Recent updates on 1,2,3-triazole-containing hybrids with in vivo therapeutic potential against cancers: A mini-review

Recent advances in the discovery of copper(II) complexes as potential anticancer drugs

This review article offers a literature search of the most active, new copper (II) anticancer complexes based on nitrogen-containing ligands, reported in the literature over the past 5 years: from the beginning of 2019, until mid-2024. In the modern world, cancer remains one of the deadliest diseases of all. Although years of the ongoing research allowed us to better understand its nature, and thus aim more precisely at specific molecular targets and pathways, many of its aspects remain unclear. Today, chemotherapy still remains at the forefront of cancer treatment. With the ever-growing struggles to overcome chemoresistance and occurrence of serious side effects, the discovery of new, more selective and active drugs is a task of an utmost importance. At the same time, copper (II)-based compounds offer a wide array of biological activities and valuable biochemical properties. This review article provides the update on the recent advances in the discovery of new potential anticancer drugs among copper (II)-based compounds in the recent five years.

Decarboxylative click cycloaddition: an emerging strategy towards substituted 1,2,3-triazole derivatives

1,2,3-triazole is a vital structural motif of various drugs and therapeutic leads, as well as a linker for bioconjugation and molecular recognition. Cu-catalysed click cycloaddition of azides with terminal alkynes (CuAAc) is an important reaction to construct the triazole core. In recent years, various decarboxylative click strategies utilizing alkynoic acids as stable surrogates for low boiling or gaseous alkynes have been developed. For instance, propiolic acid, which is easy to transport, is a safe alternative for flammable gaseous acetylene. In this review article, we have covered the recent development in the decarboxylative click cycloaddition of alkynoic acids with azides leading to the synthesis of diversely substituted triazoles, including monosubstituted, 1,4-disubstituted and fully substituted 1,2,3-triazoles. Various aspects such as mechanistic insights and optimization conditions/role of catalyst are highlighted.

Progress and Prospects of Triazoles in Advanced Therapies for Parasitic Diseases

Parasitic diseases represent a severe global burden, with current treatments often limited by toxicity, drug resistance, and suboptimal efficacy in chronic infections. This review examines the emerging role of triazole-based compounds, originally developed as antifungals, in advanced antiparasitic therapy. Their unique structural properties, particularly those of 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-triazole isomers, facilitate diverse binding interactions and favorable pharmacokinetics. By leveraging innovative synthetic approaches, such as click chemistry (copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition) and structure-based design, researchers have repurposed and optimized triazole scaffolds to target essential parasite pathways, including sterol biosynthesis via CYP51 and other novel enzymatic routes. Preclinical studies in models of Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, malaria, and helminth infections demonstrate that derivatives like posaconazole, ravuconazole, and DSM265 exhibit potent in vitro and in vivo activity, although their primarily static effects have limited their success as monotherapies in chronic cases. Combination strategies and hybrid molecules have demonstrated the potential to enhance efficacy and mitigate drug resistance. Despite challenges in achieving complete parasite clearance and managing potential toxicity, interdisciplinary efforts across medicinal chemistry, parasitology, and clinical research highlight the significant potential of triazoles as components of next-generation, patient-friendly antiparasitic regimens. These findings support the further optimization and clinical evaluation of triazole-based agents to improve treatments for neglected parasitic diseases.

Signature of click chemistry in advanced techniques for cancer therapeutics

Click chemistry has made a revolution in the field of chemical biology owing to its high efficiency, specificity, and mild reaction conditions. The copper(i)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) and strain-promoted [3 + 2] azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) stand out as the most popular click reactions that construct a stable triazole ring by reacting an azide with an alkyne. These two reactions represent an ideal choice for biological applications due to its specificity, reliability, and biocompatibility. As a powerful modular synthetic approach for creating new molecular entities, it has seen increasing use in anticancer drug discovery. The present "state of the art" focuses mainly on the signature of click chemistry (CuAAC and SPAAC) in advanced techniques for cancer therapeutics, which includes cancer immunotherapy, antibody-drug conjugates, development of proteolysis-targeting chimeras, targeted dual-agent combination therapy for cancer, exosome modification for cancer therapy, and photodynamic therapy (PDT).

The Current Landscape of 1,2,3-triazole Hybrids With Anticancer Therapeutic Potential: Part II

Chemotherapy has been identified as a validated and critically important strategy for the treatment of cancer, but multidrug resistance and serious side effects remain grand challenges for effective cancer therapy. This highlights the urgent need for the development of alternative chemical entities that can modulate more than one biological target with high specificity and multitargeted mechanism of action in the disease progression pathway. 1,2,3-Triazole hybrids have the potential to act on dual/multiple targets in cancer cells simultaneously and possess potent broad-spectrum activity against various cancers, including drug-resistant forms. Thus, 1,2,3-triazole hybrids are valuable scaffolds in the treatment and eradication of cancer. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the evolving landscape of 1,2,3-triazole hybrids with their in vitro and in vivo anticancer potential, and the structure-activity relationships as well as mechanisms of action are also discussed, covering articles published from 2021 onward.

Exploration of Benzofuran/Indole-Chalcone Conjugated 1,2,3-Triazole Hybrids as Candida glabrata Agents: Design, Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, Molecular Docking, and In Silico ADMET Analysis

A novel series of benzofuran/indole-chalcone linked 1,2,3-triazole hybrids (4a-k, 8a-h) were synthesized to explore their potential as antifungal agents. Among the 19 derivatives, 4b, 4c, 4i, 4j, and 8a showed inhibition against Candida glabrata at 50 µg/mL concentration that is comparable to the control drug fluconazole. Compounds 4b, 4c, and 4j showed greater activity at low concentrations (25 and 12.5 µg/mL). Among them, 4j exhibited the highest potency, with 81.82% inhibition against C. glabrata at 50 µg/mL. Compound 4j exhibited better safety profiles against human acute monocytic leukemia cells. In structural activity studies, chloro (Cl) at the 2,6th position of the phenyl ring of chalcone and p-CN substitution on the benzyl triazole moiety maximizes the potential. In addition, in silico ADME analysis supports the drug-likeness profile and strengthens the data. So, compound 4j can be used as an effective lead to develop a potent and safer antifungal drug candidate to combat Candida infections.

Pd-catalyzed intramolecular C-H activation for the synthesis of fused-1,2,3-triazole quinolines and dihydroquinolines

A Pd-catalyzed, simple, and efficient approach toward structurally diverse fused polycyclic [1,2,3]triazolo[4,5-c]quinoline and 4,5-dihydro-[1,2,3]triazolo[4,5-c]quinoline has been developed. The method is based on intramolecular Pd-catalyzed C-H activation and features operational simplicity, high atom economy, broad substrate scope, excellent yields, and good functional group tolerance. Gram-scale experiments and post-synthetic modifications were performed to extend the synthetic applicability of the proposed methodology and enhance the structural complexity of the obtained derivatives.

Carvacrol-Derived 1,2,3-Triazole Hybrids: Synthesis, Computational Insights, and Targeted Inhibition of EGFR, BRAF V600E, and Tubulin Enzymes

This study explores the design and synthesis of innovative triazole-carvacrol hybrid molecules via copper-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions. Leveraging advanced computational drug design tools, the ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) profiles of these compounds will be meticulously evaluated. Furthermore, molecular docking simulations will unravel the binding interactions and mechanisms with critical cancer therapy targets, including EGFR (PDB ID: 3POZ), BRAF V600E (PDB ID: 1UWJ), and Tubulin (PDB ID: 1SA0). By integrating cutting-edge synthesis and computational techniques, this work aims to uncover potent candidates with significant therapeutic potential in cancer treatment.

The current landscape of 1,2,3-triazole hybrids with anticancer therapeutic potential: Part I

Cancer, with its steadily increasing morbidity and mortality, will continue to pose a threat to humanity over an extended period. Chemotherapeutics play an indispensable role in cancer treatment, and hundreds of drugs have been approved for this purpose. Nevertheless, the fight against cancer remains a formidable challenge. This is mainly due to the emergence of multidrug resistance and the severe side effects associated with currently available anticancer drugs. Consequently, there is an urgent imperative to explore novel chemotherapeutic agents. 1,2,3-Triazoles belong to one of the most privileged classes of nitrogen-containing five-membered heterocycles and are regarded as prominent sources for the development of innovative anticancer chemotherapeutics. 1,2,3-Triazole hybrids, which possess multitargeted mechanisms of action within the cancer progression pathway, hold the potential to overcome multidrug resistance and mitigate side effects. Furthermore, several 1,2,3-triazole hybrids have already been approved for cancer therapy or are currently under clinical evaluation. This clearly demonstrates that 1,2,3-triazole hybrids are valuable scaffolds in the treatment and eradication of cancer. This review aims to provide insights into the anticancer therapeutic potential of 1,2,3-triazole hybrids, along with their mechanisms of action, crucial aspects of design, and structure-activity relationships (SARs). It encompasses articles published from 2021 onward.

Optimizing Enantiomeric Resolution of Chiral Triazoles in Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

Chirality plays a crucial role in the pharmacological activity of triazoles, a key scaffold in antifungal agents and various therapeutic applications. This study focuses on optimizing the enantiomeric resolution of chiral triazoles using supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) and 10 different columns, either immobilized or coated, chlorinated or nonchlorinated, cellulose or amylose-based chiral stationary phases (CSPs). Four novel triazoles and two marketed ones (tebuconazole and hexaconazole) were separated to determine optimal resolution conditions. The best resolution was achieved using chlorinated amylose-based CSPs across the tested compounds. Optical rotation and X-ray crystallography were employed to determine the absolute configurations of the purified enantiomers.

Anti-Resistant Strategies: Icotinib Derivatives as Promising Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Therapeutics

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients often benefit from EGFR inhibitors like gefitinib. However, drug resistance remains a significant challenge in treatment. The unique properties of 1,2,3-triazole, a nitrogen-based compound, hold promise as potential solutions due to its versatile structural attributes and diverse biological effects, including anticancer properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Our synthesis process involved the huisgen cycloaddition chemical method, which generated diverse icotinib derivatives. We evaluated the anticancer capabilities of these derivatives against various cancer cell lines, with a specific focus on NSCLC cells that exhibit drug resistance. Additionally, we investigated the binding affinity of selected compounds, including 3l, towards wild-type EGFR using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments.

RESULTS

Notably, icotinib derivatives such as derivative 3l demonstrated significant efficacy against different cancer cell lines, including those resistant to conventional therapies. Compound 3l exhibited potent activity with IC50 values below 10 μM against drug-resistant cells. SPR experiments revealed that 3l exhibited enhanced affinity towards wild-type EGFR compared to icotinib. Our research findings suggest that 3l acts as a compelling antagonist for the protein tyrosine kinase of EGFR (EGFR-PTK).

CONCLUSION

Icotinib derivative 3l, featuring a 1,2,3-triazole ring, demonstrates potent anticancer effects against drug-resistant NSCLC cells. Its enhanced binding affinity to EGFR and modulation of the EGFR-RAS-RAF-MAPK pathway position 3l as a promising candidate for the future development of anticancer drugs.

Effects of 1H-1,2,3-Triazole Derivatives of 3-O-Acetyl-11-Keto-Beta-Boswellic Acid from Boswellia sacra Resin on T-Cell Proliferation and Activation

Background: 3-O-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (β-AKBA), a triterpene natural product, is one of the main natural products of Boswellia sacra resin (BSR) and has reported biological and immunomodulatory effects. 1H-1,2,3-triazole derivatives of β-AKBA (named 6a-6d) were synthesized from β-AKBA. The 1H-1,2,3-triazole compounds are also known to have a wide range of biological and pharmacological properties as demonstrated by in vitro and in vivo studies. This study aimed to investigate the effects of these 1H-1,2,3-triazole derivatives of β-AKBA on human T-cell proliferation and activation. Methods: PBMCs isolated from healthy donors were activated by anti-CD3/CD28 monoclonal antibodies in the presence of β-AKBA (1) or 1H-1,2,3-triazole derivatives of β-AKBA or DMSO controls. Results: We found that similar to the parent compound β-AKBA (1), derivatives 6a, 6b, and 6d significantly inhibited T-cell expansion/proliferation and reduced the levels of CD25 activation marker on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells without exerting significant cytotoxic effects on T-cell viability at a concentration of 25 µM. However, compound 6c further inhibited T-cell expansion/proliferation and CD25 expression, but had a significant cytotoxic effect on cell viability at similar concentrations of 25 µM. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate the immunoinhibitory effects of β-AKBA (1) and its corresponding triazole derivatives on T-cell proliferation and activation, highlighting the promising therapeutic potential of these compounds in T-cell-mediated diseases.

Targeting JNK kinase inhibitors via molecular docking: A promising strategy to address tumorigenesis and drug resistance

Among members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are vital for cellular responses to stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Recent advances have highlighted their important implications in cancer biology, where dysregulated JNK signalling plays a role in the growth, progression, and metastasis of tumors. The present understanding of JNK kinase and its function in the etiology of cancer is summarized in this review. By modifying a number of downstream targets, such as transcription factors, apoptotic regulators, and cell cycle proteins, JNKs exert diverse effects on cancer cells. Apoptosis avoidance, cell survival, and proliferation are all promoted by abnormal JNK activation in many types of cancer, which leads to tumor growth and resistance to treatment. JNKs also affect the tumour microenvironment by controlling the generation of inflammatory cytokines, angiogenesis, and immune cell activity. However, challenges remain in deciphering the context-specific roles of JNK isoforms and their intricate crosstalk with other signalling pathways within the complex tumor environment. Further research is warranted to delineate the precise mechanisms underlying JNK-mediated tumorigenesis and to develop tailored therapeutic strategies targeting JNK signalling to improve cancer management. The review emphasizes the role of JNK kinases in cancer biology, as well as their potential as pharmaceutical targets for precision oncology therapy and cancer resistance. Also, this review summarizes all the available promising JNK inhibitors that are suggested to promote the responsiveness of cancer cells to cancer treatment.

Exploring of N-phthalimide-linked 1,2,3-triazole analogues with promising -anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity: synthesis, biological screening, and molecular modelling studies

In this study, a library of phthalimide Schiff base linked to 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles was designed, synthesised, and characterised by different spectral analyses. All analogues have been introduced for in vitro assay of their antiviral activity against COVID-19 virus using Vero cell as incubator with different concentrations. The data revealed most of these derivatives showed potent cellular anti-COVID-19 activity and prevent viral growth by more than 90% at two different concentrations with no or weak cytotoxic effect on Vero cells. Furthermore, in vitro assay was done against this enzyme for all analogues and the results showed two of them have IC50 data by 90 µM inhibitory activity. An extensive molecular docking simulation was run to analyse their antiviral mechanism that found the proper non-covalent interaction within the Mpro protease enzyme. Finally, we profiled two reversible inhibitors, COOH and F substituted analogues that might be promising drug candidates for further development have been discovered.

Aminodiols, aminotetraols and 1,2,3-triazoles based on allo-gibberic acid: stereoselective syntheses and antiproliferative activities

A new series of aminodiols, aminotetraols and 1,2,3-triazoles based on allo-gibberic acid were synthesized in a stereoselective manner, starting from commercially available gibberellic acid. allo-Gibberic acid, prepared from gibberellic acid according to a literature method, was applied to SeO2/t-BuOOH-mediated allylic oxidation, yielding the triol, which is a key intermediate. After protecting the 1,4-diol functionality as acetonide, epoxidation was performed using either m-CPBA or t-BuOOH/VO(acac)2 to produce the epoxy alcohol. Then, the oxirane ring was opened with either primary amines to provide aminodiols or sodium azide to afford azido diols. The latter was subjected to the CuAAC reaction to obtain dihydroxy 1,2,3-triazoles. HCl-mediated acetonide deprotection of the prepared derivatives furnished aminotetraols and tetrahydroxy 1,2,3-triazoles. The antiproliferative effects of the prepared compounds were studied by the in vitro MTT method against a panel of human cancer cell lines (HeLa, SiHa, A2780, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) and fibroblasts, and the structure-activity relationships for the prepared compounds were explored.

Synthesis, anticancer activity and molecular modeling study of novel substituted triazole linked tetrafluoronaphthalene hybrid derivatives

To create some novel anticancer molecules, a library of novel series of various triazoles linked to the hydroxyl group of 5,6,7,8-tetrafluoronaphthalen-1-ol (3) was designed and synthesized via CuAAC reaction 'Click Chemistry' of tetrafluoronaphthalene based terminal alkyne with substituted organic azides. The structural characterizations of the targeted Click products 9-18 were confirmed by FTIR, 1H NMR, 19F NMR, 13C NMR and HRMS spectroscopy. Synthesized compounds were tested in two triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines to understand their anticancer potentials. According to our findings, compounds 14 and 13 showed high cytotoxicity in BT549 cells at 20 μM and 30 μM, respectively. Moreover, these compounds blocked the migration of BT549 cells. In the MDA-MB-231 cell line, compound 18 exhibited high cytotoxicity and can block cell migration for 24 h. Molecular docking study with synthesized novel compounds was performed by Glide/SP method against SphK1 drug target. Furthermore, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was carried out for the compounds 12-14 and 18. The compounds 13 and 14 may be potential inhibitor candidates in place of a reference inhibitor. A pharmacophore model was generated with the most potent compound 14, and the approved drugs were screened using the modules of Discovery Studio to find similar drugs. Consequently, this comprehensive study encompassing design, synthesis, in vitro and in silico analyses were correlated with the structure-activity relationship between compounds. The findings have the potential to unveil promising drug candidates for future studies.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

1,2,3‐Triazole‐Based New Aurones as Anticancer Agents with the Capability to Target Extracellular Digestive Enzymes

This study involves the synthesis of a series of dimethyl substituted novel aurones, featuring 1,2,3‐triazole as an integral structure. All the newly synthesized compounds were thoroughly characterized using various spectroscopic tools and also subjected to computational analysis utilizing the DFT/B3LYP methodology, which involved the determination of frontier molecular orbital energy values and the computation of various quantum chemical parameters. Further their impact on cell viability and cytotoxic activity on the adenocarcinoma gastric cell line (AGS) was investigated using cell‐based MTT assay. Compounds 6d, 6o and 6p displayed significant cytotoxic activity, reducing cell viability to a greater extent with IC50 values of 9.74, 20.09, and 5.92 µM, respectively and even better than the standard chemotherapeutic drug leucovorin (IC50 = 30.8 µM). In addition, all the compounds were also screened for their extracellular enzymatic assay and through in vitro results compound 6n emerged as the efficient inhibitor of amylase (% inhibition = 51.92) and trypsin (% inhibition = 68.36), whereas an activation is observed for lipase (% activation = 269.48). In silico molecular docking was also conducted to assess the interactions between proteins and ligands, revealing the binding patterns of the synthesized compounds and the standard drug with receptor proteins.

Synthesis, cytotoxicity and 99mTc-MIBI tumor cell uptake evaluation of 2-phenylbenzothiazole tagged triazole derivatives

Aim: The extensive utilization of 2-phenylbenzothiazole due to their wide array of biological activities, particularly in cancer therapy, has caused great attention to explore more potent derivatives.Materials & methods: We report the synthesis of 2-phenylbenzothiazole tagged 1,2,3-triaozle (8) through Cu(I)-catalyzed cycloaddition of alkyne side chain with aryl-substituted azides.Results: The in vitro experiments, using MTT and 99mTc-MIBI cell uptake methods, demonstrated the remarkable anticancer activity of these compounds against A549, SKOV3 and MCF7 cell lines.Conclusion: Compounds 8b, 8f and 8i possessed high cytotoxic activity as compared with doxorubicin. Compound 8g has a similar inhibitory effect on the proliferation of breast cancer cells as doxorubicin. In silico study indicated that compound 8 would be a good lead for the development of new potent anticancer agents.

Novel quinazolin-2-yl 1,2,3-triazole hybrids as promising multi-target anticancer agents: Design, synthesis, and molecular docking study

In our study, a series of quinazoline-1,2,3-triazole hybrids (14a-r) have been designed and synthesized as multi-target EGFR, VEGFR-2, and Topo II inhibitors. All synthesized hybrids were assessed for their anticancer capacity. MTT assay revealed that compounds 14a, 14d, and 14k were the most potent hybrids against four cancer cell lines, HeLa, HePG-2, MCF-7, and HCT-116 at low micromolar range while exhibiting good selectivity against normal cell line WI-38. Sequentially, the three compounds were evaluated for EGFR, VEGFR-2, and Topo II inhibition. Compound 14d was moderate EGFR inhibitor (IC50 0.103 µM) compared to Erlotinib (IC50 0.049 µM), good VEGFR-2 inhibitor (IC50 0.069 µM) compared to Sorafenib (IC50 0.031 µM), and stronger Topo II inhibitor (IC50 19.74 µM) compared to Etoposide (IC50 34.19 µM) by about 1.7 folds. Compounds 14k and 14a represented strong inhibitory activity against Topo II with (IC50 31.02 µM and 56.3 µM) respectively, compared to Etoposide. Additionally, cell cycle analysis and apoptotic induction were performed. Compound 14d arrested the cell cycle on HeLa at G2/M phase by 17.53 % and enhanced apoptosis by 44.08 %. A molecular Docking study was implemented on the three hybrids and showed proper binding interaction with EGFR, VEGFR-2, and Topo II active sites.

Enantioselective copper-catalyzed azidation/click cascade reaction for access to chiral 1,2,3-triazoles

Chiral 1,2,3-triazoles are highly attractive motifs in various fields. However, achieving catalytic asymmetric click reactions of azides and alkynes for chiral triazole synthesis remains a significant challenge, mainly due to the limited catalytic systems and substrate scope. Herein, we report an enantioselective azidation/click cascade reaction of N-propargyl-β-ketoamides with a readily available and potent azido transfer reagent via copper catalysis, which affords a variety of chiral 1,2,3-triazoles with up to 99% yield and 95% ee under mild conditions. Notably, chiral 1,5-disubstituted triazoles that have not been accessed by previous asymmetric click reactions are also prepared with good functional group tolerance.

Synthesis of Unsymmetrically Condensed Benzo- and Thienotriazologermoles

Germoles and siloles unsymmetrically condensed with heteroaromatic units are attracting much interest. In this study, compounds containing a triazologermole core unit condensed with a benzene or thiophene ring were prepared. Thienotriazologermole was subjected to bromination to obtain the bromide, which underwent transformation via the palladium-catalyzed Stille coupling reaction to form triphenylamine-substituted thienotriazolegermole, with an effective extension of conjugation. The electronic states and properties of these triazologermole derivatives are discussed on the basis of optical and electrochemical measurements and density functional theory calculations. Triphenylamine-substituted thienotriazolegermole showed clear solvatochromic properties in photoluminescence measurements, suggesting that intramolecular charge transfer occurs at the photo-excited state. This clearly indicates that the triazologermole unit is useful as an acceptor of donor-acceptor compounds. The potential application of triphenylamine-substituted thienotriazolegermole as a sensing material was also explored.

Ring-Opening Coupling of Cyclopropanol with 1,2,3-Triazole for the Synthesis of Fused Triazoles

A radical ring-opening arylation of cyclopropanol with 1,2,3-triazole has been achieved. This synthetic protocol provides straightforward access to a wide range of structurally diverse and chiral 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro[1,2,3]triazolo[1,5-a]pyridines with high efficiency from readily available chiral cyclopropanols.

Discovery of gefitinib-1,2,3-triazole derivatives against lung cancer via inducing apoptosis and inhibiting the colony formation

A series of 20 novel gefitinib derivatives incorporating the 1,2,3-triazole moiety were designed and synthesized. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their potential anticancer activity against EGFR wild-type human non-small cell lung cancer cells (NCI-H1299, A549) and human lung adenocarcinoma cells (NCI-H1437) as non-small cell lung cancer. In comparison to gefitinib, Initial biological assessments revealed that several compounds exhibited potent anti-proliferative activity against these cancer cell lines. Notably, compounds 7a and 7j demonstrated the most pronounced effects, with an IC50 value of 3.94 ± 0.17 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1299), 3.16 ± 0.11 µmol L-1 (A549), and 1.83 ± 0.13 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1437) for 7a, and an IC50 value of 3.84 ± 0.22 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1299), 3.86 ± 0.38 µmol L-1 (A549), and 1.69 ± 0.25 µmol L-1 (NCI-H1437) for 7j. These two compounds could inhibit the colony formation and migration ability of H1299 cells, and induce apoptosis in H1299 cells. Acute toxicity experiments on mice demonstrated that compound 7a exhibited low toxicity in mice. Based on these results, it is proposed that 7a and 7j could potentially be developed as novel drugs for the treatment of lung cancer.

Novel Tetracyclic Azaphenothiazines with the Quinoline Ring as New Anticancer and Antibacterial Derivatives of Chlorpromazine

Phenothiazine derivatives are widely studied in various fields such as biology, chemistry, and medicine research because of their pharmaceutical effects. The first compound used successfully in the treatment of psychosis was a phenthiazine derivative, chlorpromazine. Apart from its activity in neurons, chlorpromazine has also been reported to display anticancer and antibacterial properties. In this study, we present the synthesis and research on the activity of A549, MDA, MiaPaCa, PC3, and HCT116 cancer cell lines and of S. aureus, S. epidermidis, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa bacterial strains against a series of new tetracyclic chlorpromazine analogues containing a quinoline scaffold in their structure instead of the benzene ring and various substituents at the thiazine nitrogen. The structure of these novel molecules has been determined by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and HRMS spectral techniques. The seven most active of the twenty-four new chlorpromazine analogues tested were selected to study the mechanism of cytotoxic action. Their ability to induce apoptosis or necrosis in cancer cells was assessed by flow cytometry analysis. The results obtained confirmed the proapoptotic activity of selected compounds, especially in terms of inducing late apoptosis or necrosis in cancer cell lines A549, MiaPaCa-2, and HCT-116. Furthermore, studies on the induction of cell cycle arrest suggest that the new chlorpromazine analogues exert antiproliferative effects by inducing cell cycle arrest in the S phase and, consequently, apoptosis.

The anti-breast cancer therapeutic potential of 1,2,3-triazole-containing hybrids

Breast cancer, as one of the most common invasive malignancies and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women globally, poses a significant challenge in the world health system. Substantial advances in diagnosis and treatment have significantly improved the survival rate of breast cancer patients, but the number of incidences and deaths of breast cancer are projected to increase by 40% and 50%, respectively, by 2040. Chemotherapy is one of the principal treatments for breast cancer therapy, but multidrug resistance and severe side effects remain the major obstacles to the success of treatment. Hence, there is a vital need to develop novel chemotherapeutic agents to combat this deadly disease. 1,2,3-Triazole, which can be effectively constructed by click chemistry, not only can serve as a linker to connect different anti-breast cancer pharmacophores but also is a valuable pharmacophore with anti-breast cancer potential and favorable properties such as hydrogen bonding, moderate dipole moment, and enhanced water solubility. Particularly, 1,2,3-triazole-containing hybrids have demonstrated promising in vitro and in vivo anti-breast cancer potential against both drug-sensitive and drug-resistant forms and possessed excellent selectivity by targeting different biological pathways associated with breast cancer, representing privileged scaffolds for the discovery of novel anti-breast cancer candidates. This review concentrates on the latest advancements of 1,2,3-triazole-containing hybrids with anti-breast cancer potential, including work published between 2020 and the present. The structure-activity relationships (SARs) and mechanisms of action are also reviewed to shed light on the development of more effective and multitargeted candidates.

Recent developments of hydroxamic acid hybrids as potential anti-breast cancer agents

Histone deacetylase inhibitors not only possess favorable effects on modulating tumor microenvironment and host immune cells but also can reactivate the genes silenced due to deacetylation and chromatin condensation. Hydroxamic acid hybrids as promising histone deacetylase inhibitors have the potential to address drug resistance and reduce severe side effects associated with a single drug molecule due to their capacity to simultaneously modulate multiple targets in cancer cells. Accordingly, rational design of hydroxamic acid hybrids may provide valuable therapeutic interventions for the treatment of breast cancer. This review aimed to provide insights into the in vitro and in vivo anti-breast cancer therapeutic potential of hydroxamic acid hybrids, together with their mechanisms of action and structure-activity relationships, covering articles published from 2020 to the present.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel benzenesulfonamide incorporated thiazole-triazole hybrids as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents

A library of 20 novel benzenesulfonamide incorporating thiazole tethered 1,2,3-triazoles 1-4a-e was synthesized and screened for their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity studies. Amoxicillin and fluconazole were used as reference antibacterial and antifungal drugs, respectively. Further, energies of frontier molecular orbitals were calculated for all the synthesized target compounds 1-4a-e to correlate electronic parameters with the observed biological results. Global reactivity descriptors, including highest occupied molecular orbitals-lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals energy gap, electronegativity, chemical hardness, chemical softness, and electrophilicity index, were also calculated for the synthesized molecules. All the tested compounds possessed moderate to excellent antibacterial potency; however, 3d and 4d exhibited the overall highest antibacterial effect (minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC] values 5-11 µM) while 2c showed the highest antifungal effect (MIC value 6 µM). Compound 3c exhibited the highest antioxidant activity with a % radical scavenging activity value of 95.12. The cytotoxicity of the compounds 1-4a-e was also checked against an animal cell line and a plant seed germination cell line, and the compounds were found to be safe against both the tested cell lines.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of 1,2,3-triazole benzothiazole derivatives as tubulin polymerization inhibitors with potent anti-esophageal cancer activities

In this work, we utilized the molecular hybridization strategy to design and synthesize novel 1,2,3-triazole benzothiazole derivatives K1-26. The antiproliferative activities against MGC-803, Kyse30 and HCT-116 cells were explored, and their structure-activity relationship were preliminarily conducted and summarized. Among them, compound K18, exhibited the strongest proliferation inhibitory activity, with esophageal cancer cells Kyse30 and EC-109 being the most sensitive to its effects (IC50 values were 0.042 and 0.038 μM, respectively). Compound K18 effectively inhibited tubulin polymerization (IC50 = 0.446 μM), thereby hindering tubulin polymerize into filamentous microtubules in Kyse30 and EC-109 cells. Additionally, compound K18 induced the degradation of oncogenic protein YAP via the UPS pathway. Based on these dual molecular-level effects, compound K18 could induce G2/M phase arrest and cell apoptosis in Kyse30 and EC-109 cells, as well as regulate the expression levels of cell cycle and apoptosis-related proteins. In summary, our findings highlight a novel 1,2,3-triazole benzothiazole derivative K18, which possesses significant potential for treating esophageal cancers.

Novel Benzotriazole-β-lactam Derivatives as Antimalarial Agents: Design, Synthesis, Biological Evaluation and Molecular Docking Studies

Many people around the world suffer from malaria, especially in tropical or subtropical regions. While malaria medications have shown success in treating malaria, there is still a problem with resistance to these drugs. Herein, we designed and synthesized some structurally novel benzotriazole-β-lactams using 2-(1H-benzo[d][1,2,3]triazol-1-yl)acetic acid as a key intermediate. To synthesize the target molecules, the ketene-imine cycloaddition reaction was employed. First, The reaction of 1H-benzo[d][1,2,3]triazole with 2-bromoacetic acid in aqueous sodium hydroxide yielded 2-(1H-benzo[d][1,2,3]triazol-1-yl)acetic acid. Then, the treatment of 2-(1H-benzo[d][1,2,3]triazol-1-yl)acetic acid with tosyl chloride, triethyl amine, and Schiff base provided new β-lactams in good to moderate yields.The formation of all cycloadducts was confirmed by elemental analysis, FT-IR, NMR and mass spectral data. Moreover, X-ray crystallography was used to determine the relative stereochemistry of 4a compound. The in vitro antimalarial activity test was conducted for each compound against P. falciparum K1. The IC50 values ranged from 5.56 to 25.65 μM. A cytotoxicity profile of the compounds at 200 μM final concentration revealed suitable selectivity of the compounds for malaria treatment. Furthermore, the docking study was carried out for each compound into the P. falciparum dihydrofolate reductase enzyme (PfDHFR) binding site to analyze their possible binding orientation in the active site.

Recent drug design strategies and identification of key heterocyclic scaffolds for promising anticancer targets

Cancer, a noncommunicable disease, is the leading cause of mortality worldwide and is anticipated to rise by 75% in the next two decades, reaching approximately 25 million cases. Traditional cancer treatments, such as radiotherapy and surgery, have shown limited success in reducing cancer incidence. As a result, the focus of cancer chemotherapy has switched to the development of novel small molecule antitumor agents as an alternate strategy for combating and managing cancer rates. Heterocyclic compounds are such agents that bind to specific residues in target proteins, inhibiting their function and potentially providing cancer treatment. This review focuses on privileged heterocyclic pharmacophores with potent activity against carbonic anhydrases and kinases, which are important anticancer targets. Evaluation of ongoing pre-clinical and clinical research of heterocyclic compounds with potential therapeutic value against a variety of malignancies as well as the provision of a concise summary of the role of heterocyclic scaffolds in various chemotherapy protocols have also been discussed. The main objective of the article is to highlight key heterocyclic scaffolds involved in recent anticancer drug design that demands further attention from the drug development community to find more effective and safer targeted small-molecule anticancer agents.

Hydroxamic acid hybrids: Histone deacetylase inhibitors with anticancer therapeutic potency

Histone deacetylases (HDACs), a class of enzymes responsible for the removal of acetyl functional groups from the lysine residues in the amino-terminal tails of core histones, play a critical role in the modulation of chromatin architecture and the regulation of gene expression. Dysregulation of HDAC expression has been closely associated with the development of various cancers. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) could regulate diverse cellular pathways, cause cell cycle arrest, and promote programmed cell death, making them promising avenues for cancer therapy with potent efficacy and favorable toxicity profiles. Hybrid molecules incorporating two or more pharmacophores in one single molecule, have the potential to simultaneously inhibit two distinct cancer targets, potentially overcome drug resistance and minimize drug-drug interactions. Notably, hydroxamic acid hybrids, exemplified by fimepinostat and tinostamustine as potential HDACis, could exert the anticancer effects through induction of apoptosis, differentiation, and growth arrest in cancer cells, representing useful scaffolds for the discovery of novel HDACis. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current scenario of hydroxamic acid hybrids as HDACis with anticancer therapeutic potential developed since 2020 to facilitate further rational exploitation of more effective candidates.

Recruitment of hexahydroquinoline as anticancer scaffold targeting inhibition of wild and mutants EGFR (EGFRWT, EGFRT790M, and EGFRL858R)

Hexahydroquinoline (HHQ) scaffold was constructed and recruited for development of new series of anticancer agents. Thirty-two new compounds were synthesised where x-ray crystallography was performed to confirm enantiomerism. Thirteen compounds showed moderate to good activity against NCI 60 cancer cell lines, with GI % mean up to 74% for 10c. Expending erlotinib as a reference drug, target compounds were verified for their inhibiting activities against EGFRWT, EGFRT790M, and EGFRL858R where compound 10d was the best inhibitor with IC50 = 0.097, 0.280, and 0.051 µM, respectively, compared to erlotinib (IC50 = 0.082 µM, 0.342 µM, and 0.055 µM, respectively). Safety profile was validated using normal human lung (IMR-90) cells. 10c and 10d disrupted cell cycle at pre-G1 and G2/M phases in lung cancer, HOP-92, and cell line. Molecular docking study was achieved to understand the potential binding interactions and affinities in the active sites of three versions of EGFRs.

Synthesis of Functionalized Triazoles on DNA via Azide-Acetonitrile "Click" Reaction

Triazoles are privileged structural motifs that are embedded in a number of molecules with interesting biological activities. In this work, we developed a practical and general synthetic strategy to construct a medicinally important 5-amino-1,2,3-triazole moiety on DNA by coupling DNA-conjugated azides and monosubstituted acetonitriles via azide-acetonitrile "click" reaction. Under mild reaction conditions, this reaction displayed a broad substrate scope. Most substrates gave moderate-to-excellent conversions. Thus, this DNA-compatible reaction could be employed in practical DNA-encoded library (DEL) construction and potentially expand the chemical space of DNA-encoded libraries.

Synthesis and Biological Activity of Piperidinothiosemicarbazones Derived from Aminoazinecarbonitriles

To investigate how structural modifications affect tuberculostatic potency, we synthesized seven new piperidinothiosemicrabazone derivatives 8-14, in which three of them had a pyrazine ring replacing the pyridine ring. Derivatives 8-9 and 13-14 exhibited significant activity against the standard strain (minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) 2-4 μg/mL) and even greater activity against the resistant M. tuberculosis strain (MIC 0.5-4 μg/mL). Additionally, the effects of compounds 8-9 were entirely selective (MIC toward other microorganisms ≥ 1000 μg/mL) and non-toxic (IC50 to HaCaT cells 5.8 to >50 μg/mL). The antimycobacterial activity of pyrazine derivatives 11-12 was negligible (MIC 256 to >500 μg/mL), indicating that replacing the aromatic ring was generally not a promising line of research in this case. The zwitterionic structure of compound 11 was determined using X-ray crystallography. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) calculations showed that all compounds, except 11, could be considered for testing as future drugs. An analysis of the structure-activity relationship was carried out, indicating that the higher basicity of the substituent located at the heteroaromatic ring might be of particular importance for the antituberculous activity of the tested groups of compounds.

Combined NMR Spectroscopy and Quantum-Chemical Calculations in Fluorescent 1,2,3-Triazole-4-carboxylic Acids Fine Structures Analysis

The peculiarities of the optical properties of 2-aryl-1,2,3-triazole acids and their sodium salts were investigated in different solvents (1,4-dioxane, dimethyl sulfoxide DMSO, methanol MeOH) and in mixtures with water. The results were discussed in terms of the molecular structure formed by inter- and intramolecular noncovalent interactions (NCIs) and their ability to ionize in anions. Theoretical calculations using the Time-Dependent Density Functional Theory (TDDFT) were carried out in different solvents to support the results. In polar and nonpolar solvents (DMSO, 1,4-dioxane), fluorescence was provided by strong neutral associates. Protic MeOH can weaken the acid molecules' association, forming other fluorescent species. The fluorescent species in water exhibited similar optical characteristics to those of triazole salts; therefore, their anionic character can be assumed. Experimental 1H and 13C-NMR spectra were compared to their corresponding calculated spectra using the Gauge-Independent Atomic Orbital (GIAO) method and several relationships were established. All these findings showed that the obtained photophysical properties of the 2-aryl-1,2,3-triazole acids noticeably depend on the environment and, therefore, are good candidates as sensors for the identification of analytes with labile protons.

Current scenario of pyrazole hybrids with in vivo therapeutic potential against cancers

Chemotherapeutics occupy a pivotal role in the medication of different types of cancers, but the prevalence and mortality rates of cancer remain high. The drug resistance and low specificity of current available chemotherapeutics are the main barriers for the effective cancer chemotherapy, evoking an immediate need for the development of novel anticancer agents. Pyrazole is a highly versatile five-membered heterocycle with two adjacent nitrogen atoms and possesses remarkable therapeutic effects and robust pharmacological potency. The pyrazole derivatives especially pyrazole hybrids have demonstrated potent in vitro and in vivo efficacies against cancers through multiple mechanisms, inclusive of apoptosis induction, autophagy regulation, and cell cycle disruption. Moreover, several pyrazole hybrids such as crizotanib (pyrazole-pyridine hybrid), erdafitinib (pyrazole-quinoxaline hybrid) and ruxolitinib (pyrazole-pyrrolo [2,3-d]pyrimidine hybrid) have already been approved for the cancer therapy, revealing that pyrazole hybrids are useful scaffolds to develop novel anticancer agents. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current scenario of pyrazole hybrids with potential in vivo anticancer efficacy along with mechanisms of action, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics, covering papers published in recent 5 years (2018-present), to facilitate further rational exploitation of more effective candidates.