history of pesticide usage and profiling shifts in functional genes and microbial taxa abundance. Moreover, by co-metabolism, the microbial species fulfill their nutritional requirements and perform more efficiently than single microbial-free cells. But in an open environment, free cells of microbes are not much prominent in the degradation process due to environmental conditions, incompatibilities with mechanical equipment and difficulties associated with evenly distributing inoculum through the agroecosystem. This review highlights emerging techniques involving the removal of pesticides in a field-scale environment like immobilization, biobed, biocomposites, biochar, biofilms, and bioreactors. In these techniques, different microbial cells, enzymes, natural fibers, and strains are used for the effective biodegradation of xenobiotic pesticides.