Intimate partner violence and child maltreatment: understanding intra- and intergenerational connections

Exposure to maternal experiences of IPV in early childhood and sleep health in adolescence

BACKGROUND

Half of US women will experience intimate partner violence (IPV), and nearly all children in families experiencing such violence will be exposed. The negative effects of IPV exposure on children's mental and physical health are well-documented; however, less is known about effects on children's sleep health, a key marker of well-being.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the associations of early childhood exposure to maternal experiences of IPV with sleep health in adolescence, focusing on multiple dimensions of sleep health and differences by child sex.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

We rely on data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a population-based study following 5000 children in large US cities, from birth to age 15. Analyses are based on 2687 adolescents interviewed at the year-15 follow-up.

METHODS

Early childhood exposure to IPV is based on mothers' reports of her experiences of IPV from the child's birth to age 5. Adolescent sleep health is measured using 6 items approximating the BEARS sleep problem scale, at age 15. We estimate multivariate linear regression models to examine associations of early childhood IPV exposure with adolescent sleep health and stratify models by child sex.

RESULTS

Early childhood IPV exposure is associated with worse overall sleep health (β = 0.08; p < 0.001) and multiple dimensions of poor sleep health in adolescence. Associations are notably stronger among girls than boys.

CONCLUSIONS

The strong and lasting associations of early childhood exposure to IPV with adolescents' sleep health, particularly among girls, has important consequences for addressing adolescent health disparities.

Prevalence of sexual abuse and intimate partner violence in adults with spina bifida

BACKGROUND

People with disabilities and chronic medical conditions are known to be at higher risk of sexual abuse (SA) and intimate partner violence (IPV). People with spina bifida (SB) are vulnerable, but little is known about the prevalence of abuse in this population.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the prevalence and risk factors of SA and IPV in adults with SB.

METHODS

An anonymous international cross-sectional online survey of adults with SB asked about history of SA ("sexual contact that you did not want") and IPV ("hit, slapped, kicked, punched or hurt physically by a partner").

RESULTS

Median age of the 405 participants (61% female) was 35 years. Most self-identified as heterosexual (85%) and were in a romantic relationship (66%). A total of 19% reported a history of SA (78% no SA, 3% preferred not to answer). SA was more frequently reported by women compared to men (27% vs. 5%, p < 0.001) and non-heterosexual adults compared to heterosexuals (41% vs. 15%, p < 0.001). Twelve percent reported a history of IPV (86% no IPV, 2% preferred not to answer). IPV was more frequently reported by women compared to men (14% vs. 9%, p = 0.02), non-heterosexuals compared to heterosexuals (26% vs. 10%, p = 0.002), and adults with a history of sexual activity versus those without (14% vs. 2%, p = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

People with SB are subjected to SA and IPV. Women and non-heterosexuals are at higher risk of both.

Intimate partner violence across pregnancy and the postpartum and the relationship to depression and perinatal wellbeing: findings from a pregnancy cohort study

PURPOSE

To compare the prevalence of emotional and physical intimate partner violence (IPV) across pregnancy and the first year postpartum in those with and without clinical depression and assess the association between maternal childhood trauma, current stressful life events and depression and IPV over the perinatal period.

METHODS

Data were obtained from 505 pregnant women from the Mercy Pregnancy and Emotional Wellbeing Study (MPEWS), a cohort study with data collected across pregnancy until 12 months postpartum. Maternal antenatal depression was measured using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-IV) with repeat measurement of perinatal depressive symptoms using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Trauma was measured using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and experiences of physical and emotional intimate partner violence using items in the Stressful Life Events Scale.

RESULTS

Women experiencing IPV across the perinatal period were significantly more likely to score over 13 on the EPDS (p < .001) at each timepoint in pregnancy and the postpartum and physical IPV was associated with clinical depression. Further, a history of childhood trauma and current additional stressful life events were significantly associated with reporting current IPV in the perinatal period.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirmed the risk factors of childhood trauma and current stressful life events for reporting experiences of IPV in the perinatal period. Furthermore, women experiencing IPV reported higher depressive symptoms, providing evidence supporting the value of assessing those women who screen higher on the EPDS for IPV. Together these findings also support trauma informed care across pregnancy and the postpartum.

Intergenerational effects of child maltreatment on adolescents' anxiety and depression in Ethiopia: the important mediating and moderating roles of current psychological distress

BACKGROUND

Child abuse is widespread around the world, and one continent with particularly high rates is Africa. Research in high- and middle-income countries shows the cascading effect of parental history of child abuse and neglect on adolescents' maltreatment and, in turn, on mental health problems. This cascade has been reported in young children but has rarely been studied in parent-adolescent dyads or in low-income countries (LICs). The goal of this study was to test intergenerational associations of child abuse and neglect and to examine how these experiences are in turn associated with youth anxiety and depression in an LIC.

METHODS

A total of 231 adolescents (age: 13-21 years) and 185 of their parents (n = 90 fathers and n = 95 mothers) were recruited from secondary schools in Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Using a cross-sectional design, participants completed a set of questionnaires assessing child maltreatment (in adolescence and own past history in parents), parental psychological distress, youth depression and anxiety, and sociodemographic factors.

RESULTS

The frequencies of child maltreatment exposure were 68% for adolescents and 65% for their parents (when they were a child). Fifty-one percent and 42% of adolescents had borderline to clinical levels of anxiety and depression symptoms, respectively. Adolescents of parents with a history of child abuse and neglect also reported higher exposure to maltreatment themselves (p < 0.001). Current paternal, but not maternal, psychological distress mediated this intergenerational association of maltreatment experiences (95% CI [1.164, 9.467]). We further found parents' psychological distress to be a significant moderator of the indirect pathways of the intergenerational effect of child maltreatment on adolescents' anxiety and depression (95% CI [- 0.770, - 0.012]).

CONCLUSIONS

We found child maltreatment to be intergenerationally associated, and this effect subsequently affected adolescents' anxiety and depression through different pathways supporting the cascading effects across generations. Intervention plans may be effective through an array of possible indirect pathways and encourage the implementation of multiple access points to facilitate change in the lives of affected youth in Africa.

The relative effects of parental alcohol use disorder and maltreatment on offspring alcohol use: Unique pathways of risk

Childhood adversity represents a robust risk factor for the development of harmful substance use. Although a range of empirical studies have examined the consequences of multiple forms of adversity (i.e., childhood maltreatment, parental alcohol use disorder [AUD]), there is a dearth of information on the relative effects of each form of adversity when considered simultaneously. The current study utilizes structural equation modeling to investigate three unique and amplifying pathways from parental AUD and maltreatment exposure to offspring alcohol use as emerging adults: (1) childhood externalizing symptomatology, (2) internalizing symptomatology, and (3) affiliation with substance-using peers and siblings. Participants (N = 422) were drawn from a longitudinal follow-up study of emerging adults who participated in a research summer camp program as children. Wave 1 of the study included 674 school-aged children with and without maltreatment histories. Results indicated that chronic maltreatment, over and above the effect of parent AUD, was uniquely associated with greater childhood conduct problems and depressive symptomatology. Mother alcohol dependence was uniquely associated with greater affiliation with substance-using peers and siblings, which in turn predicted greater alcohol use as emerging adults. Results support peer and sibling affiliation as a key mechanism in the intergenerational transmission of substance use between mothers and offspring.

A film-based intervention to reduce child maltreatment among migrant and displaced families from Myanmar: Protocol of a pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment is a global public health crisis with negative consequences for physical and mental health. Children in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC)-particularly those affected by poverty, armed conflict, and forced migration-may be at increased risk of maltreatment due to heightened parental distress and disruptions to social support networks. Parenting interventions have been shown to reduce the risk of child maltreatment as well as improve a range of caregiver and child outcomes, yet large-scale implementation remains limited in low-resource displacement settings. This study will examine the impact of an entertainment-education narrative film intervention on reducing physical and emotional abuse and increasing positive parenting among migrant and displaced families from Myanmar living in Thailand.

METHOD

The study is a pragmatic, superiority cluster randomized controlled trial with approximately 40 communities randomized to the intervention or treatment as usual arms in a 1:1 ratio. Participating families in the intervention arm will be invited to attend a community screening of the film intervention and a post-screening discussion, as well as receive a poster depicting key messages from the film. Primary outcomes are changes in physical abuse, emotional abuse, and positive parenting behaviour. Secondary outcomes include caregiver knowledge of positive parenting, caregiver attitudes towards harsh punishment, caregiver psychological distress, and family functioning. Outcomes will be assessed at 3 time points: baseline, 4 weeks post-intervention, and 4-month follow up. A mixed methods process evaluation will be embedded within the trial to assess intervention delivery, acceptability, perceived impacts, and potential mechanisms of change.

DISCUSSION

To our knowledge, this study will be the first randomized controlled trial evaluation of a film-based intervention to reduce child maltreatment among migrant and displaced families in a LMIC. An integrated knowledge translation approach will inform uptake of study findings and application to potential scale up pending evaluation results.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was prospectively registered with the Thai Clinical Trials Registry on 22 February 2023 (TCTR20230222005).

[Adverse Childhood Experiences in Mothers and Intergenerational Family Violence]

For children, own adverse experiences, as well as their exposure to intimate partner violence poses a severe risk for health and development. In order to answer the question of intergenerational transmission of family violence, adverse childhood experiences in mothers are considered to be a significant risk factor for the occurrence of child maltreatment and intimate partner violence in families, which, however, has been little studied in Germany. Therefore, this paper uses cross-sectional data of 5.646 mothers that was taken fromthe representative study "Kinder in Deutschland - KiD 0-3". Multiple binary-logical regression models were calculated in order to examine the influence ofmaternal adverse childhood experiences on various forms of family violence. As a result, 823 mothers (9,3 %) reported adverse childhood experiences; 157 (2,8 %) admitted that their child had already been exposed to physical harm or harsh punishment, and 168 (3,0%) reported intimate partner violence since the birth of their child, respectively 493 (8,7 %) since any past relationship. Taking demographic and socioeconomic factors into account, the occurrence of all three forms of violence becamemore likely inmothers with adverse childhood experiences: physical harm of the child (OR = 2,78, p ≤ 0,001), current intimate partner violence of themother (OR = 3,76, p ≤ 0,001), as well as her lifetime experiences in general (OR = 3,67, p ≤ 0,001). Therefore, the support and guidance of families (e.g., by early childhood interventions) should take into account the connection between negative maternal childhood experiences, as well as familial forms of violence, and, if applicable, make generous preventative offers. In case of signs for familial violence, additional protective steps should be applied.

Intergenerational Continuity of Childhood Adversity and Its Underlying Mechanisms Among Teen Mothers and Their Offspring

The present study investigates how parenting stress mediates the intergenerational continuity of childhood adversity in teenage mothers. Childhood adversity experiences of caregivers significantly affect their offspring's exposure to childhood adversity. However, little is known about the mechanisms linking childhood adversity across generations. The study measures how parental distress and parent-child dysfunctional interaction mediate the association between teen mothers' childhood adversity and their offspring's adversity, measuring when the offspring reached 11.5 years of age. The results revealed that parental distress, but not parent-child dysfunctional interaction, mediated the association between teen mothers' child abuse and their offspring's household dysfunction. This suggests that parental distress may be a crucial intervention target to prevent the intergenerational continuity of childhood adversity. The findings imply that efforts to prevent the intergenerational continuity of childhood adversity may be more successful if the public and professionals have a broader understanding of the associations between early adversity and parenting contexts. In conclusion, the study shed light on the potential mechanisms underlying the intergenerational continuity of childhood adversity and highlights the importance of targeting parenting stress, specifically parental distress, as an intervention strategy to prevent the perpetuation of childhood adversity across generations.

Youth Attitudes to Domestic and Family Violence: A Scoping Review of Young People's Attitudes and Perceptions in Australia

Domestic and family violence (DFV) has been described as a "national emergency" in Australia, with a suite of policies and interventions introduced over the past decade to better support women and their children. Within these frameworks, young people have been identified as agents of change for primary prevention; however, little is known about their attitudes and knowledge of DFV. This scoping review thus sought to establish the attitudes and knowledge of DFV held by young people (under 25 years old) in Australia. Nine international databases were searched, yielding 11 studies that met the inclusion criteria. The studies were quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods in design, with the findings demonstrating that young Australians have good knowledge about DFV. However, the review also indicates problematic areas around young people's understanding of the harms of DFV with many continuing to hold victim-blaming attitudes. In addition, much of the existing research is survey-based in nature, there is no strong uniformity across the studies, nor is there an engaged approach to research design. Moreover, the current measures used in research are not sufficient to gauge where young people gain knowledge about DFV, nor do they explain under what conditions attitudes change or what are the medium- and long-term effects of DFV prevention work. We therefore contend that future research ought to be interdisciplinary and intersectional in nature and collaborate with a range of young people in order to understand their full potential as agents of social change and primary prevention.

Breaking the Cycle of Intergenerational Childhood Maltreatment: Effects on Offspring Mental Health

This study evaluated how continuities and discontinuities in the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment affect offspring psychopathology. Data from a multigenerational prospective, longitudinal study were used to compare the severity of offspring psychopathology in families with no history of maltreatment (controls) and those in which parents, offspring, or both experienced childhood maltreatment (cycle breakers, initiators, and maintainers, respectively). Participants included 454 parents (M_age = 47.1, SD_age = 3.4) and their 697 offspring (M_age = 22.3, SD_age = 6.3). Offspring of cycle breakers reported less psychopathology than offspring of cycle maintainers and did not report more psychopathology than offspring of controls. Offspring of cycle initiators and maintainers reported comparable levels of psychopathology. Results suggest that breaking the cycle of maltreatment buffers offspring from risk for psychopathology associated with parental maltreatment, with no enduring or additive effects of maltreatment across generations. Our findings highlight the need for maltreatment prevention programs and further research to identify conditions and characteristics that reduce the probability of intergenerational transmission.

Childhood Community Risk Factors on Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration and Victimization Among College Students

The study examined the effect of community environments, such as community cohesion, community safety, and community poverty, in childhood on the likelihood of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) perpetration and victimization in young adulthood. The study used the cross-sectional survey data of 2,082 college students collected in 2016-2017 from six universities in the U.S. and the data for the childhood community environment from the 2007-2011 American Community Survey. Hierarchical regressions were performed separately by gender to 1) assess the effects of community factors in addition to individual factors for IPV perpetration and victimization, and to 2) identify the interaction effect of community cohesion with community poverty on IPV perpetration and victimization. Community factors of community cohesion and community poverty were significantly correlated to different types of IPV. For IPV perpetration, only community cohesion was significant for, the interaction effect between community cohesion and poverty showed that higher community cohesion lowered the risk of community poverty on later IPV perpetration in both genders. For IPV victimization, only female students were affected by community poverty, whereas none of the community factors had an impact on male students. The findings imply the significance of early interventions and policies strengthening the community environment, especially community cohesion, for preventing IPV. The findings also suggest that assessing risk and protective factors on IPV in multiple contexts during childhood is important to develop effective programs preventing IPV.

Intergenerational Transmission of Violence Among Substance-Abusing Chinese Parents: Roles of Detachment and Social Support

Despite a large population of registered people with drug addiction, child protection in substance-abusing families is a neglected issue in China. The present study aims to investigate the association between parents' childhood abuse history and the risk of abusing their own children in substance-abusing Chinese families and also to examine the mediating role of detachment and moderating role of social support during the intergenerational transmission of abuse. A total of 173 men and 116 women were selected using cluster sampling from two compulsory drug rehabilitation centers in Jiangsu Province. Results indicated that one's childhood abuse history was positively associated with the current perpetration of child abuse for both fathers and mothers. Detachment mediated the linkage between a history of childhood maltreatment and perpetration of child abuse in all types of abuse for both men and women except for women's sexual abuse. Social support from family members buffered the intergenerational transmission of child abuse for fathers but not for mothers. Child maltreatment in substance-abusing families is an urgent issue that needs measures to prevent the intergenerational transmission of violence in China. Intervention programs could involve helping parents cope with their childhood abuse history through rebuilding secure attachment and facilitating social support for their parenting practices, especially for fathers.

Health insurance expansion and family violence prevention: A conceptual framework

Family violence, including child maltreatment (CM) and intimate partner violence (IPV), plagues far too many American families, particularly those in low-income communities. CM and IPV are intertwined and impose a significant emotional, health and financial burden on children and families and an economic burden on our country. Although these and other forms of violence are influenced by shared risk factors across the socioecological spectrum, prevention efforts typically intervene on a single type of violence at a microsystem level via individual or family intervention. Research is needed to identify policies operating at macrosystem levels that reduce, at scale, multiple forms of violence affecting children. In this paper, we propose a three-step theory of change through which health insurance expansions might reduce rates of CM and IPV, using Medicaid expansion as an exemplar. The proposed framework can inform research examining the link between health insurance and the primary prevention of CM and IPV.

Attachment, Trauma, and Mentalization in Intimate Partner Violence: A Preliminary Investigation

Intimate partner violence (IPV) has been examined from a range of theoretical perspectives, including attachment theory, with the aim of assessing psychosocial risk factors. Previous research has shown that a child's exposure to violence in the family is a major predictor of IPV victimization later in life. Furthermore, research on abused and traumatized adult samples has shown high frequencies of unresolved/disorganized attachment styles. In particular, disorganized attachment is associated with major problems of affect regulation and deficits in mentalizing ability. The present research had three aims: (a) to assess the childhood traumatic experiences of female victims of IPV; (b) to investigate and identify the attachment patterns of female victims of IPV; and (c) to examine reflective functioning and prementalistic modes in female victims of IPV, in relation to attachment and trauma. A sample of 31 women, recruited through anti-violence centers, were administered the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) and the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire. The Complex Trauma Questionnaire and the Reflective Functioning Scale (RFS) were also applied to the AAI transcripts. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Coding was conducted by two trained coders and certified as reliable for the AAI and RFS. Clinicians completed the Modes of Mentalization Scale (MMS) to assess participants' mentalization style. The data showed a high percentage of women with insecure attachment and lower reflective functioning. The results are discussed in terms of their clinical and theoretical implications-particularly their application to psycho-forensics, through the development of preventive programs and interventions for IPV. Efforts to understand the etiology of IPV and to intervene to prevent recidivism are fundamental in reducing this public health threat.

Intimate Partner Violence Among Women of Reproductive Age in Nicaragua: Results From a Nationwide Survey

This article aims to identify the factors associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) using data from the latest available nationwide survey in Nicaragua. A secondary analysis of the 2011-2012 Nicaraguan Demography and Health Survey (ENDESA 2011-2012) was conducted. A total of 12,605 women aged 15-49 years who had reported being married or united were included. IPV (yes/no) was defined as the outcome variable, and it was considered if a woman suffered verbal, psychological, physical, or sexual violence during the previous 12 months. Crude and adjusted odds ratios with 95% CI were calculated using a bivariate and multivariate logistic regression model. A p value <.05 was considered statistically significant and did not correct p values for multiple testing. The overall prevalence of IPV was 17.5%. Women living in urban setting (AOR: 1.51, 95% CI: 1.26-1.80), women who self-identify as native (AOR: 1.34, 95% CI: 1.34-1.61) or women who have a history of abuse as a child (AOR: 1.96, 95% CI: 1.69-2.27) were more likely to suffer IPV compared to their counterparts. Age was found to be a protective factor for IPV. Variables such as educational level and wealth index, do not report any association with IPV. Our findings shows that IPV in Nicaragua continues to be a frequent event. The results provide evidence of drivers for IPV at a national level. These findings are useful for the design of intervention policies and strategies for the prevention of IPV.

An ecological study on the association between early childhood caries and intimate partner violence in 20 low- and middle-income countries: 2007-2017

Background: Women are the worst affected by intimate partner violence (IPV), and this impacts negatively on the health of the children they care for. This study aimed to determine the associations between IPV and the prevalence of early childhood caries (ECC) in 3-5-year-olds. Methods: This was an ecological study using IPV (physical, sexual, emotional) data extracted from the Demographic Health Survey of 20 low- and middle-income countries and ECC data for 3-5-year-olds of the same countries for the period 2007-2017. Linear regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between the percentage of 3-5-year-olds with ECC (outcome variable) and IPV indicators (physical, sexual, emotional). The model was adjusted for the country's gross national income and the percentage of women with secondary or higher education. Partial eta squared (ηp ²), regression coefficients, confidence intervals and p-values were calculated. Results: Data on ECC in 3-5-year-olds and IPV were available for six low-income-countries, 10 lower-middle-income-countries and four upper-middle-income-countries. The most prevalent form of IPV was physical violence (10.09%). The Democratic Republic of Congo had the highest prevalence of physical violence (45.8%), sexual violence (25.4%), and ECC (80.0%). The strongest association was between the prevalence of ECC and emotional violence (ηp ²=0.01), followed by physical violence (ηp ²=0.005), and sexual violence (ηp ²=0.003). For every 1% higher prevalence of emotional violence, there was 0.28% higher prevalence of ECC, and for every 1% higher percentage of physical violence, there was 0.21% higher prevalence of ECC. On the contrary, for every 1% higher prevalence of sexual violence, there was 0.35% lower prevalence of ECC prevalence. Conclusions: Emotional and sexual violence where the two types of IPV associated with the prevalence of ECC. The associations were minor and the directions of their effects were difference. These findings need to be studied further.

An ecological study on the association between early childhood caries and intimate partner violence in 20 low- and middle-income countries: 2007-2017

Background: Women are the worst affected by intimate partner violence (IPV), and this impacts negatively on the health of the children they care for. This study aimed to determine the associations between IPV and the prevalence of early childhood caries (ECC) in 3-5-year-olds. Methods: This was an ecological study using IPV (physical, sexual, emotional) data extracted from the Demographic Health Survey of 20 low- and middle-income countries and ECC data for 3-5-year-olds of the same countries for the period 2007-2017. Linear regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between the percentage of 3-5-year-olds with ECC (outcome variable) and IPV indicators (physical, sexual, emotional). The model was adjusted for the country's gross national income and the percentage of women with secondary or higher education. Partial eta squared (ηp 2), regression coefficients, confidence intervals and p-values were calculated. Results: Data on ECC in 3-5-year-olds and IPV were available for six low-income-countries, 10 lower-middle-income-countries and four upper-middle-income-countries. The most prevalent form of IPV was physical violence (10.09%). The Democratic Republic of Congo had the highest prevalence of physical violence (45.8%), sexual violence (25.4%), and ECC (80.0%). The strongest association was between the prevalence of ECC and emotional violence (ηp 2=0.01), followed by physical violence (ηp 2=0.005), and sexual violence (ηp 2=0.003). For every 1% higher prevalence of emotional violence, there was 0.28% higher prevalence of ECC, and for every 1% higher percentage of physical violence, there was 0.21% higher prevalence of ECC. On the contrary, for every 1% higher prevalence of sexual violence, there was 0.35% lower prevalence of ECC prevalence. Conclusions: Emotional and sexual violence where the two types of IPV associated with the prevalence of ECC. The associations were minor and the directions of their effects were difference. These findings need to be studied further.

Childhood Maltreatment and Mid-Life Adult Sexuality: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study

One important long-term outcome of childhood maltreatment is thought to be impairments in intimate relationships. However, the specific nature of these impairments is not well understood. To address this gap, we examined the long-term relation of sexual, emotional, and physical abuse/neglect to four key aspects of sexuality in women and men: importance of sex, intimacy in sex, pain during sex, and pleasure during sex. As part of the U.S. longitudinal National Survey of Midlife Development, 807 participants in their mid-life (410 women, 397 men) completed measures of recollected childhood maltreatment and current aspects of adult sexuality. These measures were obtained at baseline (at which time the mean age was 53.28 years (SD = 10.97) and again 10 years later. For women at baseline, emotional abuse was positively associated with pleasure, emotional neglect was negatively associated with intimacy and with pleasure, physical abuse was positively associated with pain, and physical neglect was associated with importance of sex. For men, no significant associations were found. Prospectively, for women, sexual abuse predicted increases in pleasure during sex, and physical abuse significantly predicted increases in pain during sex. For men, physical neglect significantly predicted increases in pain. We discuss these sex differences and the role these results may play in the detrimental long-term effects of childhood maltreatment.

Understanding Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Involving the Deaf Population

There has been an increase in intimate partner violence (IPV) research regarding the deaf population; however, no studies to date obtained data directly from members of the deaf population who disclose IPV perpetration. This community-based participatory research study explored the social context of IPV perpetration involving the deaf population through interviews with deaf or hard-of-hearing individuals who self-identified as perpetrating either physical or sexual abuse in an intimate relationship where at least one partner was deaf. Through semi-structured interviews using video relay, an interdisciplinary research team, which included deaf investigators, explored questions which included IPV triggers, types of IPV, weapon use, childhood victimization, and interactions with first responders and response systems (e.g., criminal justice, medical). The types of IPV abuse, resulting injuries, and systems used are discussed. The team collectively identified key elements of abuse and their relationships to each other through concept mapping of each interview. Through a method of constant comparison, we identified several themes: intergenerational transmission of violence, fund of information concerns, communication barriers with family and friends and resulting frustration, and help-seeking challenges. Many of these themes are specific to the deaf population, illustrating the need for continued research to understand IPV in diverse communities. Findings are compared with IPV trends in the general (hearing) population, and prompt concerns that universal IPV interventions may not effectively address the needs of the deaf population. Recommendations for diversifying screening efforts, modifying screening tools, and tailoring interventions to better address IPV involving deaf and hard-of-hearing populations are discussed.

Maternal Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence and Child Immunisation: Insights from a Population-based Study in India

Child immunisation is regarded as one of the most essential public health interventions for reducing morbidity and mortality among children. Despite several public healthcare initiatives, a considerable proportion of children are yet to be covered under vaccination service in India. This study attempts to examine the association between maternal exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) and childhood immunisation in India. Data were drawn from the fourth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), conducted in 2015–16. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were employed to assess the associations. About 65% of sample children aged 11–23 months were fully vaccinated. After adjusting for socio-demographic factors, women’s exposure to emotional IPV was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of full immunisation (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 0.74, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.61–0.90) among children. However, physical and sexual IPV had no significant association with childhood immunisation status in the adjusted analysis. The findings suggest preventive measures against domestic violence to reduce the risk of poor child healthcare services. Furthermore, efforts should be taken for effective reproductive and child healthcare programmes, especially among socio-economically vulnerable women and children, to improve child vaccination coverage.

Intergenerational Cycles of Maltreatment: A Scoping Review of Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors

Child maltreatment tends to show intergenerational continuity. However, a significant proportion of maltreated parents break these cycles. Since several studies have investigated risk and protective factors associated with the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment over the past decades, and no systematic review of the literature is available, this scoping review aimed to summarize studies documenting associated psychosocial risk and protective factors. A secondary objective was to document the prevalence of this phenomenon. A search in six major databases (PsycINFO, Scopus, Medline, Social Work Abstracts, ProQuest Dissertations/Theses, and Web of Science) was conducted. Studies involving human participants, presenting original findings, written in French or English, and of any type of design were included. There was no limit regarding the date of publication, except for theses/dissertations (5 years). A final sample of 51 papers was retained, 33 providing data on risk and protective factors and 18 providing only prevalence data. Results indicate that parents' individual characteristics (e.g., mental health, age), childhood adversity (e.g., multiple forms of adversity), relational (e.g., couples' adjustment, attachment, social support), and contextual factors (e.g., disadvantage, community violence) are relevant to the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment. Prevalence rates of continuity ranged from 7% to 88%. Major limitations of reviewed studies are discussed. Continued efforts to uncover the mechanisms associated with the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment using strong methodological designs are necessary. Knowledge in this area could lead to the development of effective prevention strategies (e.g., mental health services for parents, family/dyadic interventions) to break harmful intergenerational cycles of violence.

Mothers' Experience of Intimate Partner Violence and Subsequent Offspring Attachment Security Ages 1-5 Years: A Meta-Analysis

Attachment status in early childhood is a key yet modifiable contributor to the development of social-emotional competence. The security and organization of the infant-mother attachment bond is particularly susceptible to stressors in the caregiving environment. While the impacts of normative interparental conflict on infant attachment are increasingly understood, the potentially unique place of intimate partner violence (IPV) in this pathway has been under-researched. This study surveyed all empirical work in this area, including unpublished literature (k = 6, N = 3,394), to examine meta-analytic associations between maternal experiences of IPV and offspring attachment security (ages 1-5 years) measured at least 6 months post-IPV exposure. Mothers' reports of IPV from pregnancy onward were inversely associated with offspring attachment security, r = -.23, CI [-0.42, -0.04], p = .02. Sample risk characteristics (e.g., clinical vs. community) moderated this association; child's age at attachment measurement and method of assessing child attachment (e.g., observational, representational, parent report) also moderated at a trend level. Implications for early screening, intervention, and future research are discussed.

Afghan Women's Use of Violence against Their Children and Associations with IPV, Adverse Childhood Experiences and Poverty: A Cross-Sectional and Structural Equation Modelling Analysis

Children who experience violence from a parent are more likely to experience and perpetrate intimate partner violence (IPV) later in life. Drawing on cross-sectional data among married women enrolled in the baseline of a randomized control trial in Afghanistan, we assess risk factors for women's use of violence against their children, focused on women's own adverse childhood experiences and experiences of IPV, poverty, poor mental health and gender attitudes. Analysis uses logistic regression and structural equation modelling (SEM). In total 744 married women reported on their use of violence against a child, with 71.8% (n = 534) reporting this in the past month. In regression models, their own experiences of witnessing their mother being physically abused, poverty during childhood, current food insecurity, their husband using corporal punishment on their child, current IPV experience, and other violence in the home were all associated with increased likelihood of women reporting corporal punishment. In the SEM, three pathways emerged linking women's childhood trauma and poverty to use of corporal punishment. One pathway was mediated by poor mental health, a second was mediated by wider use of violence in the home and a third from food insecurity mediated by having more gender inequitable attitudes. Addressing the culture of violence in the home is critical to reducing violence against children, as well as enabling treatment of parental mental health problems and generally addressing gender equity.

Happily Ever After? Life Satisfaction After Childhood Exposure to Violence

A plethora of research has linked exposure to violence during childhood to negative long-term physical health, mental health, and risk behavior outcomes. Yet, despite estimates that up to 60% of children in the United States will be exposed to violence, little is known about the impact on adult life satisfaction among different racial and ethnic groups, or for different types of violence exposure. This article seeks to explore factors that are associated with life satisfaction in adults who were exposed to family violence or physically abused as a child, while adjusting race, ethnicity, gender, and emotional support. Employing data from the 2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), links are examined between childhood exposure to violence and adult life satisfaction. For this study, noninstitutionalized adults aged 18 and above in the United States were included. Adults who reported exposure to physical abuse as a child had lower odds of reporting life satisfaction, and those with both physical abuse and interpersonal violence exposure had the lowest odds of long-term life satisfaction. Higher levels of income, emotional support, and marriage were associated with higher levels of satisfaction for both adults who were not exposed to violence as children and those who were. After controlling for sociodemographic factors, adults who identified as Asian or Pacific Islander had higher odds of reporting life satisfaction than their Caucasian counterparts. Implications from these findings include targeting interventions to increase emotional support and social networks for individuals who have been exposed to violence.

Does Gottman's Marital Communication Conceptualization Inform Teen Dating Violence? Communication Skill Deficits Analyzed Across Three Samples of Diverse Adolescents

Communication skill deficits are thought to contribute to teen dating violence (TDV), parallel to the inclusion of these throughout prevention curricula. Communication research among adolescents is highly underdeveloped, although a preliminary study utilizing Gottman's marital communication conceptualization found that a majority of negative communication behaviors predictive of marital distress were also associated with relationship aggression among primarily White college students. Our aim was to replicate this study with diverse samples of adolescents (50.3% Latino, 23.5% Black; M_age = 16.06). Urban high school youth, pregnant and parenting youth in residential foster care, and youth in urban after-school programs self-reported on their use of maladaptive and adaptive communication behaviors, relationship quality (i.e., satisfaction, commitment), and emotional, physical, sexual, relational, and threatening dating violence. Across samples, maladaptive communication and particularly flooding (i.e., the tendency to become overwhelmed, leave the argument) and the four horsemen (i.e., a cascading and negative communication sequence) were associated with higher likelihood of multiple types of TDV. Relationship quality was associated with decreased likelihood for TDV among high school and after-school youth samples, but with increased likelihood among youth in foster care. Results indicate that youth utilize a wide range of both adaptive and maladaptive communication behaviors, and that similar maladaptive patterns predictive of relationship distress in young adulthood and in marriage are also associated with distress in adolescents' dating relationships. Equipping youth with adaptive communication skills as part of a comprehensive approach to reducing TDV and enhancing healthy relationships is meaningful for diverse adolescents. Further research is warranted concerning youth's perceptions of relationship quality and risk of TDV.

Does Childhood Psychological Abuse Contribute to Intimate Partner Violence Victimization? An Investigation Using the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse Interview

Although psychological abuse is recognized as a particularly insidious form of child abuse, research on the impact of this type of abuse related to intimate partner violence (IPV) is scant. This study examined the contribution of childhood psychological abuse to IPV in female victims and non-victims. Furthermore, it investigated the role of cumulative abuse in predicting IPV. The study included 38 women victims of IPV and 40 non-IPV women. All participants were investigated using the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse Interview (CECA); the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2) and the IPV History Interview were used to assess IPV in the last year and lifetime, respectively. Results indicated that psychological abuse was a stronger predictor of IPV than other maltreatment types. Furthermore, dose-response effects of cumulative abuse on IPV are well evidenced. Future research should continue examining impacts of psychological abuse on IPV so as to further inform clinical practice and intervention planning.

Males as victims of intimate partner violence - results from a clinical-forensic medical examination centre

Only few studies have reported on males as victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) so far. The aim of the present study is to analyse frequency and case characteristics of physical violence against male IPV victims examined in a clinical-forensic medical examination centre for victims of violence in Germany over an 11-year period, contributing to a better understanding of IPV in men. Male victims represented 6.2% of IPV cases (n = 167) with a median age of 40 years. Cases were reported to the police in 78.4% before medicolegal examination. In 60.5% of the cases, the perpetrator was the current partner, and 82% occurred in a domestic environment with a predominance of female offenders. In more than half of the cases (57.5%), the victims consulted the examination centre without prior healthcare utilisation. About one-third of the victims reported previous IPV (31.7%). The findings point to the relevance of men as victims of IPV, case group–specific risk factors, injury-dependent behaviour related to healthcare utilisation, the need to establish or strengthen specialised support services for affected men and underscore the importance of clinical-forensic services in documenting and assessing violence-related injuries.

How do young people who have experienced parental intimate partner abuse make sense of romantic relationships? A qualitative analysis

BACKGROUND

Approximately one in five children in UK have experienced parental intimate partner abuse (IPA). Research suggests that this is one of the strongest predictors of interpersonal aggression within adult relationships, as well as having significant negative impacts on mental and physical health. Both Attachment Theory (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970; Bowlby, 1969) and Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) attempt to explain this intergenerational cycle of abuse.

OBJECTIVE

In line with Birmingham City Council's Domestic Abuse Prevention Strategy 2016-2020, the present study aimed to qualitatively explore the way in which young people who have experienced parental IPA make sense of romantic relationships.

PARTICIPANTS

Six young people (females = 4, males = 2), aged between 10-13 years (M = 11.16, SD = 1.17), participated in the study.

METHOD

Semi-structured interviews were conducted, and the data were analysed using Framework Analysis to generate themes both inductively and deductively.

RESULTS

Three superordinate themes were identified, namely 'Recipe for a Healthy Relationship', 'When Things Go Wrong', and 'What is a Romantic Relationship?'. Concepts of equality and respect were frequently referenced by participants as part of the interviews. Findings are discussed in relation to practical implications and directions for future research.

Pathways from Maternal Adverse Childhood Experiences to Substance Use in Pregnancy: Findings from the All Our Families Cohort

Background: Exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) is a risk factor for maternal substance use in pregnancy, however, mechanisms by which maternal ACEs may influence substance use in pregnancy have not been fully explored. The current study examines the association between maternal ACEs and substance use in pregnancy (i.e., alcohol, smoking, and drug use) and explores mediating pathways. Methods: A community sample of 1,994 women as part of the All Our Families Cohort were recruited in pregnancy in Calgary, Canada, between 2008 and 2011. Women provided retrospective reports of ACE exposure before age 18 as well as reports of demographic information, substance use (i.e., moderate-to-high alcohol use, any smoking, or any drug use), a previous history of substance use difficulties, and depressive symptoms during pregnancy. Path analyses were used to examine maternal income, education, depression, and previous substance use as mediating variables. Results: There were significant indirect associations between maternal ACEs and maternal substance use in pregnancy via maternal education (β = 0.05, p < 0.001), previous substance use (β = 0.01, p = 0.001), and depression (β = 0.02, p = 0.02). The direct effect of maternal ACEs on maternal substance in pregnancy remained significant after accounting for the indirect effects (β = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.15-0.29, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Exposure to adversity in childhood can lead to socioeconomic and mental health difficulties that increase risk for substance use in pregnancy. Addressing these difficulties before pregnancy may help to reduce the potential for substance use in pregnancy.

Physical, Emotional, and Sexual Victimization Across Three Generations: a Cross-Sectional Study

Using data gathered from grandparents (G1), parents (G2), and young adults (G3), this study examines the continuity of intergenerational victimization (physical, emotional, and sexual) across three generations. The study included data from 168 participants within three generations: grandparents, G1 (19.2% male, 80.8% female, M = 78.13 years old); parents, G2 (25.5% male, 74.5% female, M = 50.13 years old); and young adults, G3 (40% male, 60% female, M = 21.10 years old). The data is analyzed at two levels: (1) bivariate analyses to address relationships between the variables studied by Spearman's correlations, and (2) a path model to examine the intergenerational abuse simultaneously considering all variables. Overall, path modeling showed that experienced abuse demonstrated continuity from G1 to G2 and from G2 to G3. Specifically, findings indicated that grandparents' physical and psychological victimization has a direct effect on parents' sexual and physical abuse victimization, respectively. Additionally, parents' physical victimization has a direct effect on young adults' psychological and sexual victimization, while parents' psychological victimization has a direct effect on young adults' physical and sexual victimization. These findings highlight the need for preventive interventions focused on breaking intergenerational cycles of abuse.

Exposure to family violence from childhood to adulthood

Background

Both childhood maltreatment (CM) and intimate partner violence (IPV) are public health problems that have been related to a wide range of adverse health consequences. However, studies examining associations between specific types of CM and experiencing IPV in adulthood have yielded conflicting results.

Methods

Using data from 10,608 men and 11,458 women aged 18 or older from Canada’s 2014 General Social Survey, we examined associations between three types of CM—childhood physical abuse (CPA), childhood sexual abuse (CSA), and childhood exposure to IPV —and subsequent intimate partner violence (IPV) in adulthood (physical, sexual or emotional).

Results

When potential confounders were controlled, CPA, CSA and childhood exposure to IPV were associated with IPV in adulthood for both sexes (odds ratios, 1.7, 1.8 and 2.0 for men, and 2.2, 2.0 and 2.1 for women). When severity and frequency of CM were examined, a dose-response relationship between all three types of CM and IPV in adulthood was observed among women (meaning that as the severity/frequency of CM increased, the likelihood of reporting IPV also increased); among men, a dose-response relationship was observed only for CPA.

Conclusions

The association between CM and IPV in adulthood is particularly concerning because experiencing multiple forms of trauma has cumulative effects. Lifespan studies have shown that individuals who experience multiple incidents of abuse exhibit the highest levels of impairment. This underscores the importance of programs to eradicate both CM and IPV. This underscores the importance of programs to eradicate both CM and IPV. Future research should focus on assessing interventions designed to promote healthy relationships and the provision of emotional support and coping mechanisms to children and families in abusive situations.

Environmental Dysfunctions, Childhood Maltreatment and Women's Intimate Partner Violence Victimization

Childhood maltreatment is considered a crucial explanatory variable for intimate partner violence (IPV) in adulthood. However, a developmental multifactorial model for the etiology of IPV is not shared by researchers yet. This study has investigated the role of a wide range of childhood maltreatments and family and social dysfunctions in predicting IPV; furthermore, it tests a model where childhood maltreatment mediates the relationship between environmental dysfunctions and IPV. The sample included 78 women: IPV (38) and non-IPV (40). The Italian version of the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse (CECA) Interview was used to assess the presence of adverse childhood experiences. The Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2) and the IPV History Interview were used to assess IPV in the last year and lifetime, respectively. The results of a multivariate logistic regression model have indicated that only sexual (odds ratio [OR] = 4.24) and psychological (OR = 3.45) abuse significantly predicted IPV; with regard to association between IPV and environmental dysfunctions, only poor social support (OR = 8.91) significantly predicted IPV. The results of a mediation model have shown that childhood psychological and sexual abuse, in association with each other, partially mediate the relationship between poor social support and IPV. The findings from this study pinpoint poor social support as an important predictor of IPV so far neglected in the literature on the developmental antecedents of IPV. They also support the theoretical assumption according to which dysfunctional environmental variables and types of childhood maltreatment interacting with each other may influence development outcomes.

Effects of Early-Life Stress on the Brain and Behaviors: Implications of Early Maternal Separation in Rodents

Early-life stress during the prenatal and postnatal periods affects the formation of neural networks that influence brain function throughout life. Previous studies have indicated that maternal separation (MS), a typical rodent model equivalent to early-life stress and, more specifically, to child abuse and/or neglect in humans, can modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, affecting subsequent neuronal function and emotional behavior. However, the neural basis of the long-lasting effects of early-life stress on brain function has not been clarified. In the present review, we describe the alterations in the HPA-axis activity-focusing on serum corticosterone (CORT)-and in the end products of the HPA axis as well as on the CORT receptor in rodents. We then introduce the brain regions activated during various patterns of MS, including repeated MS and single exposure to MS at various stages before weaning, via an investigation of c-Fos expression, which is a biological marker of neuronal activity. Furthermore, we discuss the alterations in behavior and gene expression in the brains of adult mice exposed to MS. Finally, we ask whether MS repeats itself and whether intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect is possible.

Women's Experiences of Domestic Violence during Pregnancy: A Qualitative Research in Greece

This qualitative research is the second part of a quantitative research that aims at recording the phenomenon of violence in pregnancy. The first part was carried out during August and September 2009 (N = 546). It was found out that the rate partner’s violence was 6%, while for 3.4% of the pregnant women, abuse started after the pregnancy. In the second part of this research, the semi-structured interview was used to investigate the way pregnant women experience violence. The sample comprised seven women abused by their partner (Ν = 7) at the women’s shelters of “Mitera” Babies’ Center and the National Social Solidarity Center between September 2010 and December 2011 and who accepted to participate in the research. The targets of the research were the investigation of the risk factors for the manifestation of violence, the profile of the victim and the perpetrator, the consequences of abuse for the woman, her reproductive health and the fetus. The majority of the abused pregnant women were foreigners and only two were Greek. The latter had experienced severe traumas (physical and psychological) since their childhood. Violence in their lives is the main characteristic of the foreign women seeking a better life in Greece, too. Alcohol use or abuse by the partners, poor socioeconomic background of the mothers and their partners, and pregnancy per se are the main risk factors of the violence against women in this period of their lives. Violence resulted in miscarriage in one case, while abortion was the alternative chosen by another as a solution to social exclusion and possible domestic violence. Anxiety and despair were the main psychological consequences. The small number of women included in the collection of qualitative data is a limitation for the research and decreases the reliability index of its results.

Longitudinal Trajectory of Exposure to Psychological Interpersonal Violence

Psychological intimate partner violence (P-IPV) refers to verbal abuse from one partner to another and abuse of power or control from one partner to another. To date, no studies have examined the longitudinal course of P-IPV exposure among mothers or the effect that witnessing P-IPV can have on their children. Using latent class growth analysis, the current study identified five trajectory groups with the following intercept and growth characteristics: low stable, low-increasing, moderate-decreasing, high-decreasing, and consistently elevated. Membership in the four groups characterized by higher P-IPV exposure was predicted by maternal race and exposure to physical abuse. The children of mothers in the low-increasing and consistently elevated groups had elevated scores on the Internalizing and Externalizing scales of the Childhood Behavior Checklist. These findings remained after controlling for child sex, race, cumulative trauma exposure, and maternal depression.

The global politics of the age-gender divide in violence against women and children

Decades of collective and cumulative work by practitioners, activists and researchers have made violence prevention an important part of international development agendas. However, violence prevention and response work addressing women and children has historically been siloed. Those working at the intersection of violence against women (VaW) and violence against children (VaC) have wrestled with the age-gender divide. Addressing the historical and political influences that underpin this divide will likely enhance progress towards more integrated strategies. This paper examines the origins and development of this polarisation and potential strategies for a more coordinated and collaborative agenda. This paper draws on the insights gained from eleven (11) semi-structured interviews conducted with key violence prevention actors in VaW and VaC from across the globe, alongside relevant published literature. Informants were purposively sampled on the basis of their expertise in the field. Findings reveal key differences and tensions between the two fields, including in collection and use of research and evidence, core conceptual frameworks, and the development, funding and implementation of policy and practice. Potential opportunities for future synergies between the two fields are highlighted, particularly through a focus on the adolescent girl.

The Roles of Alcohol Use Severity and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms as Risk Factors for Women's Intimate Partner Violence Experiences

Background: To reduce women's risk for intimate partner violence (IPV), it is critical to elucidate malleable psychiatric and behavioral health risk factors. We aimed to identify if alcohol use problems moderate the associations between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and past-year IPV victimization experiences among female veterans, a population at high risk for IPV. Methods: Female veterans (N = 198) completed mail surveys assessing PTSD symptoms, alcohol use, and IPV at two time points between 2012 and 2013. Regression analyses were used to examine the associations between PTSD symptoms and alcohol use at Time 1 with past-year IPV at Time 2. Results: More than a third of women (36.9%) reported past-year IPV. Alcohol use severity significantly moderated the association between PTSD symptoms and past-year physical IPV. Specifically, there was a significant positive association between PTSD symptoms and past-year IPV at high levels of alcohol use severity, but not at low or average levels of alcohol use. Although both PTSD symptoms and alcohol use were independent risk factors for past-year sexual and psychological IPV, no moderating effect was found for these IPV types. Conclusions: Findings can inform tailored IPV, psychiatric, and behavioral health screening and counseling. Such practices may reduce psychiatric distress and IPV risk.

Viewing the Cycle of Violence Through a Gendered Pathways Lens: Perceived Parental Tolerance of Violence, Peer Influence, and Child Aggressive Behavior

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether a child's perception of adult tolerance of violence interfaced with peer associations and violent offending. It was hypothesized that a child's perception of his or her parents' tolerance for violence would predict the peer influence effect for aggressive behavior in boys but not girls. Control variables included the parent's stated tolerance of violence, the child's personal attitude toward violence, recent parental divorce or separation, and child maltreatment within the past 12 months. Using the first three waves of the National Youth Survey (NYS), the relationships between perceived parental tolerance of violence and the peer influence and selection effects were examined. A negative binomial path analysis of the male subsample (n = 736) revealed that perceived parental tolerance of violence predicted the peer influence effect (peer violence leading to participant violent offending) but not the peer selection effect (participant violent offending leading to peer violence) in boys. In girls (n = 679), neither pathway was significant. The current findings indicate that in boys, perceived parental attitudes toward violence help account for the cycle of violence, perhaps by encouraging the child's association with violent peers. Programs designed to change these perceptions and the parental/community attitudes these perceptions may reflect could be an effective means of intervention for violent youth.

Prevalence of child maltreatment in the Netherlands: An update and cross-time comparison

BACKGROUND

The third Netherlands' Prevalence study of Maltreatment of children and youth (NPM-2017) continues the tradition of periodically mapping the national prevalence of child maltreatment.

OBJECTIVE

The NPM-2017 provides an update of the current prevalence rates of child maltreatment and of changes in its prevalence over the last 12 years. In addition, risk factors for child maltreatment and its co-occurrence with domestic violence were investigated.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Prevalence data were based on cases reported to 'Safe at Home' organizations (former CPS agencies) and observations of professionals working with children (sentinels).

METHODS

Sentinels (N = 785) filled out a form for each case of suspected child maltreatment that they observed within their professional sample during a three-month period.

RESULTS

An overall prevalence estimate of child maltreatment in the Netherlands in 2017 of 26-37 per 1000 children was computed. The most important risk factors for child maltreatment were low parental education (RR=4.95), parental unemployment (RR = 3.64), immigrant status (RR = 3.61), and single parenthood (RR = 2.29). Neither prevalence rates nor risk factors changed significantly between 2005, 2010, and 2017. Finally, in 46 % of the reported families child maltreatment occurred in a context of domestic violence.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of co-occurring domestic violence may indicate that family violence observed within one dyad could be a marker for dysfunctional functioning of the family system. Child maltreatment remains a considerable problem in the Netherlands with a stable prevalence over the last 12 years and stability in characteristics that make families vulnerable for child maltreatment.

Intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment using a multi-informant multi-generation family design

In the current study a three-generational design was used to investigate intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment (ITCM) using multiple sources of information on child maltreatment: mothers, fathers and children. A total of 395 individuals from 63 families reported on maltreatment. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to combine data from mother, father and child about maltreatment that the child had experienced. This established components reflecting the convergent as well as the unique reports of father, mother and child on the occurrence of maltreatment. Next, we tested ITCM using the multi-informant approach and compared the results to those of two more common approaches: ITCM based on one reporter and ITCM based on different reporters from each generation. Results of our multi-informant approach showed that a component reflecting convergence between mother, father, and child reports explained most of the variance in experienced maltreatment. For abuse, intergenerational transmission was consistently found across approaches. In contrast, intergenerational transmission of neglect was only found using the perspective of a single reporter, indicating that transmission of neglect might be driven by reporter effects. In conclusion, the present results suggest that including multiple informants may be necessary to obtain more valid estimates of ITCM.

Child Maltreatment Typologies and Intimate Partner Violence: Findings From a Danish National Study of Young Adults

The association between exposure to childhood maltreatment and subsequent intimate partner violence (IPV) has been well documented. Recently, there has been increased attention to IPV in adolescence and young adulthood, with studies demonstrating that IPV peaks in young adulthood. Data were collected from a Danish national study conducted by The Danish National Centre for Social Research in 2008 and 2009. A sample of 4,718 young adults (aged 24) was randomly selected using the total birth cohort of children born in 1984. Structured interviews were conducted with 2,980 participants equating to a response rate of 63%. Childhood maltreatment including emotional, sexual, and multiple abuse experiences and being female and a young parent were used to test the association with experiencing IPV victimization. Bivariate associations showed that all variables were significantly associated with experiencing IPV. When the variables were entered into a multivariate binary logistic regression analysis, being female indicated the strongest association (odds ratio [OR] = 13.96), followed by experiencing childhood sexual abuse (OR = 10.90) and experiencing multiple types of abuse (OR = 6.49). Results suggest that among the child maltreatment typologies, sexual abuse is the dominant factor associated with IPV. The current study extends the literature conducted on a young adult population by demonstrating that early adverse experiences and being female and a parent are associated with IPV in young adulthood. These findings suggest prevention programs should be targeted in early adolescence to support young people to establish and maintain positive and healthy relationships that promote safe conflict resolution strategies.

Depression and Intimate Partner Violence Among African American Women Living in Impoverished Inner-City Neighborhoods

Mental health correlates of intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization including negative physical and mental health outcomes are well documented. However, certain subgroups of African American women, such as those living in impoverished, urban communities, are underrepresented in most studies and may experience IPV at higher rates. Furthermore, the circumstances of this women including poverty makes them at risk to IPV and its consequences. The present study estimated the prevalence of IPV victimization and its association with depression in a sample of low-income African American women participating in the Mobile Youth and Poverty Study. Participants in this study were caregivers of adolescents living in extremely impoverished conditions and were part of the Mobile Youth Survey, a community-based, longitudinal, multiple cohort survey conducted between the years 1998 and 2011. Data for the current study were collected between the years 2001 and 2010. The dependent variable was depressive symptoms as measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D). The independent variable was IPV measured using a subsample of items from the Conflict Tactics Scale. Nearly three quarters (73.6%, n = 489) of the sample experienced some form of IPV and 49.1% (n = 326) had a CES-D depression score of 16 or greater indicating mild to severe depression symptoms. The highest proportion of women who met the CES-D criteria for depression were those experiencing the most severe IPV irrespective of category (i.e., physical, psychological, or combined). Logistic regression analyses showed that women reporting the most severe abuse, irrespective of category, were significantly more likely to meet the CES-D criteria for depression. In addition, low education and receipt of economic assistance were significantly associated with depressive symptoms. The combination of poor economic conditions and IPV may predispose African American women living in impoverished, urban communities to mental health outcomes such as depression.

Neglect, Sexual Abuse, and Witnessing Intimate Partner Violence During Childhood Predicts Later Life Violent Attitudes Against Children Among Kenyan Women: Evidence of Intergenerational Risk Transmission From Cross-Sectional Data

Violence against children, including corporal punishment, remains a global concern. Understanding sources of support for corporal punishment within cultures, and the potential for intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment, is essential for policy-development and community engagement to protect children. In this study, we use data from a cross-section of women in Meru County, Kenya (n = 1,974) to profile attitudes toward violence against children using the Velicer Attitudes Towards Violence-Child subscale. We find reported histories of sexual abuse, emotional and physical neglect, and witnessing interpersonal violence during childhood predict more violent attitudes toward children in adulthood. The pathway between these forms of child maltreatment and violent attitudes is significantly mediated by family function, perceived stress, and attitudes toward violence against women. Interventions to prevent sexual abuse, intimate partner violence, and promote attachments between parents and children may benefit future generations in this population. Furthermore, secondary prevention of the effects of these childhood adversities may require development of social support, improving family function and challenging violent attitudes against women.

Physical Couple and Family Violence Among Clients Seeking Therapy: Identifiers and Predictors

Introduction

Couple violence (CV) affects many, and the consequences of those actions are grave, not only for the individual suffering at the hand of the perpetrator but also for the other persons in the family. Violence often happens among more than just the adults within one family. Even if CV has been thoroughly investigated in the general population very few studies have investigated this objective on a clinical sample, and none of these have included family violence.

Aim

This article identifies and describes the group of clients that have issues of physical couple and family violence. It analyses a model that can help to discover physical violence and help therapists to assess what actions to take in therapy to prevent further physical violence.

Methodology

Descriptive analysis, t-tests, and structural equation modeling (SEM) are used on a sample of clients receiving couple and family therapy (CFT) in Norway (N = 830). Family violence is modeled by the partner’s expectations toward each other, levels of anger, sexual satisfaction, and self-control.

Results

One-in-five clients experienced physical CV in their current relationship and one-in-four experienced physical family violence. The group of clients who experienced CV differed from those without such experiences in having lower income, more prior experience with psychotherapy, more experience with alcohol abuse in childhood, and far more physical family violence in their current family. Our model predicting physical couple and family violence explained as much as 53% of family violence and had three positive, significant predictors (expectation, anger, and sexual satisfaction) and one, significant negative predictor (self-control). Somewhat unexpected, sexual satisfaction was a positive, and not a negative, predictor of violence.

Conclusion

Our study identified one-in-four clients in CFT experience physical CV. Unreasonable expectation from one partner toward the other, anger and sexual satisfaction were positive predictors of physical violence, while self-control was found to be a negative predictor of physical violence. Implications for therapeutic work and the prevention of physical violence are discussed.

Patterns of intergenerational child protective services involvement

BACKGROUND

Prior research on Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement among at-risk youth focuses on their roles as parents perpetrating maltreatment against biological offspring. Given family complexity and assortative partnering, measuring all CPS involvement - as perpetrators and non-offending parents of victims - provides new insight into intergenerational maltreatment patterns.

OBJECTIVES

Our objective was to investigate the risk of multiple forms of parent or perpetrator CPS involvement (PP-CPS) by age 25, among those exposed to three forms of adversity in their late teens (at ages 14-17): alleged victim on a CPS investigation, out-of-home care (OHC), and poverty.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

We used a sample of 36,475 individuals born in 1990-1991 from the Wisconsin Data Core longitudinal administrative database, and tracked their involvement in CPS, OHC, and the food assistance program (SNAP) over time. Our sample consisted of individuals who, at ages 14-17, met one of the following criteria: were in OHC; had CPS involvement as a victim but no OHC (CPSV group), or received food assistance without CPSV or OHC (SNAP group).

METHODS

Using logistic regression, we modeled four forms of PP-CPS involvement: parent-perpetrator, resident parent non-perpetrator, nonresident parent non-perpetrator, and non-biological parent-perpetrator.

RESULTS

Predicted risks of any PP-CPS involvement by age 25 were 10 % (SNAP group), 17-22 % (CPSV group), and 26-33 % (OHC group); among OHC youth known to have a biological child, rates exceeded 40 %. The proportion of CPS involvement that involved parent-perpetration varied substantially by sex and adversity type.

CONCLUSIONS

Focusing only on intergenerational maltreatment in which the parents are the perpetrators may substantially understate the risk of maltreatment recurring across generations.

The intergenerational impact of trauma and family violence on parents and their children

BACKGROUND

Children who experience Child Abuse and Neglect (CAN) are at an increased risk of becoming a victim of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) or a perpetrator of IPV or CAN. Moreover, maltreated children are at risk for developing long-lasting trauma symptoms, which can subsequently affect their own children's lives. Understanding the mechanisms of the intergenerational transmission of violence and trauma is a prerequisite for the development of interventions.

OBJECTIVE

We examine whether the relation between historical CAN and current trauma symptoms of mothers is mediated by current IPV. Furthermore, we investigate whether current CAN mediates the relation between current maternal trauma symptoms and child Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms. These mechanisms are compared for mothers and fathers.

PARTICIPANTS

We have recruited 101 fathers and 360 mothers (426 children, 50% boys, mean age 7 years) through child protection services.

METHODS

Respondents completed questionnaires about IPV, (historical) CAN and trauma symptoms.

RESULTS

Structural equation models revealed that historical CAN of father and mothers was related to trauma symptoms. Only for mothers, this association was mediated by IPV. Trauma symptoms of both fathers and mothers were related to child PTSD symptoms. This effect was not mediated by current CAN.

CONCLUSION

In violent families, maternal and paternal trauma can be transmitted over generations. However, intergenerational transmission of violence is found for mothers only. When family violence is reported, professionals should take the violence into account, as well as the history of parents and trauma symptoms of all family members.

Is there a female cycle of violence after exposure to childhood maltreatment? A meta-analysis

Several studies have demonstrated a vicious cycle of violence, in which experiences of childhood maltreatment (CM) transition into later perpetration of aggressive acts. But evidence for the presence of this cycle in adult women is mixed. The aim of this meta-analysis is to investigate the strength of associations and the mechanisms underlying a cycle of violence in women. Databases were searched for terms related to female aggression, violence, delinquency, antisocial behavior, or offending in addition to exposure to traumatic experiences, abuse, or maltreatment during childhood. Only peer-reviewed studies were included that investigated associations between any type of CM and different acts of aggression. Multi-level meta-analyses were applied, as well as meta-regressions, all based on Cohen's d. K = 34 studies were identified. The overall association between exposure to CM was in the positive but small range (Cohen's d = 0.30). There was no significant difference between specific types of abuse and/or neglect. However, associations were smaller for the perpetration of sexual aggression and violent crime compared with other acts of aggression. These findings underline the long-lasting and devastating impact of CM, including types of maltreatment that were long assumed to be less severe. Due to the limited number of available studies, interactions between types of CM and aggression could not be modeled, thus compromising their probable interacting contribution to the cycle of violence. Early interventions targeting families and women at risk are critical in order to prevent ongoing cycles of violence.

Examining intersections between violence against women and violence against children: perspectives of adolescents and adults in displaced Colombian communities

BACKGROUND

Research examining the interrelated drivers of household violence against women and violence against children is nascent, particularly in humanitarian settings. Gaps remain in understanding how relocation, displacement and ongoing insecurity affect families and may exacerbate household violence.

METHODS

Employing purposive sampling, we used photo elicitation methods to facilitate semi-structured, in-depth interviews with female and male adolescents and adults aged 13-75 (n = 73) in two districts in Colombia from May to August of 2017. Participants were displaced and/or residing in neighborhoods characterized by high levels of insecurity from armed groups.

RESULTS

Using inductive thematic analysis and situating the analysis within a feminist socioecological framework, we found several shared drivers of household violence. Intersections among drivers at all socioecological levels occurred among societal gender norms, substance use, attempts to regulate women's and children's behavior with violence, and daily stressors associated with numerous community problems. A central theme of relocation was of family compositions that were in continual flux and of family members confronted by economic insecurity and increased access to substances.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest interventions that systemically consider families' struggles with relocation and violence with multifaceted attention to socioecological intersections.