Occurrence of antidepressant residues in the sewage-impacted Vistula and Utrata rivers and in tap water in Warsaw (Poland)

Non-targeted identification of tianeptine photodegradation products in water samples by UHPLC-QTOF MS/MS

This study aims the characterization of several tianeptine transformation products in ultrapure water by simulated sunlight irradiation. Tianeptine was completely degraded after 106 h of exposition following pseudo-first-order kinetics (half-life time = 12.0 ± 2.4 h). Furthermore, an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry method was developed and fully validated taking into account different method performance parameters for the quantification of tianeptine in river water up to a concentration of 400 pg L-1. Following a non-targeted approach based on mass data-independent acquisition, eight different transformation products not previously reported in the literature were identified and accordingly elucidated, proposing a photodegradation mechanism based on the accurate tandem mass spectrometry information acquired. Irradiation experiments were replicated for a tianeptine solution prepared in a blank river water sample, resulting in the formation of the same transformation products and similar degradation kinetics. In addition, a toxicity assessment of the photoproducts was performed by in silico method, being generally all TPs of comparable toxicity to the precursor except for TP1, and showing a similar persistence in the environment except for TP2 and TP6, while TP4 was the only TP predicted as mutagenic. The developed method was applied for the analysis of four river water samples.

Emerging organic contaminants in drinking water systems: Human intake, emerging health risks, and future research directions

Few earlier reviews on emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) in drinking water systems (DWS) focused on their detection, behaviour, removal and fate. Reviews on multiple exposure pathways, human intake estimates, and health risks including toxicokinetics, and toxicodynamics of EOCs in DWS are scarce. This review presents recent advances in human intake and health risks of EOCs in DWS. First, an overview of the evidence showing that DWS harbours a wide range of EOCs is presented. Multiple human exposure to EOCs occurs via ingestion of drinking water and beverages, inhalation and dermal pathways are discussed. A potential novel exposure may occur via the intravenous route in dialysis fluids. Analysis of global data on pharmaceutical pollution in rivers showed that the cumulative concentrations (μg L-1) of pharmaceuticals (mean ± standard error of the mean) were statistically more than two times significantly higher (p = 0.011) in South America (11.68 ± 5.29), Asia (9.97 ± 3.33), Africa (9.48 ± 2.81) and East Europe (8.09 ± 4.35) than in high-income regions (2.58 ± 0.48). Maximum cumulative concentrations of pharmaceuticals (μg L-1) decreased in the order; Asia (70.7) had the highest value followed by South America (68.8), Africa (51.3), East Europe (32.0) and high-income regions (17.1) had the least concentration. The corresponding human intake via ingestion of untreated river water was also significantly higher in low- and middle-income regions than in their high-income counterparts. For each region, the daily intake of pharmaceuticals was highest in infants, followed by children and then adults. A critique of the human health hazards, including toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of EOCs is presented. Emerging health hazards of EOCs in DWS include; (1) long-term latent and intergenerational effects, (2) the interactive health effects of EOC mixtures, (3) the challenges of multifinality and equifinality, and (4) the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease hypothesis. Finally, research needs on human health hazards of EOCs in DWS are presented.

Chromatographic Methods for the Determination of Organic Pollution in Urban Water: A Current Mini Review

The number of pollutants and chemicals with the potential to reach the environment is still largely unknown, which poses great challenges for researchers in various fields of science, environmental scientists, and analytical chemists. Chromatographic techniques, both gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with different types of detection, are now invaluable tools for the identification of a wide range of chemical compounds and contaminants in water. This review is devoted to chromatographic techniques GC-MS, GC-Orbitrap-MS, GC-MS/MS, GC-HRMS, GC × GC-TOFMS, GC-ECD, LC-MS/MS, HPLC-UV, HPLC-PDA, UPLC-QTOFMS, used to determinate emerging organic contaminants in aquatic media, mainly in urban water, published in the scientific literature over the past several years. The article also focuses on sample preparation methods used in the analysis of aqueous samples. Most research focuses on minimizing the number of sample preparation steps, reducing the amount of solvents used, the speed of analysis, and the ability to apply it to a wide range of analytes in a sample. This is extremely important in the application of sensitive and selective methods to monitor the status of urban water quality and assess its impact on human health.

Trace analysis of 47 psychotropic medications in environmental samples by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS)

Psychotropic medications are one of the most prescribed pharmaceuticals in the world. Given their frequent detection and ecotoxicity to the no-target organism, the emission of these medications into environments has gradually draw attention. The study developed a sensitive and reliable analytic method to simultaneously investigate 47 psychotropic medications in four matrices: wastewater, surface water, activated sludge, and sediment by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS). These 47 target analytes include 24 antidepressants, 17 antianxiety drugs, 5 anticonvulsants, and 1 relevant hormone. Solid phase extraction (SPE) was employed to extract analytes from water-phase samples. Ultrasonic Solvent Extraction method with Enhanced Matrix Removal clean-up (USE-EMR) was utilized to extract target compounds from solid-phase samples, which requires more straightforward and convenient procedures than previous methods. The extraction recoveries of all analytes ranged from 80 % to 120 % in these four sample matrices. In this study, The limit of quantitation for 47 psychotropic medications were 0.15 ng/L (estazolam) to 2.27 ng/L (lorazepam), 0.08 ng/L (desvenlafaxine) to 2 ng/L (mianserin), 0.22 ng/g (dry weight, dw) (nordiazepam) to 3.65 ng/g (dw) (lorazepam), and 0.07 ng/g (dw) (carbamazepine) to 2.85 ng/g (lorazepam), in wastewater, surface water, sludge, and sediment, respectively. In addition, the developed method was employed to analyse actual samples in two wastewater treatment plants and their receiving rivers. Carbamazepine, escitalopram, clozapine, desvenlafaxine, diazepam, lamotrigine, sertraline, temazepam, and venlafaxine were nearly ubiquitous in all matrices. Moreover, this study indicated that the inadequate removal efficiencies of psychotropic medications in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) had resulted in a persistent discharge of these contaminants from human sources into environments.

Dynamics of drug contamination of the river-water in the rural, semirural and urban areas of the Mrežnica River in Croatia during COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2021)

Increased contamination of aquatic ecosystems with pharmaceuticals could have been expected due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Surface water from three domains (rural, semirural, urban) of the Mrežnica River (Croatia) was screened for 253 pharmaceuticals by SPE-UHPLC-MS/MS. At the beginning of the pandemic, the highest concentration of drugs (excluding veterinary) was detected at urban site (291.4 ng/L), followed by semirural (186.5 ng/L) and rural (141.6 ng/L). With the progression of pandemic, contamination increase was observed at all sites, but it was the most obvious at semirural (approximately 400-700 ng/L). The most pronounced concentration increases were observed for non-opioid analgesics, especially ibuprofen. In September 2021, the first notable occurrence of opioid analgesics was recorded. The most represented group of pharmaceuticals at the start of the pandemic (May 2020) was generally stimulants (caffeine, cotinine). In September 2021, the predominant group was analgesics at all sites (45-84%), whereas stimulants decreased to undetectable levels. The results of this study indicated that the epidemiological measures and medical treatments that were widely imposed/applied caused notable increase of the surface water contamination with drugs of a small river with limited dilution capacity, indirectly pointing to the changes that occurred in the behaviour and habits of the inhabitants of the affected areas.

Understanding target-specific effects of antidepressant drug pollution on molluscs: A systematic review protocol

BACKGROUND

The environmental prevalence of widely prescribed human pharmaceuticals that target key evolutionary conserved biomolecules present across phyla is concerning. Antidepressants, one of the most widely consumed pharmaceuticals globally, have been developed to target biomolecules modulating monoaminergic neurotransmission, thus interfering with the endogenous regulation of multiple key neurophysiological processes. Furthermore, rising prescription and consumption rates of antidepressants caused by the burgeoning incidence of depression is consistent with increasing reports of antidepressant detection in aquatic environments worldwide. Consequently, there are growing concerns that long-term exposure to environmental levels of antidepressants may cause adverse drug target-specific effects on non-target aquatic organisms. While these concerns have resulted in a considerable body of research addressing a range of toxicological endpoints, drug target-specific effects of environmental levels of different classes of antidepressants in non-target aquatic organisms remain to be understood. Interestingly, evidence suggests that molluscs may be more vulnerable to the effects of antidepressants than any other animal phylum, making them invaluable in understanding the effects of antidepressants on wildlife. Here, a protocol for the systematic review of literature to understand drug target-specific effects of environmental levels of different classes of antidepressants on aquatic molluscs is described. The study will provide critical insight needed to understand and characterize effects of antidepressants relevant to regulatory risk assessment decision-making, and/or direct future research efforts.

METHODS

The systematic review will be conducted in line with the guidelines by the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (CEE). A literature search on Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, as well as grey literature databases, will be carried out. Using predefined criteria, study selection, critical appraisal and data extraction will be done by multiple reviewers with a web-based evidence synthesis platform. A narrative synthesis of outcomes of selected studies will be presented. The protocol has been registered in the Open Science Framework (OSF) registry with the registration DOI: 10.17605/OSF.IO/P4H8W.

Cost-Effective Pharmaceutical Implants in Fish: Validating the Performance of Slow-Release Implants for the Antidepressant Fluoxetine

Internal, slow-release implants can be an effective way to manipulate animal physiology or deliver a chemical exposure over long periods of time without the need for an exogenous exposure route. Slow-release implants involve dissolving a compound in a lipid-based carrier, which is inserted into the body of an organism. However, the release kinetics of the compound from the implant to body tissues also requires careful validation. We tested and validated a slow-release implant methodology for exposing fish to a pharmaceutical pollutant, fluoxetine. We tested two lipid-based carriers (coconut oil or vegetable shortening) in the common roach (Rutilus rutilus). The implants contained either a high (50 μg/g), low (25 μg/g), or control (0 μg/g) concentration of fluoxetine, and we measured tissue uptake in the brain, muscle, and plasma of implanted fish over 25 days. The two carriers released fluoxetine differently over time: coconut oil released fluoxetine in an accelerating manner (tissue uptake displayed a positive quadratic curvature), whereas vegetable shortening released fluoxetine in a decelerating manner (a negative quadratic curvature). For both carrier types, fluoxetine was measured at the highest concentration in the brain, followed by muscle and plasma. By comparing the implant exposures with waterborne exposures in the published literature, we showed that the implants delivered an internal exposure that would be similar if fish were exposed in surface waters containing effluents. Overall, we showed that slow-release internal implants are an effective method for delivering chronic exposures of fluoxetine over at least 1-month time scales. Internal exposures can be an especially powerful experimental tool when coupled with field-based study designs to assess the impacts of pharmaceutical pollutants in complex natural environments. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:1326-1336. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Antidepressant pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems, individual-level ecotoxicological effects: growth, survival and behavior

The growing consumption of antidepressant pharmaceuticals has resulted in their widespread occurrence in the environment, particularly in waterways with a typical concentration range from ng L^-1 to μg L^-1. An increasing number of studies have confirmed the ecotoxic potency of antidepressants, not only at high concentrations but also at environmentally relevant levels. The present review covers literature from the last decade on the individual-level ecotoxicological effects of the most commonly used antidepressants, including their impact on behavior, growth, and survival. We focus on the relationship between antidepressants physico-chemical properties and dynamics in the environment. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages of considering behavioral changes as sensitive endpoints in ecotoxicology, as well as some current methodological shortcomings in the field, including low standardization, reproducibility and context-dependency.

Ecotoxicological assessment of the effects of fluoxetine on Daphnia magna based on acute toxicity, multigenerational reproduction effects, and attraction-repellence responses

Fluoxetine, a common pharmaceutical used as an antidepressant, is already considered potentially hazardous to biota due to its increasing use and detection in European, North American, and Asian rivers. We studied the effects of fluoxetine on Daphnia magna, as we hypothesized that fluoxetine might have harmful effects, short and long-term, at different levels: survival, behaviour, and reproduction (offspring production). We applied two different approaches: (i) a scenario at environmentally relevant concentrations (0.1-1.0 μg/L) and (ii) a scenario simulating a future worsening of contamination (1-800 μg/L) until the reach of lethal concentrations. In the former, we examined whether there are multigenerational effects on reproduction and on the avoidance/colonisation behaviour in previously exposed populations. In the latter, three responses were assessed: survival, avoidance behaviour and reproduction. We did not detect differences in the reproduction output of D. magna among the treatments over the three generations examined. Irrespective of the multigenerational treatment, D. magna colonised the environments with fluoxetine in a similar way. In the second scenario, we determined the lethal concentration for 50% of the population (96 h-LC₅₀ = 365 μg/L), which, in spite of the toxic effect, was attractive to organisms during the avoidance tests (24 h); in fact, D. magna were attracted (no repellence) even to the highest concentrations of fluoxetine tested (800 μg/L). Lastly, in a 21-day chronic toxicity test the reproduction output of D. magna increased with higher concentrations of fluoxetine. This effect might be related to the fact that the organisms in the contaminated treatment began their first reproduction earlier, when compared to that in the control treatments. In conclusion, this study discusses an identified hazard for aquatic biota due to the fluoxetine attraction effect and a predictive assessment of the consequences expected if its indiscriminate use increases.

Functionalized SnO2 nanoparticles with gallic acid via green chemical approach for enhanced photocatalytic degradation of citalopram: synthesis, characterization and application to pharmaceutical wastewater treatment

Eco-friendly stannic oxide nanoparticles functionalized with gallic acid (SnO2/GA NP) were synthesized and employed as a novel photocatalyst for the degradation of citalopram, a commonly prescribed antidepressant drug. SnO2/GA NP were characterized using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller measurements and X-ray diffraction. A validated RP-HPLC assay was developed to monitor citalopram concentration in the presence of its degradation products. Full factorial design (24) was conducted to investigate the effect of irradiation time, pH, SnO2/GA NP loading and initial citalopram concentration on the efficiency of the photodegradation process. Citalopram initial concentration was found to be the most significant parameter followed by irradiation time and pH, respectively. At optimum conditions, 88.43 ± 0.7% degradation of citalopram (25.00 µg/mL) was obtained in 1 h using UV light (1.01 mW/cm2). Citalopram kinetics of degradation followed pseudo-first order rate with Kobs and t0.5 of - 0.037 min-1 and 18.73 min, respectively. The optimized protocol was successfully applied for treatment of water samples collected during different cleaning validation cycles of citalopram production lines. The reusability of SnO2/GA NP was studied for 3 cycles without significant loss in activity. This approach would provide a green and economic alternative for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment of organic pollutants.

An overall assessment of the effects of antidepressant paroxetine on aquatic organisms and human cells

Paroxetine (PRX) is one of the most used antidepressants and an emerging contaminant with potential harmful effects to the environment and human health. The present study investigates in detail the toxic potential of PRX using a battery of bioassays on fresh- and marine species, marine bacteria, and human lymphocytes. All the tested organisms and human lymphocytes were exposed at concentrations ranging from μg L^-1 to mg L^-1. It was found that PRX can cause toxic effects to aquatic organisms at environmental relevant concentrations (μg L^-1 level). A significant effect of PRX was observed in all tested algal species especially at the first 24 h. However, differences in responses and sensitivities among the tested algal species were observed. The most sensitive organism was found to be Dunaliella tertiolecta with IC₅₀ = 0.092 mg L^-1 (72 h). In the case of Aliivibrio fischeri, EC₅₀ values were determined to be 16.65, 14.31 and 14.41 mg L^-1 for 5, 15 and 30 min of exposure, respectively. PRX also induced cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in human lymphocytes. A dose-dependent increase in micronucleus frequencies was occurred at all tested concentrations with a statistically significant increase in micronucleus frequencies at the medium to high PRX tested concentrations. The findings of the present study expand the available toxicity profile of PRX on aquatic organisms and the knowledge about the potential risk of PRX to induce genotoxic effects in cultured human lymphocytes.

Impact of COVID- 19 pandemic on antidepressants consumptions by wastewater analysis in Turkey

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a major challenge worldwide, forcing countries to take restrictive measures beyond conventional methods in their fight against the spread of the disease. Followingly, many studies have been conducted on the effects of these measures on mental health. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) was used in this study to monitor and estimate changes in antidepressant use under normal conditions (2019) and COVID-19 pandemic conditions (2020). Likewise, this study utilized wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) to monitor and assess changing trends from the pre-pandemic period (2019) to COVID-19 pandemic conditions in antidepressant use (2020). Wastewater samples were collected from 11 cities in Turkey throughout six sampling periods covering the pre-pandemic and during-pandemic periods (June 2019-December 2020). Then, samples were analyzed via LC-MS/MS method. As a result, we observed that venlafaxine was the drug with the highest concentration (mean ± SD: 103.6 ± 112.1 mg/1000p/day). Moreover, city number 6 presented the highest venlafaxine use and the most dramatic increase during the pandemic period. Finally, this study revealed the potential of WBE to estimate the changing trends in mental health during the ongoing pandemic.

Determination and Removal of Selected Pharmaceuticals and Total Organic Carbon from Surface Water by Aluminum Chlorohydrate Coagulant

In the present research, the removal of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and erythromycin (ERY), fluoxetine (FLX), amoxicillin (AMO), colistin (COL), ethynylestradiol (EE), and diclofenac (DIC) from surface water by coagulation is studied. The concentration of selected pharmaceuticals in 24 surface water samples originating from some rivers located in Lesser Poland Voivodeship and Silesia Voivodeship, Poland, was determined. The removal of TOC and pharmaceuticals was carried out using the application of Design of Experiments (DOE), Response Surface Methodology (RSM), and by addition of aluminum chlorohydrate (ACH) as a coagulant. The study found that the concentration ranges of ERY, FLX, AMO, COL, EE, and DIC in analyzed water samples were 7.58−412.32, 1.21−72.52, 1.22−68.55, 1.28−32.01, 5.36−45.56, 2.20−182.22 ng/L, respectively. In some cases, concentrations lower than 1 ng/L were determined. In optimal conditions of coagulation process of spiked surface water (pH = 6.5 ± 0.1, ACH dose = 0.35 mL/L, Time = 30 min; R2 = 0.8799, R2adj = 0.7998), the concentration of TOC, ERY, FLX, AMO, COL, EE, and DIC was decreased by 88.7, 36.4, 24.7, 29.0, 25.5, 35.4, 30.4%, respectively. Simultaneously, turbidity, color, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Nitrogen (Total N), and Ammonium-Nitrogen (N-NH4) were decreased by 96.2%, >98.0%, 97.8%, 70.0%, 88.7%, 37.5%, respectively. These findings suggest that ACH may be an optional reagent to remove studied pharmaceuticals from contaminated water.

Carbon nanotube-passive samplers as novel tools for sampling and determining micropollutants in the aquatic environment

Passive sampling is an interesting and cost-effective strategy for the quantification of micropollutants in the aquatic environment. When combined especially with a sensitive analytical method such as liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), the use of passive sampling devices (PSDs) enables long-term and reliable determination of a wide range of chemicals. In this study, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were used as an innovative sorbent in POCIS-like samplers (Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler). The developed CNTs-PSDs were calibrated by the flow-through method and the obtained sampling rates (R_s) of analytes were compared with the previously obtained R_s values using the semi-static method. Subsequently, passive samplers were placed in the Baltic Sea, the Nogat River, and the Sztumskie Pole Lake in order to sample and concentrate 28 chemical compounds belonging to the group of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). For the first time, the effectiveness of the use of CNTs-PSDs in the field was proven by the quantification of carbamazepine, diclofenac, p-nitrophenol, bisphenol A, 3,5-dichlorophenol, 17-β-estradiol, 17-α-ethinylestradiol and metoprolol in the tested surface waters. The obtained time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations of analytes ranged from 0.22 ± 0.12 ng/L (for metoprolol in the Nogat River) to 32.1 ± 2.4 ng/L (for bisphenol A in the Sztumskie Pole Lake). More importantly, CNTs-PSDs determined a greater amount of micropollutants than grab sampling and solid-phase extraction (SPE), which proves the advantage of passive sampling over grab sampling, especially when monitoring contaminants in the aquatic environment at low concentration levels.

Antidepressants as emerging contaminants: Occurrence in wastewater treatment plants and surface waters in Hangzhou, China

Aims

Antidepressants have aroused wide public concern due to their widespread presence in water and their harm to human health and environment. This study was designed to evaluate the contribution of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to the presence of antidepressants in the surface water.

Methods

Data was evaluated by analyzing water samples collected from the influent, effluent, upstream and downstream of the WWTPs on the rivers of interest in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China. Besides, the study also assessed the impact of the release of antidepressants from WWTPs to the surface water on the drinking water. An automatic solid-phase extraction combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to detect antidepressants.

Results

The most abundant compound was venlafaxine, followed by citalopram, sertraline, and fluvoxamine with concentrations between 0.6 and 87 ng/L. Antidepressants showed maximum concentrations at the effluent outlets of the WWTPs, and greater concentrations were found downstream than upstream of the WWTPs in Qiantang River. The results of source water and finished water showed that the detection concentration was lower than the detection limit of the method.

Conclusions

The less impact of the release of antidepressants from WWTPs to the surface water on the drinking water was identified. Nevertheless, these compounds were hardly removed by wastewater treatment processes. Thus, their risks deserve close attention.

The assessment of environmental risk related to the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in bottom sediments of the Odra River estuary (SW Baltic Sea)

The occurrence of 130 pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in sediments collected from 70 sampling sites in the Odra River estuary (SW Baltic Sea) was investigated. The highest concentration levels of the compounds were found in the vicinity of effluent discharge from two main Szczecin wastewater treatment plants: "Pomorzany" and "Zdroje", and nearby the seaport and shipyard. The highest environmental risks (RQ > 1) were observed for pseudoephedrine (RQ = 14.0), clindamycin (RQ = 7.3), nalidixic acid (RQ = 3.8), carbamazepine (RQ = 1.8), fexofenadine (RQ = 1.4), propranolol (RQ = 1.1), and thiabendazole (RQ = 1.1). RQ for each compound varied depending on the sampling sites. High environmental risk was observed in 30 sampling sites for clindamycin, 22 sampling sites for pseudoephedrine, 19 sampling sites for nalidixic acid, 4 sampling sites for carbamazepine, and 3 sampling sites for fexofenadine. The medium environmental risk (0.1 < RQ < 1) was observed for 16 compounds: amisulpride, amitriptyline, amlodipine, atropine, bisoprolol, chlorpromazine, lincomycin, metoprolol, mirtazapine, moclobemide, ofloxacin, oxazepam, tiapride, tolperisone, verapamil, and xylometazoline. Due to the scarcity of toxicological data related to benthic organisms, only an approximate assessment of the environmental risk of PhACs is possible. Nevertheless, the compounds with medium and high risk should be considered as pollutants of high environmental concern whose occurrence in the environment should remain under close scrutiny.

The Antidepressants Amitriptyline and Paroxetine Induce Changes in the Structure and Functional Traits of Marine Nematodes

Increasing concentrations of the antidepressants amitriptyline and paroxetine were determined recently in marine habitats. However, their impact on marine biota is understudied, despite multiple undesirable effects they have on the environment. An important behavioral aspect that is increasingly measured following exposure to contaminants is the migration of fauna from contaminated areas. Hence, our aim was to better understand the migration pattern of marine meiobenthic fauna, but with a main focus on nematodes, following the exposure to both antidepressants, alone or in mixture. The experiment was carried out in microcosms, which comprised an uncontaminated upper and a lower contaminated compartment, where amitriptyline was added, alone or mixed with paroxetine, at concentrations of 0.4 and 40 µg L−1. The overall abundance of meiobenthic groups decreased significantly following exposure to amitriptyline in both compartments, a pattern augmented by the mixture with paroxetine. The migration of nematodes towards the upper compartments of microcosms was triggered by the level of contamination with antidepressants. As such, the species Terschellingia longicaudata showed no significant change in abundance, suggesting tolerance to both antidepressants. On the other hand, the abundances of nematode taxa Cyatholaimus prinzi, Calomicrolaimus sp., Calomicrolaimus honestus, Neochromadora sp., Chromadorina sp. and Chromadorina minor decreased significantly following the exposure to both antidepressants, even at low concentrations. At the end of the experiment, the dominant migratory nematodes belonged to deposit-feeders and omnivores-carnivores trophic guilds, with tail shapes of e/f types and body-sizes longer than 2 mm. Such functional traits increase their mobility in sediments and the chance to move away from contaminated habitats. Moreover, the sex ratio was imbalanced in the favor of males in contaminated lower compartments with mixtures of the lowest and highest concentrations of amitriptyline and paroxetine, suggesting that these drugs also affect the hormone system. In conclusion, the exposure to the antidepressants amitriptyline and paroxetine triggered important changes within nematode communities, as changes in taxonomic composition were a result of migration and survival of tolerant taxa, but equally acting on the hormone system and leading to unbalanced sex-ratio among the residents.

Degradation of Selected Antidepressants Sertraline and Citalopram in Ultrapure Water and Surface Water Using Gamma Radiation

Gamma radiation was applied to degradation selected antidepressants in ultrapure water and surface water. Additionally, the influence of typical radical scavengers like carbonate, nitrate and humic acid was determined. The cytotoxicity towards liver cells HepG2 and colon cells Caco2 were measured during the radiation process. It was found that radiation technology, specifically ionizing radiation, can achieve satisfactory degradation efficiency with both SER and CIT. It was shown that the process of decomposition of the tested antidepressants with the highest efficiency occurs in the reaction with the hydroxyl radical.

Proposal for fluorescence-based in vitro assay using human and zebrafish monoamine transporters to detect biological activities of antidepressants in wastewater

Antidepressants are among the most commonly detected pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. As they modulate neurotransmission in nervous systems, behavioural abnormalities among aquatic species are of concern. It is possible to measure the concentrations of selected antidepressants by chemical analysis, but other non-target antidepressants and active metabolites might also be present. Here, we propose an "in vitro monoamine transporter inhibition assay" to measure the biological activity of antidepressants, particularly monoamine transporter inhibitors, in wastewater. We used APP, a fluorescent substrate for monoamine transporters, to measure the activity of wastewater extracts at inhibiting APP uptake through the human serotonin transporter (hSERT), norepinephrine transporter (hNET), and dopamine transporter, and the zebrafish SERT (zSERT). We confirmed that the assay could measure the biological activity of test antidepressants. Interestingly, the IC₅₀ values of antidepressants (the concentration that gave a 50% reduction of APP uptake) for the zSERT were smaller than those for the hSERT. For example, IC₅₀ value of desipramine for the zSERT was 1/200 of that for the hSERT. These results indicate that antidepressants inhibited zSERT more strongly than hSERT. Then we applied the assay to extracts of effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants and detected biological activity of antidepressants specifically against the hSERT, hNET, and zSERT for the first time. For the hSERT, antidepressant-equivalent quantities (EQs) ranged from 2.2 × 10¹ to 2.5 × 10² ng-clomipramine-EQ/L. For the hNET, EQs ranged from below limit of detection to 8.2 × 10¹ ng-desipramine-EQ/L. For the zSERT, EQs ranged from 2.8 × 10² to 3.3 × 10² ng-duloxetine-EQ/L. The in vitro monoamine transporter inhibition assay is thus useful for measuring the biological activity of antidepressants in the aquatic environment.

The proliferation effects of fluoxetine and amitriptyline on human breast cancer cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms

Some studies have suggested possible estrogen actions for antidepressants such as fluoxetine. However, the specific molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, the molecular mechanism of fluoxetine-induced the proliferation of breast cancer SKBR3 and MCF-7 cells was evaluated by detecting ERα and GPR30-mediated ERK and PI3K/AKT signals. We found that low concentrations of fluoxetine upregulated the expression of GPR30, ERα, CyclinD1, and C-MYC proteins, as well as elevated the phosphorylation of ERK and AKT. The phosphorylation of ERK and AKT decreased when the cells were pretreated with ERα inhibitor ICI, GPR30 inhibitor G15, and PI3K inhibitor WM prior to fluoxetine exposure. The addition of these inhibitors also attenuated the fluoxetine-induced cell proliferation. These findings indicated that fluoxetine activated the PI3K/AKT and ERK signaling cascades via GPR30 to derive the cell proliferation. It suggests that fluoxetine has the potential to exert estrogen actions via GPR30.

Occurrence of caffeine, fluoxetine, bezafibrate and levothyroxine in surface freshwater of São Paulo State (Brazil) and risk assessment for aquatic life protection

The prioritization of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) for monitoring programmes and/or environmental risk assessment (ERA) purposes is based on several criteria, including environmental occurrence data. However, data on API occurrence in Brazilian surface freshwaters are still scarce. The Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) provides several medicines free-of-charge, including medications that have bezafibrate, fluoxetine and levothyroxine as the API. Thus, our objective was to investigate the occurrence of bezafibrate, fluoxetine and levothyroxine in samples collected at sampling sites included in the surface freshwater monitoring program of the São Paulo State Environmental Agency (CETESB); caffeine was also included in the analysis because it is commonly used as an anthropogenic marker of aquatic environment contamination. Monitoring results showed that levothyroxine was not found in any of the analysed samples. Caffeine was ubiquitous in the analysed samples, thus indicating anthropic contamination in the studied water bodies. Caffeine and bezafibrate presented risk quotient (RQ) < 1 for all the sampling sites and periods evaluated in this study. For fluoxetine, RQs > 1 were found in all water samples in which this API was found, indicating a potential risk for freshwater pelagic biota. Thus, fluoxetine should be regulated in São Paulo State in order to protect the aquatic biota. Additional occurrence studies in other Brazilian states are still needed to evaluate if fluoxetine is a nationwide pollutant.

Determination of Pharmaceuticals, Heavy Metals, and Oxysterols in Fish Muscle

The present study aimed to assess the levels of 98 multi-class pharmaceuticals including cardiovascular drugs, antidepressants, hypnotics, antibiotics, and sulfonamides occurring in the muscle tissue of fish caught in the Baltic Sea. The following fish species were collected: perch (Perca fluviatilis); flounder (Platichthys flesus); turbot (Scophthalmus maximus); plaice (Pleuronectes platessa); cod (Gadus morhua callarias); bream (Abramis brama); crucian (Carassius carassius). Additionally, in the examined fish muscle the levels of heavy metals and trace elements were determined (As; Ag; Au; Ba; Cd; Co; Cr; Cu; Hg; Li; Mo; Ni; Pb; Sb; Se; Sn; Tl; V) as well as the levels of cholesterol and its 5 derivatives (7-ketocholesterol; 7α-hydroxycholesterol; 7β-hydroxycholesterol; 5β,6β-epoxy-cholesterol; 5α,6α-epoxycholesterol). In the performed studies 11 out of 98 examined pharmaceuticals were detected in fish muscle. The levels of pharmaceuticals in fish muscle varied depending on the species. In the tissues of bream and crucian, no pharmaceuticals were found. Mercury, lead and arsenic were detected in the muscles of all examined fish. Based on the hazard factor for Hg, Pb, Cd, Ni (target hazard quotient, THQ < 1), it was found that the consumption of the studied fish does not constitute a health risk. However, the THQ for As remained >1 indicated possible risk from those metals. In the examined fish muscle the total cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) level of oxysterols were, respectively: 6.90 (cod) μg/g-4.18 μg/g (perch), which corresponded to 0.7-1.5% of cholesterol. The main COPs evaluated were 7-ketocholesterol (0.78 ± 0.14-1.79 ± 0.06 μg/g), 7β-hydroxycholesterol (0.50 ± 0.04-3.20 ± 2.95 μg/g) and 5β,6β-epoxycholesterol (0.66 ± 0.03-1.53 ± 0.66 μg/g). The assessment of health hazards due to contaminations is necessary, which may help to introduce national legislation and global standards aimed at reducing or even eliminating the exposure to contaminants.

Organic Micropollutants in New York Lakes: A Statewide Citizen Science Occurrence Study

The widespread occurrence of organic micropollutants (OMPs) is a challenge for aquatic ecosystem management, and closing the gaps in risk assessment of OMPs requires a data-driven approach. One promising tool for increasing the spatiotemporal coverage of OMP data sets is through the active involvement of citizen volunteers to expand the scale of OMP monitoring. Working collaboratively with volunteers from the Citizens Statewide Lake Assessment Program (CSLAP), we conducted the first statewide study on OMP occurrence in surface waters of New York lakes. Samples collected by CSLAP volunteers were analyzed for OMPs by a suspect screening method based on mixed-mode solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Sixty-five OMPs were confirmed and quantified in samples from 111 lakes across New York. Hierarchical clustering of OMP occurrence data revealed the relevance of 11 most frequently detected OMPs for classifying the contamination status of lakes. Partial least squares regression and multiple linear regression analyses prioritized three water quality parameters linked to agricultural and developed land uses (i.e., total dissolved nitrogen, specific conductance, and a wastewater-derived fluorescent organic matter component) as the best combination of predictors that partly explained the interlake variability in OMP occurrence. Lastly, the exposure-activity ratio approach identified the potential for biological effects associated with detected OMPs that warrant further biomonitoring studies. Overall, this work demonstrated the feasibility of incorporating citizen science approaches into the regional impact assessment of OMPs.

Application of Pleurotus ostreatus to efficient removal of selected antidepressants and immunosuppressant

Disposed pharmaceuticals constitute a significant threat to the environment due to the high consumption of drugs and inefficient treatment of wastewater. In this paper, we first described the efficient removal of a series of antidepressants and immunosuppressant from a cultivation medium carried out by white-rot fungus, Pleurotus ostreatus. We determined the removal efficiency of pharmaceuticals and the activity of fungal ligninolytic enzymes over time, as well as the toxicity of pre- and post-cultivation medium to Spirostomum ambiguum. We showed that P. ostreatus can remove from the model medium most of the pharmaceuticals studied, including clomipramine, mianserin, paroxetine, sertraline, and mycophenolic acid. Pharmaceuticals containing phenolic or benzene moieties, likewise in the natural monolignols, were removed in a high efficiency within a short time. The activity of the fungal ligninolytic enzymes, laccase, and lignin peroxidase, in the cultivation medium, was three times higher in the presence of the pharmaceuticals, which justifies their contribution to the degradation. The post-cultivation medium showed lower toxicity than pre-cultivation medium and toxic units were 7- and 2-fold lower for the sublethal and lethal response, respectively. Over twenty metabolites we detected resulted mostly from oxygenation or demethylation of parent pharmaceuticals. The biological treatment we developed using P. ostreatus-based system should be convenient and effective in mycoremediation of environmental wastewater polluted with emerging contaminants including monolignol-like antidepressants and immunosuppressant.

Comparative study on photocatalytic degradation of the antidepressant trazodone using (Co, Fe and Ru) doped titanate nanowires: Kinetics, transformation products and in silico toxicity assessment

Titanate nanomaterials have been outstanding in the removal of emerging contaminants by the photocatalysis process. These photocatalysts, when modified through techniques such as doping with metals, they have advantages over TiO₂, especially in the region of visible light. In this work, the photocatalytic performance of four recent reported catalysts, pristine titanate nanowires, cobalt-doped titanate nanowires, iron-doped titanate nanowires and ruthenium-doped titanate nanowires, for the removal of the antidepressant trazodone under visible light radiation was compared. The iron-doped titanate nanowires presented the best catalytic activity by the catalyst surface area. Additionally, thirteen transformation products (TPs) were identified by high-resolution mass spectrometry and, to the best of our knowledge, nine of them have never been described in the literature. It was shown that for each catalyst different TPs were formed with distinct time profiles. Finally, toxicity assessment by computational methods showed that TPs were not readily biodegradable and they presented toxicity to aquatic organisms with mutagenic potential. These findings reinforce the importance of taking into consideration the TPs formed during the removal of pollutants since many of them may be toxic and can be produced during photocatalysis.

Insights on the metabolization of the antidepressant venlafaxine by meagre (Argyrosomus regius) using a combined target and suspect screening approach

Bioaccumulation of pharmaceuticals in fish exposed to contaminated water can be shaped by their capability to metabolize these xenobiotics, affecting their toxicity and animal welfare. In this study the in vivo metabolization of the antidepressant venlafaxine by the juvenile marine fish meagre (Argyrosomus regius) was evaluated using a combined target and suspect screening analytical approach. Thirteen venlafaxine metabolites were identified, namely N-desmethylvenlafaxine and N,N-didesmethylvenlafaxine, which were unequivocally identified using analytical standards, and 11 more tentatively identified by suspect screening analysis, including two Phase II metabolites formed by amino acid conjugation. All of them were detected in the liver, while in plasma and brain only 9 and 6 metabolites, respectively, were detected. Based on these findings, for the first time, a tentative metabolization pathway of venlafaxine by A. regius is proposed. Contrarily to what happen in humans, N-demethylation was identified as the main route of metabolization of venlafaxine by fish. Our findings highlight species-specificity in the metabolization of venlafaxine and allow a better understanding of venlafaxine's toxicokinetic in fish. These results emphasize the need to investigate the biotransformation of xenobiotics by non-target organisms to have an integrated overview of their environmental exposure and to improve future evaluations of environmental risk assessment.

Tracking the occurrence of psychotropic pharmaceuticals in Brazilian wastewater treatment plants and surface water, with assessment of environmental risks

According to the World Health Organization, >360 million people worldwide suffer from mental diseases such as depression, anxiety, or bipolar disorder, for which psychotropic drugs are frequently prescribed. Despite being highly metabolized in the human organism, non-metabolized portions of these drugs are excreted, subsequently reaching wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), where they may be incompletely removed during treatment, leading to the contamination of surface waters. In this work, ten psychotropic drugs widely consumed in Brazil (alprazolam, amitriptyline, bupropion, carbamazepine, clonazepam, escitalopram, fluoxetine, nortriptyline, sertraline, and trazadone) were monitored at five WWTPs located in the metropolitan region of Campinas (São Paulo State, Brazil). The drugs were determined in the influents, at different stages of the treatments, and in the effluents. Surface waters from the Atibaia River and the Anhumas Creek were also monitored. Quantitation of the pharmaceuticals was carried out by online solid-phase extraction coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. The method was validated and presented a limit of quantitation of 50 ng L^-1 for all the drugs assessed. Six of the substances monitored were quantified in the samples collected from the different treatment processes employed at the WWTPs. These technologies were unable to act as barriers for these psychotropics drugs. The concentrations ranged from 50 to 3000 ng L^-1 in the WWTP effluents, while the main contaminants were found in surface waters at concentrations from 25 to 3530 ng L^-1. The levels of the psychotropic detected in this work did not appear to present risks to the aquatic biota.

Influence of Selected Antidepressants on the Ciliated Protozoan Spirostomum ambiguum: Toxicity, Bioaccumulation, and Biotransformation Products

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of the most common antidepressants on aquatic protozoa. Spirostomum ambiguum was used as the model protozoan. The biological activity of four antidepressants, namely fluoxetine, sertraline, paroxetine, and mianserin, toward S. ambiguum was evaluated. Sertraline was found to be the most toxic drug with EC₅₀ values of 0.2 to 0.7 mg/L. The toxicity of the antidepressants depended on the pH of the medium and was the highest in alkaline conditions. Sertraline was also the most bioaccumulating compound tested, followed by mianserin. Slow depuration was observed after transferring the protozoa from the drug solutions to a fresh medium, which indicated possible lysosomotropism of the tested antidepressants in the protozoa. The biotransformation products were identified using a high-resolution mass spectrometer after two days of incubation of the protozoa with the tested antidepressants. Four to six potential biotransformation products were observed in the aqueous phase, while no metabolites were detected in the protozoan cells. Because of the low abundance of metabolites in the medium, their structure was not determined.

Acute exposure of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae to environmental concentrations of selected antidepressants: Bioaccumulation, physiological and histological changes

Antidepressants have been detected in surface waters worldwide at ng-μg/L concentration. These compounds can exert adverse effects on fish even at low levels. But, all previous analyses have concentrated on adult fish. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of environmental concentrations of sertraline, paroxetine, fluoxetine and mianserin, and their mixtures on such unusual endpoints as physiological and histological changes of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae. We also determined the bioconcentration of the pharmaceuticals. Fish Embryo Toxicity test was used to analyze the influence on developmental progression. Histological sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Proliferating cells in liver were determined immunohistochemically by detection of Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigens. The bioconcentration factor was measured by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Pharmaceuticals were used at low, medium and high concentrations in mixtures and at medium concentration as single compound. Exposure to the analyzed pharmaceuticals increased the rate of abnormal embryo and larvae development, accelerated the hatching time and affected the total hatching rate. Three-times lower proliferation of hepatocytes was observed in larvae exposed to paroxetine, mianserin, sertraline and the mixture of the pharmaceuticals at the highest concentrations. The highest bioaccumulation factor (BCF) was obtained for sertraline. The BCF of the analyzed compounds was higher if the organisms were exposed to the mixtures than to single pharmaceuticals. To conclude, the exposure of zebrafish larvae to selected antidepressants and their mixtures may cause disturbances in the organogenesis of fish even at environmental concentrations.

Evaluation of the Possibility of Using Hydroponic Cultivations for the Removal of Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Compounds in Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants

The problem of the presence of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in the environment is closely related to municipal wastewater and in consequence to municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) because wastewater is the main way in which these compounds are transferred to the ecosystem. For this reason, the development of cheap, simple but very effective techniques for the removal of such residues from wastewater is very important. In this study, the analysis of the potential of using three new plants: Cyperus papyrus (Papyrus), Lysimachia nemorum (Yellow pimpernel), and Euonymus europaeus (European spindle) by hydroponic cultivation for the removal of 15 selected pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in an MWWTP is presented. In order to obtain the most reliable data, this study was performed using real WWTP conditions and with the determination of the selected analytes in untreated sewage, treated sewage, and in plant materials. For determining the target compounds in plant materials, an Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE)-Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE)-GC-MS(SIM) method was developed and validated. The obtained data proved that the elimination efficiency of the investigated substances from wastewater was in the range of 35.8% for diflunisal to above 99.9% for paracetamol, terbutaline, and flurbiprofen. Lysimachia nemorum was the most effective for the uptake of target compounds among the tested plant species. Thus, the application of constructed wetlands for supporting conventional MWWTPs allowed a significant increase in their removal from the wastewater stream.

Specific Micropollutant Biotransformation Pattern by the Comammox Bacterium Nitrospira inopinata

The recently discovered complete ammonia-oxidizing (comammox) bacteria occur in various environments, including wastewater treatment plants. To better understand their role in micropollutant biotransformation in comparison with ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA), we investigated the biotransformation capability of Nitrospira inopinata (the only comammox isolate) for 17 micropollutants. Asulam, fenhexamid, mianserin, and ranitidine were biotransformed by N. inopinata, Nitrososphaera gargensis (AOA), and Nitrosomonas nitrosa Nm90 (AOB). More distinctively, carbendazim, a benzimidazole fungicide, was exclusively biotransformed by N. inopinata. The biotransformation of carbendazim only occurred when N. inopinata was supplied with ammonia but not nitrite as the energy source. The exclusive biotransformation of carbendazim by N. inopinata was likely enabled by an enhanced substrate promiscuity of its unique AMO and its much higher substrate (for ammonia) affinity compared with the other two ammonia oxidizers. One major plausible transformation product (TP) of carbendazim is a hydroxylated form at the aromatic ring, which is consistent with the function of AMO. These findings provide fundamental knowledge on the micropollutant degradation potential of a comammox bacterium to better understand the fate of micropollutants in nitrifying environments.

The detection of drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals in drinking water using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse including novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are emerging as newer contaminants in the aquatic environment. The presence of such pollutants has implications on the environment as well as public health and therefore their identification is important when monitoring water quality. This research presents a new method for the simultaneous detection of 20 drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals in drinking water, including 15 NPS, three traditional illicit drugs and two antidepressants. The developed method is based on the use of solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The SPE recoveries for the majority of target analytes ranged between 62 and 107%. The method detection and quantification limits ranged between 0.01 and 1.09 ng/L and 0.02-3.64 ng/L respectively. Both instrumental and method precisions resulted in relative standard deviations <15.04%, with an accuracy of < ±8.66%. The results show that LC-MS can be an alternative to the more popular technique of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals in drinking water. This newly developed simultaneous detection method has been applied to drinking water collected from the East Anglia region of the UK. Citalopram, cocaine, fluoxetine, ketamine, mephedrone, methamphetamine and methylone were detected at the range of 0.14 and 2.81 ng/L. This is the first time that the two NPS mephedrone and methylone, have been detected in UK drinking water.

Psychiatrics and selected metabolites in hospital and urban wastewaters: Occurrence, removal, mass loading, seasonal influence and risk assessment

The occurrence, removal, mass loading, seasonal influence and environmental risk assessment of nine psychiatric pharmaceuticals and four of their selected metabolites, were studied in one hospital and one urban wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Ioannina city, in northwestern Greece, providing information about the efficiency of the plants and their contribution into the final receiver's flow. Samples were collected from the influents and the effluents of the plants in different sampling campaigns, from July to December 2016. Analytical methodology was based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry, after solid-phase extraction through Oasis HLB cartridges. Concentrations in both WWTPs ranged between <LOQ and 1126.3 ng/L in the influents and between <LOQ and 1127.4 ng/L, in the effluents. Results indicated that venlafaxine and its metabolite O-desmethyl venlafaxine were the most frequently detected compounds in the influents and the effluents of both WWTPs. Metabolite to parent compound ratio ranged in the influents between 0.01 and 87.2 while in the effluents between 0.01 and 47.7. Based on mass loads in the influents, venlafaxine is consumed in high amounts (up to 67.1 mg/day/1000 inhab.), and consequently its metabolite O-desmethyl venlafaxine (up to 139.1 mg/day/1000 inhab.). Similarly to the influents, environmental emissions, were also higher for venlafaxine and O-desmethyl venlafaxine (10.1 and 13.3 mg/d/1000 inhab., respectively). Removal efficiencies in the hospital WWTP ranged from -100% to 98.9%, while in the city WWTP from -49.9% to 99.8%. Furthermore, an important outcome was the evaluation of the potential ecotoxicological risk, by means of risk quotients (RQs), where none of the target psychiatrics or their metabolites showed RQ above 1.

Transformation products of citalopram: Identification, wastewater analysis and in silico toxicological assessment

The objective of this study was to identify transformation products (TPs) of citalopram (CIT), an antidepressant drug, in laboratory experiments. Moreover, toxicity predictions and analyzes in wastewater samples were performed. For the formation of TPs, raw water was used for the processes of hydrolysis; photodegradation under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and chlorination. The toxicities were predicted by computational toxicity assessment. The TPs were identified by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF/MS) in broadband collision induced dissociation (bbCID) acquisition mode and product ion scan mode (MS/MS). The probable structures of the TPs under study were established based on accurate mass, fragmentations observed in the MS spectra and prediction tools software. The experiments resulted in seventeen possible identified TPs and their stability and formation was monitored over time in the experiments. Two of these TPs were identified in wastewater samples It was also observed that most of TPs formed were either less toxic then CIT or had a similar toxicity.

Photolytic and photocatalytic transformation of an antipsychotic drug asenapine: Comparison of kinetics, identification of transformation products, and in silico estimation of their properties

The photolytic and photocatalytic transformation of an antipsychotic drug asenapine with the use of H₂O₂ and TiO₂ was studied. A method employing irradiation with a simulated full solar spectrum in the photostability chamber was applied, then the reverse-phase ultra high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector, coupled with electrospray quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (RP-UHPLC-DAD - ESI-Q-TOF) was used for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the processes. The developed quantitative method was fully validated, according to the International Conference on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) guidelines, and the kinetic parameters of asenapine photodecomposition were compared. Nineteen phototransformation products were detected, and their probable structures - mainly hydroxylated and oxidized asenapine derivatives - were suggested. On the basis of the elucidated structures the computational prediction of their toxicity at the various endpoints, as well as bioconcentration factors and biodegradability was performed. The obtained results were then subjected to the principal component analysis (PCA). This chemometric technique facilitated comparison of the applied models, calculated properties of the TPs, and enabled visualization of relationships between them.

Occurrence and source analysis of selected antidepressants and their metabolites in municipal wastewater and receiving surface water

Seven commonly utilized antidepressants (amitriptyline, fluoxetine, sertraline, citalopram, paroxetine, venlafaxine, and bupropion) and three of their metabolites were detected in four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and corresponding receiving waters including the mainstream and three of the tributaries of Huangpu River, Shanghai. The concentration levels of selected antidepressants in wastewater and receiving water were both at ng L-1 level, but those antidepressants that were found in wastewater were typically in a range of one and even two orders of magnitude higher than those that were present in the receiving water except for the concentration levels of paroxetine, norfluoxetine, and nortriptyline. Venlafaxine and its metabolite O-desmethylvenlafaxine were the primary compounds (reaching up to 132.04 and 173.68 ng L-1 as well as 3.03 and 4.53 ng L-1 in wastewater and receiving water, respectively). Based on the mass loadings of selected antidepressants in four WWTPs, the mass loading of sertraline in effluent for this study was at the highest level when compared to other countries. The important finding was that the sampling sites H11 and H13 were much more likely to be polluted by side-pollution sources (the accumulation areas of Grade A of Class-three hospitals and pharmaceutical factories) than point pollution sources (WWTP 1 and WWTP2) through analysis of Spearman correlation. The results have shown that the RQs for these antidepressants were less than 0.1 except for the RQ of venlafaxine in an effluent for mollusks, which was less than 1. This indicated that the concentration levels of antidepressants would not pose a high risk for aquatic organisms, but sustained attention should still be paid.

Efficient degradation of imipramine by iron oxychloride-activated peroxymonosulfate process

Synthesized iron oxychloride (FeOCl) was firstly applied to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade imipramine (IMI), a tricyclic antidepressant. Compared to some other Fe-based materials including zero valent iron, Fe₂O₃, Fe₃O₄ and ferric ions, FeOCl presented an impressive catalytic activity on PMS at near-neutral condition due to its unique structure containing abundant unsaturated iron atoms and oxo-bridged configuration. With an increase of FeOCl dose, PMS dose or initial pH in ranges of 0.02 - 0.5 g/L, 0.1 - 2.5 mM and 4.0 - 8.0, the degradation efficiency of IMI was effectively raised by 64.0%, 48.5% and 50.6%, respectively. The presence of either bicarbonate or chloride stimulated the removal of IMI. Moreover, 70.4% of IMI was degraded under the background of real water with 2 mM PMS. The possible reactive species were identified as sulfate and hydroxyl radicals. The formed hypochlorite through the reaction of PMS and the released chloride ions may also contribute to the degradation of IMI. Among the oxidants, sulfate radical was proven to be the dominate one in the system. Additionally, the FeOCl/PMS system can overall effectively degrade six other organic compounds including amitriptyline, desipramine, propranolol, nitrobenzene, methyl-paraben and ethyl-paraben, further suggesting the possible application of this system in treatment of vast aquatic micro-organic pollutants.

Uptake and metabolism of the antidepressants sertraline, clomipramine, and trazodone in a garden cress (Lepidium sativum) model

Environmental contamination with pharmaceuticals has received growing attention in recent years. Several studies describe the presence of traces of drugs in water bodies and soils and their impacts on nontarget organisms including plants. Due to these facts investigations of the uptake and metabolism of pharmaceuticals in organisms is an emerging research area. The present study demonstrates the analysis of three selected antidepressants (sertraline, clomipramine, and trazodone) as well as metabolites and transformation products in a cress model (Lepidium sativum). Cress was treated with tap water containing 10 mg/L of the parent drugs. Employing an analytical approach based on high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight or Orbitrap mass spectrometry in MS and MS² modes, in total 14 substances were identified in the cress extracts. All three parent drugs were taken up by the cress and translocated from the roots to the leaves in specific patterns. In addition to this, eleven metabolite species were identified. They were generated by hydroxylation, demethylation, conjugation with amino acids, or combinations of these mechanisms. Finally, the inclusion of control cultures in the experimental setup allowed for a differentiation of "true" metabolites generated by the cress and transformation products generated by plant-independent mechanisms.

Effects of the antidepressant, mianserin, on early development of fish embryos at low environmentally relevant concentrations

Pharmaceuticals have been considered as emerging organic contaminants in the environment that might pose huge risk to the non-target aquatic organisms. Mianserin, a tetracyclic antidepressant, is present at low detectable concentrations in the aquatic environment; however, limited attention has been devoted to its potential adverse effects on the aquatic animals. In the present study, we first performed an acute toxicity test for mianserin exposure using zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos during 4-124h post fertilization (hpf). Time-dependent lethal concentrations of mianserin exposure on the zebrafish embryos were firstly determined at mg/L levels. Then, a series of sublethal concentrations of 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1000μg/L of mianserin were prepared for the short-term exposure of zebrafish embryos for 120h. The results showed that mianserin exposure reduced the body length of zebrafish larvae, in addition to altering multiple physiological and biochemical parameters in the exposed embryos/larvae. A dose-dependent inhibition of the total antioxidant capacity and total cholinesterase activity was revealed in the exposed fish larvae upon increasing the concentrations of mianserin exposure. A U-shaped concentration-dependent response curve was observed for the adrenocorticotropic hormone; however, an inversed U-shaped response curve was obtained for the monoamine oxidase level in response to mianserin exposure. Activities of the total adenosine triphosphatase (T-ATPase), Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, and Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺-ATPase were significantly increased in the fish larvae exposed to relatively high doses of mianserin; interestingly however, low dose of mianserin at 10ng/L inhibited their Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and T-ATPase activities. Additionally, the coordinated regulation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate and protein kinase A was observed in the mianserin-exposed fish larvae, implying a reserved signaling pathway involved in the fish response to the antidepressant. Therefore, our study demonstrated that mianserin exposure significantly affected the early development of fish embryos at environmentally relevant concentrations, and suggested that the risk of pharmaceutical contamination of the aquatic environment, even at low doses, should receive more attention.

Influence of photolabile pharmaceuticals on the photodegradation and toxicity of fluoxetine and fluvoxamine

Pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment may be decomposed by abiotic and biotic factors. Photodegradation is the most investigated abiotic process, as it occurs in the natural environment and may be applied in wastewater treatment technology. Although pharmaceuticals are detected in effluents and surface water in a mixture, the photodegradation process is mainly evaluated with single compounds. The photodegradation of fluoxetine (FLU) and fluvoxamine (FLX) in the presence of diclofenac (DCF) and triclosan (TCS) was investigated with HPLC and bioassay. FLU did not degrade under UV-Vis irradiation in SunTest CPS+ either with or without the tested additives, although small amounts of desmethyl fluoxetine and 4-(trifluoromethyl)phenol were formed. In contrast, during irradiation, FLX isomerized to cis-FLX. This process was enhanced by DCF and TCS, but to a lesser degree than by humic acids. Thus, the presence and composition of the matrix should be considered in the environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals. As the toxicity of the tested solutions depended only on the concentration of the tested drugs, it was suggested that the biological activity of the photodegradation products was lower than that of the parent compounds.

New-generation bar adsorptive microextraction (BAμE) devices for a better eco-user-friendly analytical approach-Application for the determination of antidepressant pharmaceuticals in biological fluids

The present contribution aims to design new-generation bar adsorptive microextraction (BAμE) devices that promote an innovative and much better user-friendly analytical approach. The novel BAμE devices were lab-made prepared having smaller dimensions by using flexible nylon-based supports (7.5 × 1.0 mm) coated with convenient sorbents (≈ 0.5 mg). This novel advance allows effective microextraction and back-extraction ('only single liquid desorption step') stages as well as interfacing enhancement with the instrumental systems dedicated for routine analysis. To evaluate the achievements of these improvements, four antidepressant agents (bupropion, citalopram, amitriptyline and trazodone) were used as model compounds in aqueous media combined with liquid chromatography (LC) systems. By using an N-vinylpyrrolidone based-polymer phase good selectivity and efficiency were obtained. Assays performed on 25 mL spiked aqueous samples, yielded average recoveries in between 67.8 ± 12.4% (bupropion) and 88.3 ± 12.1% (citalopram), under optimized experimental conditions. The analytical performance also showed convenient precision (RSD < 12%) and detection limits (50 ng L^-1), as well as linear dynamic ranges (160-2000 ng L^-1) with suitable determination coefficients (r² > 0.9820). The application of the proposed analytical approach on biological fluids showed negligible matrix effects by using the standard addition methodology. From the data obtained, the new-generation BAμE devices presented herein provide an innovative and robust analytical cycle, are simple to prepare, cost-effective, user-friendly and compatible with the current LC autosampler systems. Furthermore, the novel devices were designed to be disposable and used together with negligible amounts of organic solvents (100 μL) during back-extraction, in compliance with the green analytical chemistry principles. In short, the new-generation BAμE devices showed to be an eco-user-friendly approach for trace analysis of priority compounds in biological fluids and a versatile alternative over other well-stablished sorption-based microextraction techniques.

Developmental exposure to the SSRI citalopram causes long-lasting behavioural effects in the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus)

Selective Serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of psychotropic drugs used to treat depression in both adolescents and pregnant or breast-feeding mothers as well as in the general population. Recent research on rodents points to long-lasting behavioural effects of pre- and perinatal exposure to SSRIs which last into adulthood. In fish however, studies on effects of developmental exposure to SSRIs appears to be non-existent. In order to study effects of developmental SSRI exposure in fish, three-spine sticklebacks were exposed to 1.5 µg/l of the SSRI citalopram in the ambient water for 30 days, starting two days post-fertilisation. After approximately 100 days of remediation in clean water the fish were put through an extensive battery of behavioural tests. Feeding behaviour was tested as the number of bites against a piece of food and found to be increased in the exposed fish. Aggression levels were measured as the number of bites against a mirror image during 10 min and was also found to be significantly increased in the exposed fish. Novel tank behaviour and locomotor activity was tested in an aquarium that had a horizontal line drawn half-way between the bottom and the surface. Neither the latency to the first transition to the upper half, nor the number of transitions or the total time spent in the upper half was affected by treatment. Locomotor activity was significantly reduced in the exposed fish. The light/dark preference was tested in an aquarium where the bottom and walls were black on one side and white on the other. The number of transitions to the white side was significantly reduced in the exposed fish but there was no effect on the latency to the first transition or the total time spent in the white half. The results in the current study indicate that developmental SSRI exposure causes long-lasting behavioural effects in fish and contribute to the existing knowledge about SSRIs as environmental pollutants.

Combinatory effects of low concentrations of 17α-etinylestradiol and citalopram on non-reproductive behavior in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Sewage effluents contain pharmaceuticals, personal care products and industrial chemicals, exposing aquatic organisms to complex mixtures. The consequences of exposure to combinations of different classes of drugs in fish are largely unknown. In this study, we exposed adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) males and females for two weeks to low, environmentally relevant concentrations of the endocrine disrupting chemical 17α-etinylestradiol (EE₂) and the selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI) citalopram, alone and in combination, and analyzed behaviors of importance for population fitness, scototaxis (light/dark preference), the novel tank test and shoal cohesion. Control water contained 0.4ng/L EE₂ and the measured exposure concentrations were 0.9ng/L EE₂ (nominal 0.1) and 1ng/L EE₂ (nominal 0.5). The measured concentrations of citalopram were 0.1 (nominal 0.1) and 0.4μg/L (nominal 0.5). Both EE₂ exposures increased anxiety in males in the scototaxis test, with significantly longer latency periods before entering and fewer visits to the white zone of the tank. The combined exposures (0.9ng/L EE₂+0.1μg/L citalopram and 1ng/L EE₂+0.4μg/L citalopram) resulted in abolishment of effects of EE₂, with shorter latency period and more transitions to white than for fish exposed to EE₂ alone. In the novel tank test, the results surprisingly indicated lower anxiety after both EE₂ and citalopram exposure. Significantly more transitions to the upper half of the tank observed in males exposed to 0.1μg/L citalopram alone compared to control males. Males exposed to EE₂ (0.9ng/L) had shorter latency period to the upper half. Combination exposure resulted in a longer latency and fewer transitions to the upper half compared to both control, EE₂- and citalopram-exposed males. Males exposed to the combination spent significantly less time in the upper half than males EE₂ or citalopram-exposed males. Females exposed to 1ng/L EE₂ had fewer transitions to the upper half than the control group and females exposed to 0.4μg/L citalopram. In the shoaling test, males exposed to 0.1μg/L citalopram+0.9ng/L EE₂ showed more transitions away from peers than males exposed to 0.1μg/L citalopram alone. In conclusion, low concentrations of EE₂, closely above the predicted no effect concentration (NOEC) of 0.1ng/L, created anxiety-like behavior in zebrafish males. Citalopram showed marginal effects at these low concentrations but in the combination exposure the behavioral effects of EE₂ were abolished. This is an initial effort to understand the effects of cocktails of anthropogenic substances contaminating aquatic environments.

Evidence of low dose effects of the antidepressant fluoxetine and the fungicide prochloraz on the behavior of the keystone freshwater invertebrate Gammarus pulex

In recent years, behavior-related endpoints have been proposed as rapid and reliable ecotoxicological tools for risk assessment. In particular, the use of detritivores to test the toxicity of pollutants through feeding is currently becoming a well-known method. Experiments combining feeding with other behavioral endpoints can provide relevant information about direct and indirect toxicological effects of chemicals. We carried out a feeding experiment with the shredder Gammarus pulex in order to detect indirect (through leaf conditioning) and direct effects (through water exposure) of two pollutants at environmentally relevant concentrations: the fungicide prochloraz (6 μg/L) and the antidepressant fluoxetine (100 ng/L). Prochloraz inhibited fungal growth on leaves, but it did not affect either the microbial breakdown rates or the C:N ratio of the leaves. Individuals of G. pulex that were fed with treated leaves presented lower consumption rates, not only those fed with prochloraz-treated leaves, but also those fed with fluoxetine-treated leaves, and those fed with the mixture-treated leaves. Mixed-effects models revealed that the swimming velocity of the amphipods after the experiment was modulated by the exposure to fluoxetine, and also by the exposure to prochloraz. We demonstrate that both the antidepressant and the fungicide may cause significant sublethal effects at low concentrations. The combination of behavioral endpoints together with the application of mixed models provided a useful tool for early detection of the effects of toxicity mixtures in freshwater ecosystems.

Global transcriptomic analysis of zebrafish in response to embryonic exposure to three antidepressants, amitriptyline, fluoxetine and mianserin

Antidepressants are among the most commonly detected pharmaceuticals in aqueous systems, and, as emerging organic pollutants, may exert negative effects on non-target aquatic organisms. Previously, it has been revealed that antidepressant exposure significantly inhibits the growth and development of fish during their early developmental stages. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to identify and compare the underlying mechanisms of action of different antidepressants at the transcriptional level using zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. Through high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) data analysis, 32, 34, and 130 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained from zebrafish larvae after 120h of embryonic exposure to sublethal concentrations of amitriptyline, fluoxetine, and mianserin, respectively. The expression profiles of the identified DEGs showed similar trends in response to the three antidepressant treatments, suggesting consistent toxic effects of low concentrations of these three drugs on the regulation of gene expression in fish. Several metabolic and signaling pathways, including glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and the insulin pathway, were affected in the exposed fish larvae. The expression profiles of selected DEGs were then verified by the qRT-PCR method, which indicated significant positive correlations with the RNA-Seq results. Next, we determined the concentration-dependent expression patterns of 6 selected DEGs in fish larvae exposed to three antidepressants at a series of environmentally relevant concentrations. The results revealed a significant concentration-dependent reduction in the levels of dual-specificity phosphatase 5 (dusp5) mRNA, as well as a non-concentration-dependent gene expression inhibition of prostaglandin D2 synthase b (ptgdsb); the circadian rhythm-related genes, i.e. those encoding nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group D, member 1 (nr1d1) and period 2 (per2); and genes encoding early growth response factors (egr1 and egr4), in the antidepressant-treated fish larvae. In summary, to our knowledge, our findings demonstrate, for the first time, that the three different categories of antidepressants have common effects on the gene expression involved in multiple biological processes and signaling pathways during the early development of fish and thus provide information for characterizing the adverse outcome pathways and on the ecological risk assessment of these pharmaceutical pollutants in the aquatic environment.

Contaminants of emerging concern in tributaries to the Laurentian Great Lakes: II. Biological consequences of exposure

The Laurentian Great Lakes contain one fifth of the world's surface freshwater and have been impacted by human activity since the Industrial Revolution. In addition to legacy contaminants, nitrification and invasive species, this aquatic ecosystem is also the recipient of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) with poorly understood biological consequences. In the current study, we documented the presence, concentrations, and biological effects of CECs across 27 field sites in six Great Lakes tributaries by examining over 2250 resident and caged sunfish (Lepomis ssp.) for a variety of morphological and physiological endpoints and related these results to CEC occurrence. CEC were ubiquitous across studies sites and their presence and concentrations in water and sediment were highest in effluent dominated rivers and downstream of municipal wastewater treatment plant discharges. However, even putative upstream reference sites were not free of CEC presence and fish at these sites exhibited biological effects consistent with CEC exposure. Only the Fox River exhibited consistent adverse biological effects, including increased relative liver size, greater prominence of hepatocyte vacuoles and increased plasma glucose concentrations. Canonical Redundancy Analysis revealed consistent patterns of biological consequences of CEC exposure across all six tributaries. Increasing plasma glucose concentrations, likely as a result of pollutant-induced metabolic stress, were associated with increased relative liver size and greater prominence of hepatocyte vacuoles. These indicators of pollutant exposure were inversely correlated with indicators of reproductive potential including smaller gonad size and less mature gametes. The current study highlights the need for greater integration of chemical and biological studies and suggests that CECs in the Laurentian Great Lakes Basin may adversely affect the reproductive potential of exposed fish populations.