Membrane protected C18 coated stir bar sorptive extraction combined with high performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection for the determination of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in water samples

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the environment: Updates on pretreatment and determination methods

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used in human and animal health care to reduce persistent inflammation, pain and fever because of their anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects. However, the improper discharge and disposal make it becomes a major contaminant in the environment, which poses a big threat to the ecosystem. For this reason, accurate, sensitive, effective, green, and economic techniques are urgently required and have been rapidly developed in recent years. This review summarizes the advancement of sample preparation technologies for NSAIDs involving solid-phase extraction, solid-phase microextraction, liquid-phase microextraction, QuEChERS, and matrix solid-phase dispersion. Meanwhile, we overview and compare analytical technologies for NSAIDs, including liquid chromatography-based methods, gas chromatography-based methods, capillary electrophoresis, and sensors, particularly the development of liquid chromatography-based methods. Furthermore, we focus on their progress and conduct a comparison between their advantages and disadvantages.

Facile and efficient preparation of amino bearing metal-organic frameworks-coated cotton fibers for solid-phase extraction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in human plasma

The determination of blood concentration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is highly desired in clinical practice. In this work, three amino bearing metal-organic frameworks (amino-MOFs) coated cotton fibers were prepared using a facile cysteine-triggered in situ growth strategy and proposed as in-tip solid-phase microextraction (in-SPME) adsorbents for efficient extraction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs from human plasma. The self-made adsorbents exhibited satisfactory extraction performance toward three NSAIDs including diclofenac sodium, ketoprofen and flurbiprofen. Under the optimized conditions, the established method exhibited satisfactory enrichment performance, low limits of detection and excellent extraction efficiency. Good reproducibility, wide linear range, excellent linearity and satisfactory sensitivity were obtained in the experiment. The method was also used for the enrichment and determination of NSAIDs in human plasma samples. Good recoveries were obtained, ranging from 66.5% to 98.9% with relative standard deviations less than 6.62%. The good performance of amino-MOFs was due to the synergistic effects arising from grafted charged amino groups within ordered pores of suitable size, leading to strong affinity towards guest molecules. Electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bond and π-π interaction played a vital role in the extraction of NSAIDs. This report indicated the potential of amino-MOFs as efficient adsorbents for the determination of NSAIDs from human plasma.

Introduction of a Zn-based metal-organic framework @ biomass porous activated carbon as a high-sensitive coating for a stainless steel SPME fiber: application to the simultaneous analysis of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

The present study introduces a high-efficiency nanocomposite material featuring a zinc-based metal-organic framework and a novel porous activated carbon derived from bread waste. The prepared nanocomposite, namely Zn-MOF-5@BHPAC, has been synthesized by a low-temperature hydrothermal process and coated onto the surface of a stainless steel wire with epoxy glue. The fabricated fiber has been employed as an SPME fiber applied in the extraction and pre-concentration of some nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) before their high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) studies. The characterization studies were performed utilizing field emission scanning electron microscopy, elemental mapping, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, elemental analyzer, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area analysis. Under the optimal conditions, the method demonstrated low detection limits (LODs, 0.06-0.15 µg L-1), wide linear ranges (LRs, 0.20-380 µg L-1) with good linearity (R2 > 0.991), good precisions (RSDs < 6.95%), and acceptable relative recoveries (RR > 85%). Using the green and affordable biomass of bread as a novel carbon-rich source is an innovative idea provided in this study. In addition, the hybridization of the obtained carbon-based material with the MOF compound to create a new high-capacity sorbent is another strength of the proposed method. Long service lifetime, economic efficiency, environmental friendliness, and high extraction capability were some of the other advantages of the suggested procedure. Therefore, the method can utilize successfully for the simultaneous determination of NSAIDs (as model analytes) in different matrixes.

Trends in Innovations and Recent Advances in Membrane Protected Extraction Techniques for Organics in Complex Samples

Membrane protected extraction is an ongoing innovation for isolation and pre-concentration of analytes from complex samples. The extraction process, clean-up and pre-concentration of analytes occur in a single step. The inclusion of solid sorbents such as molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) after membrane extraction ensures that selective double extraction occurs in a single step. The first step involves selective extraction using the membrane and diffused analytes are trapped on the solid sorbent enclosed in the membrane. No further clean-up is required even for very dirty samples like plant extracts and wastewaters samples. Sample clean-up occurs during extraction in the first process and not as additional step since matrix components are prevented from trapping on the sorbent. This can be referred to as prevention is better than cure approach. In this work, the analytical methods that employed membrane protected extraction for various organics such as pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and pharmaceuticals are reviewed. The designs of these analytical methods, their applications, advantages and drawbacks are discussed in this review. Literature suggests that the introduction of solid sorbents in membrane creates the much-needed synergy in selectivity. Previous reviews focused on membrane combinations with MIPs while discussing micro-solid-phase extraction. The scope of this review was broadened to include other sample preparation aspects such as membrane protected stir bar solvent extraction and membrane protected solid-phase microextraction. In addition, novel sample preparation methods for solid samples which include Soxhlet membrane protected molecular imprinted solid phase extraction and membrane protected ultra sound assisted extracted are discussed.

Novel solid-phase extraction filter based on a zirconium meta-organic framework for determination of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs residues

In this study, a zirconium-based metal-organic framework UiO-66-NH₂ modified cotton fiber (CF@UiO-66-NH₂) was fabricated for the extraction of five common NSAIDs, namely ketoprofen, naproxen, flurbiprofen, diclofenac sodium, and ibuprofen. UiO-66-NH₂ was synthesized and immobilized on the surface of cotton fiber using an environmentally friendly aqueous synthesis method. The prepared CF@UiO-66-NH₂ composite of 50 mg was loaded into a 13 mm recessed filter for use as a solid-phase extraction (SPE) adsorbent material. The filter was then used to enrich NSAIDs in fish and shrimp muscle tissues followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) detection. Several key parameters were evaluated and optimized, including adsorption flow rate, pH value of sample, desorption flow rate, and the formic acid content of the eluent. Under optimized conditions, linear ranges of ketoprofen, naproxen, flurbiprofen, diclofenac sodium, and ibuprofen were 2.0-300.0 ng/mL, 1.4-280.0 ng/mL, 3.0-400.0 ng/mL, 1.0-500.0 ng/mL, and 14.0-560.0 ng/mL, respectively. The detection limits ranged from 0.12 ng/mL to 3.50 ng/mL with recoveries in the range of 72.95-116.99%, RSDs < 9.90%. The results demonstrated that the homemade filters based on CF@UiO-66-NH₂ exhibited good reproducibility, stability and adsorption property for the determination of trace-level NSAIDs in complex matrix.

Core-shell MOF@COFs used as an adsorbent and matrix for the detection of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs by MALDI-TOF MS

A core-shell material (UiO@TapbTp) has been developed as an adsorbent and matrix to detect nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) by matrix laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) in complex samples. The hybrid material is prepared by growing covalent organic framework (COF, TapbTp) layers in situ on an amino-modified metal-organic framework (MOF, UiO-66-NH₂). The combination of the MOF and COF overcomes their individual shortcomings and integrates both of their advantages. Compared with the bare COF and MOF, the core-shell composite exhibits improved enrichment ability and matrix performance. With the help of pre-enrichment under optimized conditions, the limits of detection (LODs) for ketoprofen, naproxen, and aspirin are reduced by nearly 1000 times, with values of 0.001 mg L^-1, 0.010 mg L^-1, and 0.001 mg L^-1, respectively, and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) are all below 12.35%. The good recoveries (84.8-118%) in (spiked) saliva and environmental water sample further verify the applicability of the method in complex samples.

Overview of Sample Preparation and Chromatographic Methods to Analysis Pharmaceutical Active Compounds in Waters Matrices

In the environment, pharmaceutical residues are a field of particular interest due to the adverse effects to either human health or aquatic and soil environment. Because of the diversity of these compounds, at least 3000 substances were identified and categorized into 49 different therapeutic classes, and several actions are urgently required at multiple steps, the main ones: (i) occurrence studies of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in the water cycle; (ii) the analysis of the potential impact of their introduction into the aquatic environment; (iii) the removal/degradation of the pharmaceutical compounds; and, (iv) the development of more sensible and selective analytical methods to their monitorization. This review aims to present the current state-of-the-art sample preparation methods and chromatographic analysis applied to the study of PhACs in water matrices by pinpointing their advantages and drawbacks. Because it is almost impossible to be comprehensive in all PhACs, instruments, extraction techniques, and applications, this overview focuses on works that were published in the last ten years, mainly those applicable to water matrices.

Amine-functionalized magnetic activated carbon as an adsorbent for preconcentration and determination of acidic drugs in environmental water samples using HPLC-DAD

In the present study, a convenient and highly effective method was developed for the quantification of acidic drugs in wastewater and river water samples. Ultrasonic-assisted magnetic solid phase extraction employing magnetic waste tyre-based activated carbon nanocomposite functionalized with [3-(2-aminoethylamino)propyl]trimethoxysilane as a cost-effective and efficient adsorbent was used for the extraction and preconcentration of acidic drugs (naproxen [NAP], ketoprofen (KET) and diclofenac [DIC]). The quantification of target analytes was achieved by high‐performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector. Under optimum conditions, the detection limit, quantification limit and relative standard deviation obtained for the analytes of interest ranged from 0.38 to 0.76, 1.26 to 2.54 µg L−1 and 2.02 to 4.06%, respectively. The applicability of the developed method was assessed by the spike recovery tests and the relative recoveries proved that the method is reliable for the determination of acidic drugs in wastewater. Thereafter, the method was applied successfully for the determination of NAP, KET and DIC in river water, influent and effluent wastewater.

In-tube stir bar sorptive extraction based on 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane surface-modified Ce-doped ZnAl layered double hydroxide thin film for determination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in saliva samples

A thin-film based on 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane surface-modified Ce-doped zinc-aluminum layered double hydroxide was synthesized on the inner surface of an aluminum tube. It has been applied to in-tube stir bar sorptive extraction of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in saliva samples followed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The sorbent was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and elemental mapping. The extraction parameters including sample pH (4.2), extraction time (10 min), stirring speed (800 rpm), type of eluent (acidified tetrahydrofuran), eluent volume (100 μL), and desorption time (6 min) were thoroughly optimized. Under the optimum conditions, limits of detection were found to be less than 5.0 ng mL^-1. Calibration plots were linear within the range 10-1000 ng mL^-1 (R² > 0.9982). Absolute recoveries were calculated in the range 63.5 to 72.4%. The repeatability (intra- and inter-day precision) and reproducibility (tube-to-tube precision) at concentrations of 50, 250, and 500 ng mL^-1 were less than 7.6% and 9.4%, respectively. The method accuracy based on the relative error was calculated at these concentrations and ranged from - 4.9 to - 9.3% for intra-day relative error (%) and - 6.8 to - 11% for inter-day relative error (%). Finally, the method applicability was examined for the determination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in saliva samples, and good relative recoveries were obtained within the range 86.5 to 95.2%. As a result, the introduced method can be applied as a suitable alternative to measuring nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in biological fluids. Graphical abstract A surface-modified Ce-doped ZnAl LDH thin film was synthesized on the inner surface of an Al tube and applied for in-tube stir bar sorptive extraction of NSAIDs in saliva.

Mixed Matrix Membrane Tip Extraction Coupled with UPLC–MS/MS for the Monitoring of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Water Samples

An ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS) method, in combination with a mixed matrix membrane microextraction method for the quantification of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in environmental water samples, is reported. The extraction device was prepared by casting well-dispersed polymeric bonded octadecyl (C18) particles in a cellulose triacetate matrix solution onto commercially available 200 μL micropipette tips. The membrane formed contains 25% of the adsorbent loading amount and was firmly attached to the inner wall of the membrane tip. The dynamic extraction was performed by withdrawing and dispensing the sample solution through the tip device for effective analyte adsorption, followed by the analyte desorption process into 40 μL of methanol and acetonitrile (1:1) prior to UPLC–MS/MS analysis. NSAIDs—namely diclofenac, ibuprofen, indoprofen, naproxen and sulindac—were chosen as targeted analytes. Several extraction parameters were comprehensively optimized, including sample pH value, ionic strength, dynamic extraction cycle, desorption solvent and desorption time. The optimized conditions demonstrated a linear range from 0.25 to 500 ng L−1, with correlation coefficients (r2) from 0.9988 to 0.9992 and detection limits ranging from 0.08 to 0.40 ng L−1. The recoveries of the spiked water samples were between 92% and 99% and exhibited excellent precision relative to standard deviations (RSDs ≤ 4.9%), and enrichment factors (EFs) were at 201–249 for the developed approach.

Magnetic metal organic framework for pre-concentration of ampicillin from cow milk samples

The aim of this study is a present of a simple solvothermal synthesis approach to preparation of Cu-based magnetic metal organic framework (MMOF) and subsequently its application as sorbent for ultrasound assisted magnetic solid phase extraction (UAMSPE) of ampicillin (AMP) from cow milk samples prior to high performance liquid chromatography-Ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) determination. Characteristics of prepared MMOF were fully investigated by different techniques which showed the exclusive properties of proposed sorbent in terms of proper functionality, desirable magnetic property and also high specific surface area. Different influential factors on extraction recovery including sorbent dosage, ultrasonic time, washing solvent volume and eluent solvent volume were assessed using central composite design (CCD) based response surface methodology (RSM) as an operative and powerful optimization tool. This is the first report for determination of AMP using MMOF. The proposed method addressed some drawbacks of other methods and sorbents for determination of AMP. The presented method decreases the extraction time (4 min) and also enhances adsorption capacity (250 mg/g). Moreover, the magnetic property of presented sorbent (15 emu/g) accelerates the extraction process which does not need filtration, centrifuge and precipitation procedures. Under the optimized conditions, the proposed method is applicable for linear range of 1.0–5000.0 μg/L with detection limit of 0.29 μg/L, satisfactory recoveries (≥95.0%) and acceptable repeatability (RSD less than 4.0%). The present study indicates highly promising perspectives of MMOF for highly effective analysis of AMP in complicated matrices.

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MMOF was prepared and used for the first time for determination of ampicillin from cow milk samples.

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The extraction method was convenient, rapid and the MMOF can be used more than 8 times.

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The MMOF have high specific surface area (300.0 m²/g) and high adsorption capacity (250.5 mg g⁻¹).

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The separation time was only 5 min, which was much shorter than other reported.

A nanohybrid composed of polyoxotungstate and graphene oxide for dispersive micro solid-phase extraction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs prior to their quantitation by HPLC

A nanohybrid was prepared from polyoxotungstate anion and graphene oxide (POT/GO) and characterized in terms of porosity by applying Fourier transform infrared and transmission electron microscopy. The nanohybrid was applied as a sorbent for the dispersive micro solid-phase extraction of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) ibuprofen, diclofenac, and naproxen. Different types of sorbents were compared, and the POT/GO nanohybrid was found to have the best adsorption affinity. The NSAIDs were quantified via HPLC with UV detection. Under the optimum conditions, the limits of detection (at an S/N ratio of 3) range between 0.02-0.03 ng.mL^-1, and the linear response ranges extend from 0.08-200 ng.mL^-1, respectively. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) for five replicates at three concentration levels (0.1, 5 and 100 ng.mL^-1) of NSAIDs ranged from 4.1 to 6.1%. The applicability of the method was confirmed by analyzing spiked real water samples, and satisfactory results were obtained, with recoveries between 95.6 and 99.6%. Graphical abstract Schematic representation of the polyoxotungstate/graphene oxide nanohybrid preparation.

Dual functional monomers modified magnetic adsorbent for the enrichment of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in water and urine samples

According to the molecular properties of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSADs), a new adsorbent for magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) was designed and synthesized. Triethyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)aminium chloride and 4-vinylbenzeneboronic acid were utilized as dual functional monomers to copolymerize with divinylbenzene on the surface of pre-modified Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles. The prepared magnetic adsorbent (Fe₃O₄@TCVA) was characterized by elemental analysis, Fourier transform infrared, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and vibrating sample magnetometer. Due to the abundant boronic acid, quaternary amine and phenyl groups, the Fe₃O₄@TCVA displayed satisfactory extraction performance for target NSADs (diclofenac acid, ibuprofen and mefenamic acid) by means of B-N coordination, anion-exchange, π-π and hydrophobic interactions. Under the optimized conditions, the Fe₃O₄@TCVA/MSPE was combined with high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) to sensitively analyze NSADs in water and human urine samples. Results indicated that the limits of detection for water and urine samples were in the ranges of 0.014-0.031 μg/L and 0.029-0.11 μg/L, respectively. The relative standard deviations for the intra-day and inter-day assay variability were below 10%. The applicability of the proposed Fe₃O₄@TCVA/MSPE-HPLC-DAD method was demonstrated by the successful extraction and quantification of trace levels of NSADs in real water and human urine samples. Satisfactory spiked recovery and reproducibility were achieved.

Porous membrane protected micro-solid-phase extraction: A review of features, advancements and applications

Membrane protected micro-solid-phase extraction (μ-SPE) was introduced in 2006 as an alternative to multistep SPE. μ-SPE is based on packing of very small amount of sorbent inside the porous membrane sheet whose edges are heat sealed to fabricate a μ-SPE device. This device performs clean up, extraction, and pre-concentration in a single step. It suits best for extraction of complex samples as sorbent is effectively protected inside the membrane and extraneous matter cannot adsorb over it. This review summarizes most important aspects of μ-SPE including basic principles, extraction procedure, different formats, sorbents employed and affecting parameters. The article also provides a brief account on modified μ-SPE procedures where μ-SPE was either combined with other techniques or some major changes were introduced in original procedure. Finally, the applications of μ-SPE in environmental, food and biological analysis are described. At the end, advantages and pitfalls of μ-SPE are critically appraised.