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Hogea MO, Ciomaga BF, Muntean MM, Muntean AA, Popa MI, Popa GL. Cystic Echinococcosis in the Early 2020s: A Review. Trop Med Infect Dis 2024; 9:36. [PMID: 38393125 PMCID: PMC10891927 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed9020036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a zoonosis caused by metacestodes, the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus. Although the World Health Organization (WHO) has defined CE as a neglected disease, it is the second most important foodborne parasitic disease, and it remains an important public health issue, considering its zonal endemicity and potential morbidity. The control and prevention of CE is a relevant WHO target, especially from a One Health perspective, as the disease affects not only animals and humans but also the food chain. Since not all countries have a CE surveillance strategy or reporting system and specific management guidelines, recent epidemiological data are relatively scarce, and research concerning the specific geographical distribution of the disease is ongoing. To add new information to the subject, we have analyzed and collected data from national guidelines and several medical databases. Out of the 751 research articles that were originally identified, only 52 were included in the investigation after applying specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. Notable international projects that have provided significant contributions and had a positive impact are presented. The available data were correlated with WHO recommendations on the subject, thus showcasing the measures taken and those that are still needed to properly control the disease's spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihai-Octav Hogea
- Department of Microbiology II, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania; (M.-O.H.); (B.-F.C.); (M.-M.M.); (A.-A.M.); (M.I.P.)
| | - Bogdan-Florin Ciomaga
- Department of Microbiology II, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania; (M.-O.H.); (B.-F.C.); (M.-M.M.); (A.-A.M.); (M.I.P.)
| | - Mădălina-Maria Muntean
- Department of Microbiology II, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania; (M.-O.H.); (B.-F.C.); (M.-M.M.); (A.-A.M.); (M.I.P.)
| | - Andrei-Alexandru Muntean
- Department of Microbiology II, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania; (M.-O.H.); (B.-F.C.); (M.-M.M.); (A.-A.M.); (M.I.P.)
- Department of Microbiology, Cantacuzino National Military Medical Institute for Research and Development, 050096 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Mircea Ioan Popa
- Department of Microbiology II, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania; (M.-O.H.); (B.-F.C.); (M.-M.M.); (A.-A.M.); (M.I.P.)
- Department of Microbiology, Cantacuzino National Military Medical Institute for Research and Development, 050096 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Gabriela Loredana Popa
- Parasitic Disease Department, Colentina Clinical Hospital, 020125 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Dentistry, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania
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Ozturk EA, Manzano-Román R, Sánchez-Ovejero C, Caner A, Angın M, Gunduz C, Karaman Ü, Altintas N, Bozkaya H, Unalp O, Dokumcu Z, Divarci E, Casulli A, Altintas N, Siles-Lucas M, Unver A. Comparison of the multi-epitope recombinant antigen DIPOL and hydatid fluid for the diagnosis of patients with cystic echinococcosis. Acta Trop 2022; 225:106208. [PMID: 34687646 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.106208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
The use of serological tests containing multiple immunodominant antigens rather than single antigens have the potential to improve the diagnostic performance in Cystic Echinococcoses (CE) as a complement tool to clear the inconclusive imaging data. Here, we comparatively evaluated the diagnostic value of Hydatid Fluid (HF) and the recently described recombinant multi-epitope antigen DIPOL in IgG-ELISA in a clinically defined cohort of CE patients. The serum samples from 149 CE patients were collected just before surgical or Percutaneous- Aspiration- Injection- Reaspiration (PAIR) procedures. Additionally, serum samples of patients with other parasitic infections (n=49) and healthy individuals (n=21) were also included in the study as controls. To investigate the association between the genotype of the parasite and DIPOL, cyst materials from 20 CE patients were sequenced. In terms of overall sensitivity, HF was higher than DIPOL (82.55%,78.52%, respectively). However, while the sensitivity of HF was higher than DIPOL in patients with active and transitional cysts (83.3%, 75.4%, respectively), sensitivity of DIPOL in inactive cysts was higher compared to HF (95.6%, 78.3%, respectively). The sensitivity of DIPOL depending on cyst stage was statistically significant (P= 0.041). In terms of specificity, DIPOL was found to be better than HF (97.71%, 91.43%, respectively). By genotyping, the majority of 20 patients showed G1 genotype (80%). All patients harboring G3 and G1/G3 cyst genotypes were positive with both antigens, while 87.5% of patients with G1 genotype were seropositive with HF and 75% with DIPOL. The overall sensitivity and high specificity of DIPOL suggest that this recombinant protein containing immunodominant epitopes is a potential substitute for the HF by serological tests for the diagnosis of CE.
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Seroprevalence of Hydatid Disease Among Migrant Workers in Malaysia. J Immigr Minor Health 2021; 22:1105-1108. [PMID: 32445161 DOI: 10.1007/s10903-020-01029-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Hydatid disease is not endemic in Malaysia; however, its migrant workers originate from neighboring countries where the disease is prevalent. Thus, this study was aimed at investigating the seroprevalence of hydatid disease among the workers. A total of 479 migrant workers were screened for hydatid disease. The sociodemographic information was collected, and serum samples were tested with a rapid dipstick test for hydatid disease called Hyd Rapid™. The present study showed that 13.6% of the migrant workers were found to be seropositive for hydatid disease. The highest seroprevalence was seen among Indian workers (29.41%), followed by Myanmarese (21.43%), Bangladeshis (14.92%), Nepalese (10.68%), and Indonesian (10.66%). This is the first study that highlights the likely presence of hydatid disease among the migrant workers in Malaysia, which may be of interest to the health authorities.
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Manciulli T, Enríquez-Laurente R, Tamarozzi F, Lissandrin R, Elizalde M, Sedano C, Bardales K, Vola A, De Silvestri A, Tinelli C, Brunetti E, Santivanez S, Mariconti M. Field Performance of a Rapid Diagnostic Test for the Serodiagnosis of Abdominal Cystic Echinococcosis in the Peruvian Highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2021; 105:181-187. [PMID: 34029208 PMCID: PMC8274789 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
We evaluated the performance of a commercial rapid diagnostic test (RDT) in a field setting for the diagnosis of abdominal cystic echinococcosis (CE) using sera collected during an ultrasound population screening in a highly endemic region of the Peruvian Andes. Abdominal CE was investigated by ultrasonography. Sera collected from individuals with abdominal CE (cases) and age- and gender-matched volunteers with no abdominal CE (controls) were tested independently in two laboratories (Peru and Italy) using the VIRapid® HYDATIDOSIS RDT and RIDASCREEN® Echinococcus IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Performance indexes of single and serially combined tests were calculated and applied to hypothetical screening and clinical scenarios. Test concordance was also evaluated. Prevalence of abdominal CE was 6.00% (33 of 546) by ultrasound. Serum was obtained from 33 cases and 81 controls. The VIRapid test showed similar sensitivity (76% versus 74%) and lower specificity (79% versus 96%) than results obtained in a hospital setting. RDTs showed better performance when excluding subjects reporting surgery for CE and if weak bands were considered negative. Concordance between tests was moderate to very good. In hypothetical screening scenarios, ultrasound alone or confirmed by RDTs provided more reliable prevalence figures than serology alone, which overestimated it by 5 to 20 times. In a simulation of case diagnosis with pre-test probability of CE of 50%, positive and negative post-test probabilities of the VIRapid test were 78% and 22%, respectively. The application of the VIRapid test alone would not be reliable for the assessment of population prevalence of CE, but could help clinical decision making in resource-limited settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Manciulli
- PhD School of Experimental Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | | | - Francesca Tamarozzi
- Department of Infectious-Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Raffaella Lissandrin
- Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Maira Elizalde
- Instituto Peruano de Parasitologia Clinica y Experimental, Lima, Peru
| | - Cesar Sedano
- Instituto Peruano de Parasitologia Clinica y Experimental, Lima, Peru
| | - Karina Bardales
- Instituto Peruano de Parasitologia Clinica y Experimental, Lima, Peru
| | - Ambra Vola
- Unit of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, IRCCS San Matteo Hospital Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Annalisa De Silvestri
- Unit of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, IRCCS San Matteo Hospital Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Carmine Tinelli
- Unit of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, IRCCS San Matteo Hospital Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Enrico Brunetti
- Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- Unit of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, IRCCS San Matteo Hospital Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Saul Santivanez
- Instituto Peruano de Parasitologia Clinica y Experimental, Lima, Peru
| | - Mara Mariconti
- Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
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Tamarozzi F, Silva R, Fittipaldo VA, Buonfrate D, Gottstein B, Siles-Lucas M. Serology for the diagnosis of human hepatic cystic echinococcosis and its relation with cyst staging: A systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009370. [PMID: 33909640 PMCID: PMC8081258 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The diagnosis of cystic echinococcosis (CE) is primarily based on imaging, while serology should be applied when imaging is inconclusive. CE cyst stage has been reported among the most important factors influencing the outcome of serodiagnosis. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the relation between cyst stage of hepatic CE and diagnostic sensitivity of serological tests, to evaluate whether their relation is a consistent finding and provide guidance for the interpretation of results of serological tests. Methodology/Principal findings MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and Lilacs databases were searched on December 1st 2019. Original studies published after 2003 (year of publication of the CE cyst classification), reporting sensitivity of serological tests applied to the diagnosis of human hepatic CE, as diagnosed and staged by imaging, were included. The quality of studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Data from 14 studies were included in the meta-analysis. Summary estimates of sensitivities and 95% confidence intervals were obtained using random effects meta-analysis. Overall, test sensitivity was highest in the presence of CE2 and CE3 (CE3a and/or CE3b), and lowest in the presence of CE5 and CE4 cysts. ELISA, ICT and WB showed the highest sensitivities, while IHA performed worst. Conclusions/Significance The results of our study confirm the presence of a clear and consistent relation between cyst stage and serological tests results. Limitations of evidence included the heterogeneity of the antigenic preparations used, which prevented to determine whether the relation between cyst stage and sensitivity was influenced by the type of antigenic preparation, the paucity of studies testing the same panel of sera with different assays, and the lack of studies assessing the performance of the same assay in both field and hospital-based settings. Our results indicate the absolute need to consider cyst staging when evaluating serological results of patients with hepatic CE. Cystic echinococcosis is a neglected zoonosis induced by the development of parasitic cysts in intermediate hosts, including humans, mostly in the liver. The diagnosis of CE is based on imaging. As CE cysts may assume different aspects (stages), the range of differential diagnoses is broad, from harmless simple cysts to neoplasms. Serological assays for the detection of serum antibodies are applied when imaging is inconclusive, but their performance depend on a number of factors, among which cyst stage has been reported as important. If this was a robust finding, it would be absolutely required to interpret serological findings in the light of CE cyst staging. The results of our systematic review and meta-analysis of the relation between cyst stage of hepatic CE and diagnostic sensitivity of serological tests confirmed that such relation is clear and consistent, and indicate the absolute need to consider cyst staging when evaluating serology results of patients with hepatic CE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Tamarozzi
- Department of Infectious-Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Ronaldo Silva
- Department of Infectious-Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Veronica Andrea Fittipaldo
- Department of Infectious-Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Dora Buonfrate
- Department of Infectious-Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Bruno Gottstein
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mar Siles-Lucas
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), Salamanca, Spain
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Lupia T, Corcione S, Guerrera F, Costardi L, Ruffini E, Pinna SM, Rosa FGD. Pulmonary Echinococcosis or Lung Hydatidosis: A Narrative Review. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2020; 22:485-495. [PMID: 33297827 DOI: 10.1089/sur.2020.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Lung hydatidosis is a zoonosis related to infection by the Echinococcus tapeworm species. Lung involvement in this condition is second only to the liver echinococcosis. Diagnosis ordinarily results from an accidental finding in a direct chest radiograph evaluation because of the delayed growth of the cysts. Moreover, a consistent treatment regimen or approach may not be feasible because of the variability of pulmonary echinococcosis. In this review, we expect to sum up the main features of lung hydatidosis with a perspective on medical and surgical treatment. Methods: Cochrane Library and PubMed were the databases used to perform a narrative literature review. Search terms included "pulmonary echinococcosis" and "lung hydatidosis." The MeSH terms were "lung" [All Fields] AND {"echinococcosis" [MeSH Terms] OR ("hydatidosis" [All Fields] OR "pulmonary" [All Fields] AND "echinococcosis" [All Fields] OR "hydatidosis." A search period from September 1980 to May 2020 was chosen to compare studies from different decades, given the changes in pulmonary echinococcosis management. Results: A uniform treatment regimen or approach may not be feasible because of the variability of pulmonary echinococcosis. No clinical trials have analyzed and compared all the diverse treatment approaches. Cyst size, characteristics, position in the lung and clinical presentation, and the availability of medical/surgical expertise and equipment are the mainstays of echinococcosis management. When feasible, surgery is as yet the principal therapeutic choice to eliminate the cysts; anti-parasitic drugs may minimize complications during high-risk surgery or be used as definitive therapy in some instances with contraindications to surgery. Conclusions: Lung hydatidosis management must become less heterogeneous. We support treatment directed to the subject established on the clinical scenario, host factors, and surgical risk. Strict cooperation in this process between infectious disease specialists and surgeons may optimize best practices to help create shared practical guidelines to simplify clinicians' decision-making. Furthermore, we need a consensus for lung hydatidosis treatment and inserting this disease to global surgery agenda will have a positive impact on acquiring high-quality data that enables us to create an evidence-based guideline for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Lupia
- Department of Medical Sciences, Infectious Diseases, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Silvia Corcione
- Department of Medical Sciences, Infectious Diseases, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesco Guerrera
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Lorena Costardi
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Enrico Ruffini
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Simone Mornese Pinna
- Department of Medical Sciences, Infectious Diseases, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesco G De Rosa
- Department of Medical Sciences, Infectious Diseases, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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Noordin R, Khanbabaie S, Hafiznur Yunus M, Marti H, Nickel B, Fasihi Harandi M, Nasibi S. Evaluation of the Diagnostic Performance of Recombinant Antigen B1 for Detection of Cystic Echinococcosis Using Lateral Flow Dipstick Test. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2020; 15:290-298. [PMID: 33082792 PMCID: PMC7548468 DOI: 10.18502/ijpa.v15i3.4191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Background Human echinococcosis is a neglected zoonotic disease distributed worldwide. It comprises cystic and alveolar forms, the former being the more prevalent disease. Imaging techniques are the first choice for diagnosis of cystic echinococcosis and serology is used as an additional diagnostic technique in doubtful cases or as the sole test in low-resource settings. Rapid diagnostic tests are useful and convenient for immunodiagnosis of cystic echinococcosis in endemic areas, where medical facilities often struggle with limited resources. Methods Recently, we have developed Hyd Rapid™, an IgG4 lateral flow dipstick test using recombinant antigen B1 for detection of cystic echinococcosis. This study was performed between 2016 until 2018 at the Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine, Universiti Sains Malaysia. The diagnostic performance of Hyd Rapid™ was tested in-house and at two international laboratories in Switzerland and Iran. Results The overall diagnostic sensitivity for detection of cystic and alveolar echinococcosis was 95% (56/59). Meanwhile, the diagnostic specificity, with and without exclusion of cysticercosis and fascioliasis, was 100% (n=48) and 88% (63/72), respectively. Conclusion Hyd Rapid™ detected cystic echinococcosis as well as probable cases of alveolar echinococcosis. Therefore, Hyd Rapid™ showed good potential as a serological tool for echinococcosis, and merits further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahmah Noordin
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Sam Khanbabaie
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Hafiznur Yunus
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Hanspeter Marti
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Beatrice Nickel
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Majid Fasihi Harandi
- Research Center for Hydatid Disease in Iran, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Saeid Nasibi
- Research Center for Hydatid Disease in Iran, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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Eissa S, Noordin R, Zourob M. Voltammetric Label‐free Immunosensors for the Diagnosis of Cystic Echinococcosis. ELECTROANAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201900697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shimaa Eissa
- Department of ChemistryAlfaisal University Al Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Al Takhassusi Road Riyadh 11533 Saudi Arabia
| | - Rahmah Noordin
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM)Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang Malaysia
| | - Mohammed Zourob
- Department of ChemistryAlfaisal University Al Zahrawi Street, Al Maather, Al Takhassusi Road Riyadh 11533 Saudi Arabia
- Department of GeneticsKing Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center Zahrawi Street, Al Maather Riyadh 12713 Saudi Arabia
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Mubanga C, Mwape KE, Phiri IK, Trevisan C, Zulu G, Chabala C, van Damme I, Schmidt V, Dorny P, Gabriël S. Progress on the development of rapid diagnostic tests for foodborne neglected zoonotic helminthiases: A systematic review. Acta Trop 2019; 194:135-147. [PMID: 30946810 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Foodborne Neglected Zoonotic Helminths (FNZH) are parasites of both economic and public health importance. They include Taenia solium, Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato, Echinococcus multilocularis and Foodborne trematodes (FBT). FNZH are earmarked for major interventions for control, elimination and eradication. This systematic review highlights the progress towards development of rapid tests for the diagnosis of FNZH since 2010 when they were listed as neglected tropical diseases. METHODOLOGY A systematic search was conducted in three databases, World of Science, Embase and PubMed using the same search phrase. The search produced 480 hits. Three studies from back referencing were included. Only 22 of these met the inclusion criteria. Data was extracted from these and presented qualitatively. RESULTS Twenty-five rapid diagnostic tests were found to have been developed since 2010, eight for diagnosis of T. solium infections, eight for echinococcosis and nine for FBT infections. The rapid tests for diagnosing T. solium infections included six antibody detecting and two antigen detecting tests. They constitute a combination among them, with some tests providing qualitative, others quantitative results. Similarly, seven out of the eight rapid tests developed for Echinococcus infections were antibody detecting tests save for one loop mediated isothermal amplification test. All of them were qualitative tests. For FBT infections, nine rapid tests were described; two antibody and one nucleic acid detecting test for diagnosis of Fascioliasis; three nucleic acid detecting tests for Opisthorchiasis; one antibody detecting test for Paragonimiasis; and for Clonorchiasis, one antibody and one nucleic acid detecting test. The FBT infection rapid tests were all qualitative in nature. Most of these tests have not undergone field evaluation in endemic areas where they will be used most. CONCLUSION This review describes the development and evaluation of rapid diagnostic tests, while highlighting the need for in depth validations of the tools to determine how well they can perform in endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chishimba Mubanga
- Department of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia.
| | - Kabemba E Mwape
- Department of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Isaac K Phiri
- Department of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Chiara Trevisan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Gideon Zulu
- Provincial Medical Office, Ministry of Health, Kasama, Zambia
| | - Chishala Chabala
- Children's Hospital, University Teaching Hospitals, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Inge van Damme
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Veronika Schmidt
- Centre for Global Health, Department of Neurology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany; Centre for Global Health, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pierre Dorny
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Sarah Gabriël
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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